Chapter 1 Science

BIG~
Developments in medicine and medical

technology can have social and ethical
implications.
Plant s and animals, including humans, are
made of specialized cells, t issues, and
organs that are organized into systems.
A pediatric heart surgeon's hand crad les an infant's tiny

defective heart that is no bigger than a walnut. The
48-day-old patient Dylan Stork, had a life-threatening
heart defect. A heart transplant saved his life.
This baby was born with a defective heart but some
kinds of heart disease develop or worsen as a result of
lifestyle choices. Research has shown that eating a
balanced diet and getting plenty of exercise can help
prevent heart disease. Research has also helped develop
technologies to identify and treat heart prob lems.
Fund raising events such as the Ride for Heart
shown here, help raise money for research into
causes and treatment of heart disease wh ile
promoting healthy living.
In this unit you will learn about cells, tissues,
and organs and how they work together in systems
in plants and in animals. You will also learn about
technologies designed to diagnose, study, treat, and
cure diseases affecting body systems.
What are some social and ethical issues related

to human organ transplants?.
Chapter 3
ChapterZ
Chapter 1
Cells and More Cells
Plants: From Cells

to Systems
Animals: From Cells

to Systems
4. Diagrams A, B, and C show the process of

diffusion. Describe what is happening in
these diagrams using the following terms:
Concept Check
1. Decide whether each statement about the cell
theory is true or false. If a statement is false,

rewrite it to make it true.
concentration, high, low, membrane, permeable,

selectively, and solute.
a. The cell is the basic unit of life.

b. Some cells come from pre-existing cells.
c. All living things are made up of many cells.
water
2. Find the pond organism that is labelled A, and

sketch it in your notebook. Identify and label the
cell organelles listed below in your sketch. Then,
below your sketch, state the function(s) of each
of these organelles within the cell. (Note: Not all
of these organelles will be present.)
a. nucleus
d. vacuole
b. cell membrane
e. mitochondria
c. cell wall
f. cytoplasm
solute
particles
3. In your notebook, write the number

that matches each part of the microscope
listed below.
a. light source
b. stage
c. eyepiece
ii
d. objective
lens
iii
lv
MHR Unit 1 Sustainable Ecosystems
Inquiry Check
5. Identify In your notebook, list as many
characteristics of unicellular and multicellular

organisms as you can. Compare your list with
a partner's list.
6. Observe and Record Observations Copy the
following table in your notebook. Identify

the organisms in the photographs on the
previous page by completing the table. Explain
your answers using the characteristics you
listed in question 5 above.
Characteristics of Unicellular and
Multicellular Organisms
IPlant,
Animal, I Unicellular or I
Organism
or Protist?
Multicellular? Observations
A
Numeracy and literacy Check

7. Analyze Bacterial cells replicate by splitting
into two cells. When conditions are favourable

(for example, when there is space and a food
source), bacteria can divide every 20 min. This
is called exponential growth. Use this table to
answer the questions below.
Exponential Growth of Bacteria
Time (min)
I Number of Bacteria
20
40
60
a. If conditions are favourable, how many

bacterial cells will exist after 2 hours?
b. If conditions are favourable, how long will it
take before the population of bacterial cells
reaches 1000?
8. Write Use the words below to explain how
multicellular organisms are structured.

cells
organs
,......:>..:.. _ _ _ _
Looking Ahead to the Unit 1 Projects
At the end of this unit you will have an opportunity to apply what you have
learned in an inquiry or research project. Read the Unit 1 Projects on pages
126-1 27. Start a project folder now (either paper or electronic). Store ideas,
notes, news clippings, website addresses, and lists of materials that might
help you to complete your project.
I
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Investigate the phases

of mitosis.
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An Issue to Analyze
Research and form an
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Get Ready for Unit 1 MHR 3
What You Will learn
In this chapter, you will learn how to ...

describe what all cells have in
common, as well as differences

between plant and animal cells
explain the importance of
mitosis for growth and repair

describe the stages of the cell
cycle and relate this cycle to the
origins of cancer
explain major cell technologies
and related issues

Why It Matters
To prevent and treat diseases,

doctors and researchers must first
understand the normal structures
and functions of the cells-and how
cells make up the body.
Skills You Will Use
In this chapter, you will learn how to ...

compare plant and animal cells
using microscopes and labelled

biological diagrams
identify the stages of mitosis in
plant and animal cells

investigate the rate of cell division
in normal and abnormal cells

evaluate the ethical implications
of some new medical technologies
Over 4000 Canadians are waiting for an organ transplant-a liver,

kidney, or heart-that could save their life. Fewer than half will
receive one. In 2002, researchers used genetic engineering to
produce the first four piglets that could potentially provide organs
for humans. This was a major breakthrough because the human
body normally rejects an organ from another species. How scientists
achieved this will be discussed in Chapter 1, along with some of the
ethical issues that have arisen from research in cell biology.
MHR Unit 1 Tissues, Organs, and Systems of Living Things
Did You Get the Message?

To be healthy, all organisms must have cells that f unction normally, sending
messages to and from one another. Sometimes, these messages get
"scrambled," disrupting normal functioning. In t his activity, you will play
the game "broken telephone" as a class. How do you think this game will
simulate the transfer of messages from cell to cell?
The simple game of "broken

t elephone" demonstrates
how even a small change can
completely alter a message.
Procedure
1. Your teacher will begin by whispering a message to a student so that no
one else can hear. This st udent should then whisper t he message to the
next student and so on until the message reaches t he last person in
the class. You are not allowed to repeat the message. The last person
should write down what he or she heard.
2. Repeat step 1 with a second message.

3. Compare your teacher's original messages t o what the last person
wrote down.
Questions
1. How did the original and final messages compare? What might have
caused the differences?
2. Was one message less scrambled at the end than the other? What might
explain any differences?
3. How do you think this game might reflect what goes on inside
your body?
Chapter 1 Cells and More Cells MHR
Study Toolkit
These strategies will help you use this textbook to develop your understanding of science concepts and skills.
To find out more about these and other strategies, refer to the Study Toolkit Overview, which begins on page 560.
e oo
EG CD Q.
eoo
Preparing For Reading
EG CD - Q.
Reading Effectively
Previewing Text Features
Visualizing
Before read ing non-fiction text preview the features

of the text. Major text features include
Visualizing means forming an image in your mind

based on what you are reading. The table below
shows how a reader might visualize the following
text which appears under the subheading "Protein
Production" on page 18: "... some proteins help build
parts of your body. Others are like couriers .... All of
these various proteins get their 'orders' from DNA."
headings
subheadings
main body text
Other text features include
definitions of key terms
Steps for Visualizing While Reading
activities
Steps
case studies
1 . Start with an
sidebars
image in the text

that is familiar
to you.
Some text features give you clues about the most

important ideas in the text. For example, on the
next page, you will see a box with the heading "Key
Terms." These are the important terms you will learn
in Section 1.1. Each key term is boldfaced when it first
appears in the main body text and it is defined in the
margin on the same page. When studying for a test
use this feature to find important terms and concepts.
Use the Strategy

Turn to Section 1.2 in this chapter. Find the Key Terms
box, and choose one term (other than chromosome).
Find the page where the term is boldfaced, and record
its definition.
How I Form an Image

in My Mind
The words "get their orders"
make me think about a
supervisor talking to a group
of workers, telling each worker
what his or her job will be.
2. Look for details

that make the
image more
accurate.
The examples "some proteins

help build" and "others are like
couriers" help me visualize the
kinds of jobs that proteins do.
3. Once you have

created the final
image in your mind,
make a sketch.
My sketch shows a strand of

DNA giving one protein a hard
hat and another protein a
courier bag.
Use the Strategy

When reading the section titled "Mutations" on
page 26, follow the steps in the table above.
eoo
EG CD Q. Word Study
Word Families
Graphic organizers can help you remember the meanings
of unfamiliar words. The graphic organizer on the right
shows words that contain the word part cyto, meaning
cell. Any word that contains this word part is related to
cells. For example, cytoskeleton means a network that
controls cell shape.
Use the Strategy

1. Draw a graphic organizer based on the word part gene.
Find and record the definition of gene in Section 1.2.
2. As you read the rest of the section, note any words

that contain gene or gen, and add them to your
graphic organizer. Write a definition of each word.
relating it to the definition of gene.
Key Terms
cell
1.1
Studying the Structure of Cells
microscopy
nucleus
organelle
Before the invention of microscopes in the 1660s, people had only a

limited understanding of the human body and no knowledge of the
microscopic world. For example, people had not yet seen their own blood
cells, as shown in Figure 1.1, and had never seen the micro-organisms
(such as bacteria) that cause many diseases. Therefore, they did not know
that they could help to prevent diseases by disposing of sewage properly,
sterilizing surgical instruments between operations, and washing their
hands regularly. Most importantly, they did not know the importance of
clean drinking water.
Microscopes and Human Health

In the 1860s and 1870s, compound microscopes were put to good use.
Scientists and physicians around the world did experiments that paved
the way for one of the biggest discoveries in medicine-that "germs"
(viruses, many bacteria, and some other microscopic organisms) cause
diseases. This discovery made it possible to introduce simple methods
(such as hand washing and drinking clean water) to prevent many
diseases, and thus increase the human life span. Since then, discoveries in
microscopy continue to advance medical diagnosis and the treatment of
diseases caused by micro-organisms and other illnesses, such as diabetes
and cancer. In Figure 1.2, on pages 8 and 9, you can see a range of the
microscopes used today.
micrograph
cytoplasm
cell the smallest unit that

can perform the functions
of life
microscopy the science of

using microscopes to view
samples or objects
Cell Structure
nucleus the organelle that

controls the cell's activities
organelle a specialized
structure in a cell
micrograph a photograph
taken with a microscope
Most of to day's advances in the treatment of diseases would not be

possible without an understanding of what happens inside cells. In
turn, our understanding of cells would not be possible without advances
in microscopy.
In 1665, English scientist Robert Hooke became the first person to
study cells. Using a microscope he made himself, Hooke examined a piece
of cork. There he saw a series of similar "pores" that he called cells because
they reminded him of monks' living quarters in a monastery, which were
called cells.
One of the first cell structures that scientists could see with early
microscopes was the nucleus. The nucleus was usually the only cell
organelle visible through light microscopes-it looked like a dark spot.
Even cell membranes were not usually visible. Now, however, scientists
know a great deal about the nucleus and cell membrane, what they are
made of, and how they function. Figure 1.3 shows a micrograph and
diagram of a nucleus, while Figure 1.4 allows you to compare the level
of detail you can see in micrographs of cells as seen through a light
microscope and through an electron microscope.
nucleolus makes ribosomes,
nuclear membrane protects

the contents of the nucleus
nuclear pores allow materials,

such as ribosomes. in and out
of the nucleus
Figure 1.3 Here you can see a diagram of a nucleus. as well as an electron micrograph
of the nucleus in a human liver cell. magnified 2730 times.
10
Figure 1.4 Micrograph A shows many red blood cells and two white blood cells,
magnified 210 times by a light microscope. Micrograph B shows a single white blood
cell, magnified 2500 times by an electron microscope. The nucleus of the cell is
shown in green.
The Cell Theory
Largely based on what early microscopists observed, a theory of cells was

developed in the mid-1800s. The cell theory is one of the most important
developments in the study of biology. It has three main ideas:
..:...
1 Senseof
..
~
1 . All living organisms are made of one or more cells.
2. The cell is the basic organizational unit of life.
3. All cells come from pre-existing cells.
If 1000 human body cells

were lined up, t hey would be
less than 2 em long-about
t he width of a thumbnail.
..
~
.
~
.........................................
:
:
The first of these ideas is fairly easy to understand. The third idea refers to
cell reproduction, which you will learn about in Section 1.3. The second
idea means that to understand how living things function, you must know
what is going on inside cells: In other words, all of an organism's body
functions, such as eating, breathing, and eliminating waste, are designed
to supply the needs of its cells. This section will help you understand the
normal structure and function of cells. Later in this unit, you will learn
more about how cells form the smallest unit of all living organisms.
Some organisms, such as humans, are made of millions of cells, each with
a specialized function.
Contents of the Cytoplasm
The fluid material between the cell membrane and the nucleus-the
cytosol- is filled with many specialized organelles. Together, the cytosol
and the organelles it contains are called the cytoplasm.
cytoplasm the cyt osol and

organelles contained by the
cell membrane
Chapter 1 Cells and More Ce lls MHR
11
Animal and Plant Cell Organelles
Figure 1.5 This diagram and

the micrograph below it show a
typical animal cell. just as cells in
your body vary in structure and
function, so do the organelles
they contain. Cells that help a
body move, for example, contain
more mitochondria. Their need
for the energy that comes from
glucose is greater than that of
other kinds of cells.
The organelles of a cell are like the organs of a body-each plays a role
in the proper functioning of the "body" that contains it. Figures 1.5 and
1.6 illustrate typical animal and plant cells. Of course, not all plant and
animal cells look exactly like those illustrated here. As you will see in
this unit, there are many different kinds of cells, even within the same
organism. Yet even cells with very different functions can have the same
kinds of organelles.
As you study these diagrams, you may notice that a number of
the organelles are involved in the production, storage, or transport of
proteins. All cells in your body depend on proteins, which allow the cells
to carry out the life processes that keep you healthy. Proteins are essential
nutrients for the growth and repair ofbody tissues. You will learn more
about proteins in the sections that follow.
Typical Animal Cell
C) nucleus
cytoplasm
G mitochondrion
vacuole
( ) cell membrane
A cell membrane separates the inside of the cell from the

external environment; controls the flow of materials into and
out of the cell
B cytoplasm includes the cytosol, the organelles, and
other life-supporting materials, such as sugar and water, all
contained by the cell membrane
C)
()
nucleus
endoplasmic
reticulum
vesicle
12
C mitochondria (singular: mitochondrion) where energy is

released from glucose to fuel cell activities
D ribosomes help to produce proteins, which make up much
of a cell's structure and are required for activities necessary
for the cell's survival; some ribosomes float in the cytoplasm,
and others are attached to the endoplasmic reticulum
MHR Unit 1 Tissues, Organs, and Syst ems of Living Things
Suggested Investigation
Typical Plant Cell
Inquiry Investigation 1-A,

Examining Cell Structures, on
page 46
( ) vesicle
vacuole
O cytoskeleton
nucleus
Go to scienceontario
to find out more
(l) ribosome
mitochondrion
endoplasmic
reticulum
Figure 1.6 This diagram and

the micrograph below it show a
t ypical plant cell. Like animal cells.
plant cells vary in structure and
function. For example, cells in
the roots (and other non-green
parts of the plant) usually have
no chloroplasts. They do not need
chloroplasts because they do not
carry out photosynthesis.
Voodoo lily cell, 950 x

Golgi body
E endoplasmic reticulum a network of membrane-covered

channels that transport materials made in the cell; is
connected to the nucleus
F vesicles membrane-covered sacs that transport and/or
st ore materials inside the cell and sometimes help these
materials cross the cell membrane to enter or exit the cell
G Golgi body sorts and packages proteins and other
molecu les for transport out of the cell
H nucleus controls all cell activities
I vacuoles contain water and other materials and are
used to store or transport small molecules; plant cells tend
to have one large vacuole; animal cells may have several
smaller vacuoles
J cytoskeleton fi laments and t ubules that provide a

framework for the cell, helping it maintain its structure
and providing "tracks" along which vesicles and organelles
can move
0
nucleus
0
mitochondrion
C)
vacuole
cell wall
K cell wall a tough, rigid structure lying just outside a plant

cell's membrane; provides support for the cell
l chloroplasts found only in plant cells; trap energy f rom

the Sun to make glucose, which is broken down in the
mitochondria to power cell activities (animals must get
glucose from the food they eat)
13
Learning Check
1 . Create a table to compare the organelles in plant and animals

cells that are responsible for protein production, food storage,
transportation of substances, and maintenance of the cell's
structure.
2.
Look back to Figure 1.2 on pages 8 and 9. Name three types of

microscopes and one feature that makes each unique.
3 . What are the three main ideas in the cell theo ry?
4. What might be some disadvantages of electron microscopes?
Specifically, why do you think you might not have electron

microscopes in your school?
All Cells Use Energy
Some types of organelles are found in both plant and animal cells, while
other types are found only in one or the other. For example, chloroplasts
are found only in plant cells. Mitochondria, however, are found in both
plant and animal cells-most cells cannot survive without the energy that
mitochondria release from glucose. The process by which this occurs is
common to most cells, and it is called cellular respiration.
Cellular respiration, shown in Figure 1.7, requires oxygen in order to
occur. This is why we must breathe in air, which contains oxygen. As well
as releasing energy, the process of cellular respiration produces carbon
dioxide as a waste product. We get rid of carbon dioxide and water vapour
when we breathe out.
CsHizOs
glucose

-
602
6C02
oxygen
carbon
dioxide
6H 20
wat er
energy that
can be used by
living things
Figure 1.7 This is a very simplified version of the cellular respiration process. It shows
the inputs and outputs. There are actually many steps between these inputs and
outputs. For example, glucose gets broken down in a series of chemical reactions that
release energy bit by bit.
14 MHR Unit 1 Tissues, Organs, and Syst ems of Living Thin gs
Section Summary
Developments in microscopy (microscope
technology) have made it possible to look at the
internal structures of cells.
Cells contain a variety of organelles, each of
which has its own structure and function. Some
organelles are found in all cells, while others

are found only in plant or animal cells.
Advances in knowledge about cells have helped
researchers find new ways to diagnose and
treat diseases.
Review Questions
crf1!) 1. Why are electron microscopes more useful than light
microscopes for looking at organelles?
crf1!) 2. Describe the functions of the following organelles:
mitochondria, nucleolus, vacuole.
crmJ 3. Examine the diagram on the right.

a. Does the diagram show a plant cell or an animal cell?
b. Which of the lettered structures helped you decide?
c. What is this structure called?
. . 4. Draw a Venn diagram to compare the cell wall and the
cell membrane.
crf1!) 5. Using Figures 1.5 and 1.6 as a reference, draw diagrams
or create a table to compare plant and animal cells. Focus

on which organelles or other features they share and which
parts are only found in one of these types of cells.
. . 6 . Imagine that the cell is a factory and each of the organelles is a

machine. Working in a small group, focus on one organelle.
Create a diagram and a short statement to convince the factory
president of the importance of your organelle. How is it essential
to the operation of the factory? Combine the diagrams from all
the groups into a class map of this cell factory.
_.. 7. The graph on the right provides data on the number of

mitochondria in each of three cell types.
Number of Mitochondria
in Human Body Cells
a. Which cell type do you think requires the most food

(in the form of the glucose it receives) for its functions?
--
250
200
"0
a.>o 150
.&l.c
Eu
:JO 100
z .t:!
50
l:
0
Ill
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~c
b. Why do you think skin cells have the least number of

mitochondria of the three types of cells studied?
. 0 8. What do you think would happen to other forms oflife on

Earth if most or all of the plant life disappeared? Explain your
answer in terms of what goes on inside cells.
skin
cell
muscle sperm
cell
cell
Type of Cell
15
KeyTerms
---------------------------====::~~~~~~~~~~~~~
chromosome
DNA
gene
1.2
Cienes: Answers and Questions
DNA screening
transgenic organism
cloning
mutation
mutagen
As shown in Figure 1.8, babies in Canada are normally tested soon

after birth for a genetic condition known as PKU, the short form for
phenylketonuria [pronounced fen- il-KEE-to-NU-ria]. If uncorrected,
PKU can lead to severe brain damage. However, if diagnosed promptly,
PKU can be corrected. Treatment includes following a diet very low in
natural protein. (People with PKU must obtain their protein in a special
liquid form.) Understanding what causes this condition involves knowing
what happens deep within the cell-in the nucleus.
The Nucleus: Control Centre of the Cell

chromosome in a cell
nucleus, a thread -like
structure made mostly
of DNA
The nucleus contains the master set of instructions that determines what
each cell will become, how it will function, and how long it will live before
being replaced. These instructions are carried in chromosomes. Every
plant and animal species has a specific number of chromosomes in the
nucleus of each cell. In the cells of most plants and animals, chromosomes
come in pairs-one of each pair comes from each parent when an egg and
a sperm unite to produce a fertilized egg. Humans, for example, normally
have 46 chromosomes in the nucleus of each body cell, 23 from the
mother's egg and 23 from the father's sperm. As shown in Table 1.1, other
species have their own specific number of chromosomes.
Table 1.1 Comparison of Chromosome Numbers in Various Organisms' Cells
Organism
Chromosome
Number (per cell)
Organism
Chromosome
Number (per cell)
Human
46
Corn
20
Cow
60
Butterfly
80
Fruit fly
The DNA Code

Chromosomes are made of a material called deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA).
In fact, each chromosome consists of a single molecule of DNA, which is
divided into segments called genes. Genes are located in specific places on
the DNA molecule. Most genes provide instructions for making proteins.
Thus, genes control the cell's activities, and much of its structure, by
controlling what proteins are made and when.
In 1953, scientists James Watson and Francis Crick built upon the
work of many other scientists to create a model of DNA like the one
shown in Figure 1.9.
DNA material f ound in the

cell nucleus that contains
genetic information
gene a segment of DNA that
controls protein production
A Each rung of a DNA molecule, along

with the piece of the ladder's side to
which the rung is attached, is a buildingblock molecule. Many of t hese building
blocks strung together form a molecule
of DNA.
cytosine
C The order in which the A, T. C. and G

building blocks are strung together is
called the genetic code. The genetic code
is different in every individual (except
identical twins). This code is a "message"
that determines the production of specific
prot eins, which combine to make the
organism f unction.
B There are four types of building-block

molecules, which are usually represented
by letters: A (for adenine), T (for thymine),
C (for cytosine), and G (for guanine).
Figure 1.9 The twisted ladder shape

of the Watson/Crick model of DNA is
sometimes called a double helix.
17
Why Is DNA Important?
Figure 1.10 This diagram shows

a model of a section of a DNA
molecule with three genes
labelled. Genes vary in length,
but each is probably thousands
of building-block molecules long.
As shown in figure 1.1 0, a gene is a relatively small part of a DNA

molecule. Each DNA molecule contains hundreds or thousands of genes.
DNA controls many of your features, such as your hair and eye colour,
and whether you can digest certain foods, such as milk. Your DNA exerts
this control through genes-they determine what kinds of proteins your
cells can make, and therefore how your body might function or look. Of
course, your lifestyle choices, such as what and how much you eat and
how much exercise you get, also play a role in how your body functions
and looks.
Protein Production
:
Sense of
Our genes are estimated to
represent only 3 percent of
the DNA in our chromosomes.
The function of the other
97 percent is currently
unknown.
......................................... :
As you have just read, the job of genes, and thus of DNA, is to control
the manufacture of proteins. Each protein is designed to do a specific
job. For example, some proteins help build parts of your body. Others
are like couriers, carrying materials short or long distances within your
body. Some pick up or transfer signals from one body part to another. Still
others, called enzymes, catalyze (speed up) various chemical reactions in
your body, such as those that help you digest food. All of these various
proteins get their "orders" from DNA .
Learning Check
1 . Write a sentence that shows the relationship among the

following terms: DNA, gene, protein.
2. What is the role of genes in the cell?
3.
Use f igure 1.9 to explain how genes vary.
4. How do you think it is possible for a genetic code with only four
components (A, C, T, and G) to control the production of

thousands of different kinds of proteins? It might help to think
of the building blocks as letters of an alphabet, and to remember
that each gene is made of thousands of building blocks.
18 MHR Unit 1 Tissues, Organs. and Systems of Living Things
DNA Screening
On page 16, you learned that babies are commonly tested for a genetic
condition called PKU. Testing for the presence of genetic d isorders is
referred to as genetic screening, or DNA screening. Some types of genetic
disorders can be observed by looking at a person's chromosomes.
Down syndrome is one of these disorders-it can even be detected
/
in a fetus. Using a technique called amniocentesis, a needle is inserted
through a pregnant woman's abdominal wall to withdraw a sample of
fluid from the amniotic sac (which surrounds the growing fetus). Cells
from the fetus are isolated, and a micrograph of the chromosom es in
these cells is taken.
Although this micrograph, called a karyotype, cannot show errors
in individual genes, it can show if a person has too many or too few
chromosomes, or if any are broken. To diagnose Down syndrome,
technicians look specifically at chromosome 21. Individu als with Down
syndrome, such as the girl shown in Figure 1 .11 , h ave three of these
chromosomes instead of the usual pair (two).
Testing for PKU
1
0th er kinds of genetic conditions, such as PKU, can b e detected by

examining a blood sample. In such tests, the presence or absence of
specific proteins in the blood can indicate whether a person's genes are
func tioning normally. If a certain protein is present at normal levels, the
gene must b e functioning properly. To test for PKU, for example, a baby's
blood is examined for an enzyme needed to digest certain kinds of protein
in foods. Without this enzyme, a substance called phenylalanine builds up
in the baby's blood, with tragic consequences if uncorrected. Each year,
one baby in 12 000 is born with PKU.
Testing for PKU is inexpensive compared to the costs of treating
PKU if it is not detected early. Other types of genetic screening,
however, are more expensive and the benefits may be less clear.
For example, h aving certain genes m ay make a person more
likely to get cancer or heart disease, but this does not
mean that the person will get the disease. The person
might lead a healthy lifestyle and be in little danger.
Genetic information alone cannot provide all
the answers.
Figure 1.11 This girl has Dow n

syndrome, a genetic disorder resu lting
from having 47 chromosomes instead
of 46. This extra chromosome leads
to overproduction of certa in proteins,
which results in some physical and
developmental disabilities.
DNA screening the process

of testing individuals to
determine w hether they
have the gene or genes
associated with certain
genetic disorders
eo o
Study Toolkit
Previewing Text Features
Notice the two heading
styles on this page. What do
these different styles tell
you about the relations hip
between the information in
each section?
Testing for Huntington Disease
A look at the case for and against genetic testing for Huntington disease
reveals some of the ethical issues at stake in DNA screening. Huntington
disease is a genetic disorder that affects nerve cells. Symptoms, which
normally appear in a person's 40s, include loss of muscular control and
brain function. The symptoms worsen for 15 years or so before the disease
causes death.
Scientists have identified which gene causes this disease, which helps
researchers such as Nancy Wexler, shown in Figure 1.12. Individuals have
a 50 percent chance of having the gene that causes this disease if one
of their parents has it. Someone who has the gene will, with certainty,
develop the disease. Therefore, finding out if the gene is present in a
person's body leads to a definite diagnosis.
Should Individuals at Risk Get Tested?
There is an ongoing debate about whether individuals at risk of

Huntington disease (that is, people who have a parent with the disease)
should get tested. Those against testing argue that diagnosing the disease
can cause people needless emotional pain-since there is no cure, there is
nothing they can do. Moreover, critics argue that testing is too expensive,
especially since it will not save lives.
Those in favour of testing argue that having the test results-positive or
negative-reduces the stress of uncertainty. In addition, knowing whether
they do or do not have the gene might change many of a person's life
decisions. If they test positive, for example, some people may choose not
to have children (so they do not risk passing on the gene). However, even
people who support the tests argue that the results must be kept strictly
private so that individuals who test positive are not discriminated against.
Figure 1.12 Much research on
Huntington disease has taken
place in San Luis, an isolated
village in Venezuela, where the
gene is very common. One of the
people leading research there
is Nancy Wexler, whose mother
had the disease. Here she stands
in front of a chart she created
to track the genes of a group of
families from New York City.
~~.o.nt:
~ q
FIH'f\tt.."f-
~ ch, ~ I ~ r ~ "\t .r
11< , , ,
..
'
20
MHR Unit 1 Tissues, Organs, and Systems of Living Thingc;
":1,.
To Test or Not to Test?

Globally, Huntington disease affects about seven in
100 000 people, although some locations have a higher
incidence than others. Genetic testing for a disease like
Huntington raises many complex ethical issues. What kinds
of issues might these be?
Procedure
1. Choose the perspective of a stakeholder in the debate
about testing for Huntington disease. Suggested rol es
include the following:
You are a 30-year-old who has one parent with the
disease. You are wondering whether to be tested.
You have just tested positive for the disease. You
have a two-year-old child.
You are the owner of an insurance company
considering a new client's application.
You are an employer. Your company invests heavily
in employee training and generally counts on people
staying with your company for many years or
even decades.
_
~ You
are a government official in charge of public

health care. You are looking for ways to control costs.
2. Make a list of points to support your opinion using this

textbook and your own ideas. Prepare a summary
statement of your position.
3. In your role, discuss the questions that follow in a
small group.
4. Share your ideas as a class.
reach a consensus on
each question.
( Ques ions
l. ~hou ld employers or insurance companies be allowed to
require people to test for Huntington disease, or should
taking the test be a matter of personal choice? Explain
your answer.
2. Should people be required to reveal a family history of
Huntington to a potential employer or insurance
company? Or should such a matter be private?
3. Should children with a risk of Huntington disease be
allowed to have the test? Why or why not?
4. Should health-care professionals discourage people with

a risk of Huntington from having children? Explain your
answer.
5. Should individuals pay to be tested, or should the public
health-care system pay? How might this decision
affect access to the test?
6. Should all stakeholders have an equal voice in decisions
about genetic testing for Huntington disease? Explain
your answer.
DNA Screening in Canada
PKU, Down syndrome, and Huntington disease are not the only
conditions that can be identified using DNA tests. For example, women
can be screened for the presence of certain genes associated with breast
cancer. Although only a small proportion of all breast cancers are due to
genetic factors, the test could help women with the gene take preventative
measures. Other conditions that can be determined with DNA screening
include cystic fibrosis and spina bifida.
21
Ethical Issues and Drug Research
Figure 1.13 In 2007. the Food

and Drug Administration in the
United States approved Kuvan,
a drug to treat PKU. For an
adult. the annual cost of taking
this drug might be as high as
u.s. $200 000.
Much of the research into treatments for various diseases, including PKU
and Huntington disease, is carried out by drug companies. Such research
can be very costly and take years, if not decades. Once a company
develops a drug that is effective and safe in lab conditions, it applies to
carry out a clinical trial on humans. In Canada, approval for drug trials
is given by Health Canada, a department of the federal government. The
financial risks for a company involved in this type of research are very
high, since the drug might not work as well outside the lab. As discussed
in Figure 1.1 3, companies may try to recover the costs of research and
development by putting a high price on their product.
Critics sometimes suggest that clinical trial results can be biased.
Companies are sometimes accused of presenting their trial data as more
positive than they really are. The ethical issues get even more troublesome
if you think about what might happen if a company discovered an
effective, but extremely expensive, cure for cancer or diabetes. Does the
company own the cure and therefore have the right to sell or control it
in any way it chooses? Or does the company have an ethical obligation
to make life-saving cures available to everyone who needs them?
These ethical questions are frequently debated by scientists, medical
professionals, drug companies, and concerned members of the public.
learning Check
5. What is a karyotype?
6. Describe two techniques used to screen a person's DNA.
7. How can having too little or too much of a certain protein

cause problems for an organism?
to find out more
8 . Every container of diet soft drink that is sweetened with the

chemical aspartame must have on its label a warning that it
contains phenylalanine. Why do you think this warning
is required?
Altering Genes: Benefits and Controversies
transgenic organism an
organism whose genetic
information has been altered
with the insertion of genes
from another species
22
The genetic code is universal. This means that the same four DNA
building-block molecules (A, C, T, and G) produce the code for proteins
in all types of organisms, including bacteria, plants, and animals.
Theoretically, this means that the genetic code in one type of organism
could be "read" by any other type of organism. If a particular gene could
be transferred between two different types of organisms, one species could
then make proteins usually made only by the other species.
In fact, scientists have been combining the DNA from different species
for a number of years in a process called genetic engineering. The species
whose genes are altered are often called genetically modified organisms
(GMOs) or transgenic organisms.
Transgenic Organisms
Table 1.2 shows some of the common kinds of transgenic organisms
today. Many people see the manipulation of genes as a way to solve various
problems. Others, however, worry about the effects of causing rapid change
in species that have taken thousands, if not millions, of years to evolve. They
feel that we know too little about the long-term consequences. For example,
some people ask how GMO plants might affect the organisms (including
humans) that eat them. Others worry about the effects of GMO plants on
the ecosystem, especially if the GMO plants spread to new areas.
Some people ask whether transplanting organs from transgenic animals,
such as the pigs you saw on page 4, is a good idea. They worry about various
viruses that are carried in pigs without harming them, but that are not
naturally found in humans. If these viruses moved with the transplanted
organs, they could cause viral diseases that could spread quickly in the
human population.
Table 1.2 The Uses of Some Genetically Modified Organisms
GMO Organism
Benefit
Bacteria injected with human

proteins are used for many
medical treatments. Bacteria
have a relatively simple genetic
structure, so they were the
first type of organism to be
genetically modified. Here
the bacteria E. coli, shown in
magenta, has been genetically
engineered to produce insulin,
which is used to treat diabetes.
Orange areas indicate insulin
production sites on the bacteria.
Human proteins manufactured by

bacteria are less likely to cause
allergic reactions or diseases,
compared with proteins obtained
from other sources, such as
animals or dead bodies.
Many crops have had genes from

bacteria or other plants inserted
into their chromosomes. Corn,
canola, wheat, cotton, and soy
are just some of the crops for
which farmers can buy GMO
seed. Pictured here is a plot
used to promote a company's
GMO product.
Crops can be modified in this way

to resist specific pests, to have
a higher nutritional value, or to
better withstand drought (lack of
water) or cold.
Some animals are injected with

genes that code for a hormone
that promotes growth. Here,
Canadian scientist Robert Devlin
holds up a 16-month-old GMO
salmon on the left and a normal
salmon on the right.
GMO animals injected with a

growth hormone grow faster
than non-GMO animals, increasing
human food supplies.
Example
23
Cloning
cloning the process of
creating identical genetic

copies of an organism
Go to sclenceontarlo
to find out more
Cloning may be another solution to the problem of needing new organs

or cells. Cloning is the process of producing identical offspring from
genes, cells, or an entire organism.
Cloning has been used for centuries in its simplest form-by
gardeners who have taken cuttings from a plant, rooted them, and thereby
produced more plants that are exact copies of the parent plant. Then, in
1958, Fredrick Steward was able to grow a plant from a single carrot cell
in a laboratory. Figure 1.14 shows a simplified version of Steward's cloning
experiment (A) as well as a process used to clone a mammal today (B).
Steps in Cloning a Carrot
pieces of
carrot root
Figure 1.14 In A, you can see the
cloning process used by Fredrick
Steward. In B. you can see a
process used to clone a mammal,
which was first accomplished
in 1996.
Individual cells are

separated and then grown
in a nutrient solution.
plantlet
Clones in the Kitchen

Why would we clone the animals we use for meat? The
purpose of cloning, which is a type of biotechnology, is
to produce genetic duplicates (copies) of animals that are
considered superior in some way. That way, desirable traits
that occurred naturally, such as higher quality meat. are
passed along from generation to generation. Cloning animals
benefits meat and milk producers because high-quality
products mean higher profits.
Also, altering the genetic material from the donor animal
before the animal is cloned provides more opportunities to
incorporate benefits. For instance, cattle could be genetically

engineered to better resist BSE (mad cow disease).
However, animal cloning opponents are concerned about food
safety. Few scientific studies have examined cloned meat.
and livestock companies have done most of the research.
Since these companies want positive results, some people
believe their research may be biased.
Some studies show that even though cloned animals are
genetic copies of the donors, they are not completely identical.
For example, meat from some cloned animals has higher levels
of fat compared with meat from the original donor animals.
producers want to use

cloned animals as a way
to guarantee the quality
of their products.
24 MHR Unit 1 Tissues, Organs, and Systems of Living Things
Steps in Cloning a Mammal
1. Scientists
Z. A cell is removed from an
remove the cell

nucleus of an
egg from a
female sheep.
adult sheep. This cell and

the egg cell are placed
next to each other in a
bath of chemicals.
3. A jolt of electricity
causes the two
cells to fuse.
egg
cell
from adult
sheep cell
5. The embryo is then inserted into

the uterus of a surrogate mother
to complete its development. The
resulting lamb is a clone of the
sheep that donated the adult cell.
fused cell
4. The fused cell

dividing cell
embryo
begins dividing
to form an
embryo.
Furthermore, genetically identical animals are more prone

to catch the diseases that animals around them have. That is,
if a virus or other micro-organism infects one of these
animals. it could easily infect a whole herd. In nature, a herd
would include genetically different animals and would
usually include some animals whose immune systems are
better able to fight t~ e disease.
Because we know so little about using cloned animals for
food, Canada currently bans the sale of food from cloned
animals or their offspring. Where do you stand on this issue?
Your Turn
1. Survey the other students in your class. Ask them, "If
you eat meat, would you consider eating the meat of a
cloned animal? Why or why not?" Calculate the
percentage of "yes" and "no" answers you receive.
2. Suppose that Health Canada has decided to permit the

sale of cloned meat. Identify your position on this issue.
Provide three pieces of supporting evidence.
3. In a small group, brainstorm and record the positive and
negative characteristics of cloned animals in a twocolumn table. In a brief report to the class. present your
group's evaluation of whether animals should be cloned.
In 1996, a sheep named Dolly became the first

mammal created from a cell of an adult sheep rather
than from an egg. Dolly died at the age of six.
Some people claim her life was shorter than normal
because she was a cloned animal. while others
argue that her death was completely natural.
Chapter 1 Cells and More Cells HHR 25
Learning Check
9. Why is the genetic code described as being universal?
1 0. In what way are organs from certain kinds of transgenic
organisms potentially significant to human health?

11 . Traditional Aboriginal ethical values stress protection for the
rights of future generations, acceptance of human limitations,

and a precautionary approach to new science and technology.
How might such values affect someone's view on transgenic
organisms or cloning?
12. Think about what you have eaten today. Do you think any of it
was genetically modified, or contained any genetically modified

ingredients? If so, what might those ingredients be? Look back
to Table 1.2 for ideas.
Mutations
, ()_ .,f;.._
<fb
utation a change in the

-~ )NA of an organism
ure 1.15 A Normal red blood
~ /s are disk-shaped. Their shape
.:t:
- -
r bles them to move easily

jough blood vessels. In B, you
see a C- or sickle-shaped red
......b-.l
lood cell from someone who
carries the sickle cell gene.
(.Y
(f)
26
As you have learned, the specific protein that a gene codes for depends on
the order of the DNA building blocks in the gene. A change in the usual
order of the A, C, T, G building blocks is called a mutation. A mutation
in a gene can alter the structure of the protein it produces. Such a change
can then affect how well the protein does its job. For example, people who
have a condition called sickle cell anemia have a mutation in the gene that
codes for hemoglobin, a type of protein in red blood cells. As discussed in
Figure 1.15, the mutation changes the protein in such a way that it is less
able to perform its function, which is to help the blood carry oxygen to
body cells.
How Mutations Happen
The sequence of the A, C, T, and G building blocks in a DNA molecule

can change for no particular reason. Often, however, mutations are
caused by mutagens, forces or substances that physically damage DNA.
Electromagnetic radiation, including X rays and UV rays (from the Sun)
are mutagens. So are many chemicals, including mercury and the tar in
cigarettes. As shown in Figure 1.1 6, some mutations occur in only one or
a few of an organism's cells. Other mutations, however, affect cells (eggs
and sperm) that are passed between generations. In other words, some
mutations are inherited.
Not all mutations are harmful. Only part of a DNA molecule
contains genes-the rest does not code for proteins. A mutation that
occurs on a non-genetic part of a DNA molecule is not harmful, at
least as far as scientists know. Even mutations that change proteins
are not necessarily harmful. Some mutations, for example, might help
an organism adapt to a particular environment, such as the mutations
in bacteria that allow them to resist antibiotics. Other mutations may be
neutral- neither causing a problem nor helping the organism. Whether
the mutation is harmful or not may sometimes depend on an organism's
environment. Do you think the mutation shown in Figure 1.17 is
beneficial, harmful, or neutral?
Could Science Correct Mutations?
Gene mutations are at least partly to blame for a variety of diseases.

Research into gene therapy-correcting faulty genes-is ongoing.
Researchers hope that gene therapy will one day be used to treat a variety
of inherited diseases.
However, clinical trials on various forms of gene therapy have not yet
had much success. People who participate in the experimental treatments
often become sicker or die. Som e people question whether this kind
of research is even worth pursuing. For them, the issue is who decides
what disorders should be corrected. For example, researchers have had
some success using gene therapy for certain types of
inherited blindness. Does the fact that this blindness can
be "fixed" imply that these people are "broken"? Many
people would disagree and argue that visually impaired
people can live full, rich lives. Other questions include
the following:
mutagen a substance or
factor that can cause a
mutation in DNA
Figure 1.16 This photograph

shows skin cells that have been
mutated by UV radiation. This
mutation would affect only the
cells of thi s person; the mutation
would not be passed on to the
person's children.
Figure 1.17 This albino American

alligator has a mutation in the
gene that codes for the proteins
that produce colour in its body.
Who gets access to treatments, and who pays for the

treatments?
Who funds research, and who owns or manages the
resulting product or technology?
How far should society go in using available
technologies?
Some people believe these questions should be answered
before gene therapy treatments are developed.
27
Section Summary
The nucleus of a cell contains chromosomes,
which are composed of DNA and divided
into segments called genes. Genes control a
cell's structure and function by controlling the
production of proteins.
There are many ethical issues related to
technological developments in DNA screening,
transgenic research, and clinical drug trials.

Researchers often make progress faster than
society's ability to make decisions on how to use
such research.
Mutations in genes change the structure and
function of the proteins in the cells. Many, but
not all, genetic mutations are harmful.
Review Questions
Ol!) 1. Why is the nucleus of a cell so important?
trfl!) 2. Draw a simple diagram of a portion of a DNA molecule, and
indicate the location of a gene.

. . 3. How does DNA screening have both positive and negative
implications for society? Create aT-chart to summarize
your answer.
_ . 4. How might researchers who work for pharmaceutical companies
ensure that their clinical trials meet proper scientific standards?
. . 5. As of2007, 23 countries grew genetically modified crops.
The table on the right shows the number of hectares of
GMO crops in some of these countries.
Use of GMO Crops*

Country
Argentina
a. Graph the data using a bar graph.

b. Summarize your results. What further information
would help you compare the data?
c. Name a few large countries that are not included in the
table. Why do you think they are not included?
0 . 6. Researchers have calculated that, on average, each cigarette

reduces a person's life by 5.5 min (as a result of the toxic
chemicals in cigarettes, many of which are mutagens). If
there are 20 cigarettes to a package and an individual
smokes half a pack per day, how much will this individual's
life have been reduced after one year?
_ . 7. Officials in charge of catching those who use illegal,
performance-enhancing drugs in sport are concerned that,
in the future, "gene doping" may become a problem. Suggest
what this process might be and why athletes might try it.
trfl!) 8. What is a mutation? Would a mutation that caused a deer
to be albino be beneficial, harmful, or neutral? If the deer

lives in a zoo, would your answer change? Explain.
Australia
Brazil
GMO Crops (hectares)

19 101 000
100 000
14 973 000
Canada
7 001 000
China
3 804 000
India
6192000
Mexico
Paraguay
Philippines
South Africa
100 000
2 590 000
300 000
1 78 1 000
Spain
100 000
Uruguay
486 000
United States
57 708 000
*Among countries with more than

90 000 hectares of GMO crops;
rounded to the nearest thousand
Clive j ames/International Service for the
Acquisition of AgriBiotech Applications
Key Terms
cell division
1.3
mitosis
Cells from Cells
cytokinesis
DNA replication
There are tens of thousands of d ifferent proteins in your body, and the types
of proteins you have are determined by your genes. If a gene is missing
or damaged, the protein it codes for may be missing or non-functioning.
Thus, ali 46 chromosomes you see in Figure 1.18 are important.
prophase
metaphase
anaphase
telophase
ce ll plate
Cell Reproduction
Cell reproduction is the process by which new cells are formed. An
important difference between cell reproduction and the reproduction
of a multicellular organism (one with a body consisting of many
cells), however, is the number of"parents" involved. As you can see in
Figure 1.19, when body cells and most single-celled organisms reproduce,
there is only one parent: one cell divides to produce two new cells, which
are called daughter cells. The two daughter cells are identical to each other
and to their parent cell, at least in the genes they contain.
In sexual reproduction, two parents mate and the offspring receive
half of their genes from each parent (one chromosome from each pair of
chromosomes). Therefore, although offspring share genetic material and
may look alike, they are not exactly the same. For example, not all of the
kittens in a litter look the same. Each kitten receives half of its genes from
each parent, but does not get exactly the same combination of genes as
other kittens in the litter.
Figure 1.18 This karyotype shows
the 46 chromosomes (magnified
1000 times) present in the nucleus of
every cell in t he body of a male human.
Figure 1.19 When multicellular organisms

reproduce, two parents produce one or more
offspring. When single-celled organisms like
this Paramecium reproduce, however. one
parent cell divides. resulting in t wo offspring.
Cell Division
cell division the process by
which a parent cell divides
into two daughter cells
The Paramecium shown in Figure 1.19 has reproduced by dividing in two.

In other words, it has undergone the process of cell division. For singlecelled organisms, cell division is the main process by which individuals
reproduce, and the population gets larger. For multicellular organisms,
cell division is the process by which a fertilized egg (a single cell)
becomes, eventually, an adult with millions of cells.
In multicellular organisms, cell division is also the process by which
you replace lost or damaged cells, as you can see in Figure 1.20.
Figure 1.20 When you cut your skin, blood flows to the area until a scab forms. This
scab restores the skin's continuity, preventing bacteria from entering the body. Then the
skin cells underneath can undergo cell division to produce new cells that fill in the gap.
Once the skin layer is restored, the scab f alls off.
The Cell Membrane and Diffusion
Cells also divide when they grow too large to perform efficiently the
functions necessary for their survival. The cell membrane plays a
significant role in these functions. For example, when you eat food, it
gets broken down into smaller and smaller molecules by your digestive
system. These molecules-as well as the oxygen molecules in the air you
inhale- then get delivered to every cell in your body. Once there, these
substances must cross the cell membrane to get inside the cell, where they
are needed. The cell's waste materials must also cross this membrane to
exit the cell.
The cell membrane is, therefore, a barrier through which everything
must pass on its way into or out of the cell. Much of this passage of
materials occurs through the process of diffusion. Diffusion is the
movement of molecules from areas where there are higher concentrations
to areas where there are lower concentrations. Water crosses through the
process of osmosis.
30 MHR Unit 1
Tissues, Organs, and Systems of Living Things
Moving from High Concentrations to Low Concentrations
Like the membrane in the beaker shown in Figure 1.21 , the cell membrane
is permeable to certain substances; that is, these substances can cross the
membrane. Materials that the cell needs (such as oxygen) diffuse across the
membrane from outside the cell-where they are more concentrated-to
the inside-where they are less concentrated. A cell membrane is referred to
as selectively permeable because not all materials can cross it; some are kept
out-or in.
particles of dye in water
00 0
Study Toolkit
Visualizing When reading

the text on this page,
visualizing how molecules
cross the cell membrane can
help you understand and
remember the process.
membrane permeable
to dye
Figure 1.21 Diffusion occurs

through a selectively permeable
membrane. Dye particles diffuse
from areas of high concentration
to areas of low concentration
until they reach a point
of equilibrium.
Dye particles are concentrated
on one side of the membrane.
Dye particles diffuse

across the membrane.
At equilibrium. movement
continues. but at the same
rate in both directions.
Most cells are surrounded by solutions that contain water and dissolved
nutrients and gases. Like other molecules, water moves from areas of
greater concentration to areas of lesser concentration. In Figure 1.22, you
can see how osmosis occurs over a cell membrane to equalize the number
of water molecules inside and outside the cell.
i :
water molecules
molecules of dissolved
substance; cell membrane
is impermeable to this
molecule
C) There is a greater concentration of

the dissolved substance inside the cell
than outside the cell.
Water moves by osmosis into the cell

until the concentration is the same
outside and inside.
Growing Cells
The surface of the cell must be big enough to allow for the entry of all
of the oxygen and nutrients needed by the cell's organelles, nucleus, and
cytosol. As cells use these nutrients, they produce more organelles and
cytosol and thus get bigger. As a result, their volume increases. And,
with more organelles doing their jobs, the cell's need for supplies and its
production of wastes increase.
Figure 1.22 In A. you can see

that the dissolved substance is
more concentrated inside than
outside the cell. It cannot diffuse
through the cell membrane.
However, water is more
concentrated outside than inside.
In B. you can see that water
passes through the membrane
until the concentration of water
molecules is the same on both
sides of the membrane.
Chapter 1 Ce lls and More Cells MHR
31
limiting Cell Size
Every cell faces the problem of needing enough surface area to service its
volume. As something gets larger, the ratio of its surface area to its volume
decreases. In other words, there is less surface area per unit of volume in a
large organism than in a small organism. As suggested by Figure 1.23, a cell
cannot get too big, or it will not have enough surface area for the passage
of all the nutrients it needs and the wastes it produces. Therefore, when a
cell reaches a certain size, it must divide to produce smaller cells. Each of
these smaller cells will then have enough surface area to suit its needs.
Figure 1.23 If an amoeba were as big as a

human, critical substances, such as oxygen,
would take years to get through the cell's
cytoplasm to reach the centre of the cell. This
would be far too long. In the meantime, the
nucleus and other organelles would not receive
the nutrients they need to function.
T
0.6 m
... .,,. ...

,, '
,,
Substances diffuse
rapidly through the
cell membrane (in
less than a second).
.. ' ,.. ..
.~ ','
..
'
Substances move very slowly throughout

the cell's internal fluid and cytoskeleton.
Learning Check
1. Using Figures 1.21 and 1.22, describe in your own words how
substances cross the cell membrane. Use the term concentration

in your answer.
2. When a cell divides to produce daughter cells, how similar are
the daughters to the parent?

3. Why do the cells of multicellular organisms divide?
4 . Do you have to worry about seeing a headline like "Giant

Paramecium Threatens City"? Explain your answer.
Can a Cell just Divide Down the Middle?

mitosis the process by
which the duplicated
contents of the cell's nucleus
divide into two equal parts
cytokinesis following
mitosis, the separation of the
two nuclei and cell contents
into two daughter cells
Is dividing a cell as easy as cutting an apple in half? What would happen if

the nucleus were not right in the middle of the cell? Even if it were, would
it work just to divide the total number of chromosomes in the nucleus
in half? The contents of a cell, particularly its nucleus, are complicated.
Each cell, therefore, has to take an organized approach to cell division-it
cannot just break in two.
The nucleus contains the DNA, which is so important that the nucleus
has its own multi-step division process, called mitosis. The cytoplasm
divides by a different process, called cytokinesis.
Getting Ready for Mitosis

Recall that DNA is divided into segments called genes, each of which
provides the instructions for making a different protein. Your body needs
all of these proteins at one time or another-each plays a role in making
up the structure of, or ensuring the proper functioning of, your body's
many parts. Thus, every cell needs to have all the genes required to make
these proteins. Although not every cell will end up making every protein,
each starts out with the potential to do so.
Therefore, the parent cell cannot just divide its chromosomes equally
between its two daughter cells when it divides. If this happened, each
daughter cell would only have half the number of chromosomes its
parent had and would be missing vital genes. In the case of human cells,
each daughter cell produced through cell division needs a copy of all 46
chromosomes from its parent cell.
eo o
Study Toolkit
Word Families Creating a
graphic organizer for words
in this section that include
the word part phase could
help you understand and
remember each word's
definition.
DNA Replication
A parent cell therefore makes a copy of every chromosome before it

divides. It can then give one copy to each of the daughter cells. This
copying process is called DNA replication. During replication, each
chromosome is duplicated, although the two copies remain attached to
each other, as shown in Figure 1.24.
Until the cell gets ready to divide, chromosomes are normally
more like very long, loose threads. Each "thread" is actually a tightly
twisted strand of DNA-the spiral "ladder" you saw in Figure 1.9. The
chromosomes take on the thick, bulging look you see in Figure 1.24
just before the cell gets ready to divide. If you look closely at Figure 1.24A,
you can see that each chromatid is composed of tightly bunched,
threadlike material.
DNA replication is very precise. When copying errors occur, they are
usually detected and fixed by special "proofreading" and repair proteins.
At roughly the same time the DNA is replicated, an organelle called the
centrosome also doubles, so that the cell has two copies. The centrosomes
help to organize the tubules that make up the cytoskeleton. They play an
important role in cell division, as you will see in the next section.
DNA replication the process

by which DNA is copied,
creating sister chromatids
joined at the centromere
Figure 1.24 During DNA

replication, each chromosome
is copied to produce two sister
chromatids, attached at the
centromere. The two sister
chromatids shown in A are
still one chromosome-but
a replicated chromosome.
In B. you can see a human
chromosome, magnified
6100 times, that is ready to
undergo mitosis.
Chapter 1 Cell s and More Cells MHR
33
The First Stage of Cell Division: Mitosis
Figure 1.25 The phases of
mitosis in a typical animal cell

are shown on pages 34 and 35. A
micrograph of a cell in the process
of mitosis is shown beside the
diagram of the same phase.
Although some are longer and some are shorter, the average strand of
human DNA is about 5 em long. Yet 46 chromosomes can fit in the nucleus
of a microscopic cell. This is only possible because each chromosome is
incredibly thin. The diameter of each DNA molecule is just 2 nanometres
(0.000 002 mm), so small that it can only be seen with an electron microscope.
For most of a cell's life, its DNA is virtually invisible. This changes when the cell
starts to divide through the process of mitosis, shown in Figure 1.25.
Prophase
During the first phase of mitosis, called prophase (pro
is Latin for "before"), the replicated chromosomes coil in
various ways until they are finally condensed and thick
enough to be visible using a light microscope. In addition,
the membrane around the nucleus begins to break down,
and the nucleolus disappears.
At the same time, two organelles called centrosomes
head toward opposite ends of the cell. Extending from
the centrosomes, thread-like tubules, part of the
cytoskeleton, begin to form spindle fibres. As prophase
progresses, the spindle fibres continue to form and
extend away from the centrosomes toward
the centro meres on each chromosome.
prophase the phase of
mitosis in which sister
chromatids condense and the
chromosomes become visible
Metaphase
Metaphase (meta is Latin for "mid") is the longest phase in mitosis.
During this phase, the centrosomes reach the opposite ends of
the cell and the chromosomes move toward the middle of the cell.
Eventually, the chromosomes all line up along the centre of the
cell. By this point. the spindle fibres stretch all the way from the
centrosomes to the centromeres. Each centromere becomes attached
to two spindle fibres-one from each end of the cell.
metaphase the phase
of mitosis in which the

chromosomes are aligned
across the centre of the cell
chromosomes
lining up across the
centre of the cell
34
MHR Unit 1 Tissues, Organs, and Systems of Living Thin gs
Anaphase
The next phase of mitosis, called anaphase (ana is Latin for
"back"), is one of the shortest. In anaphase. the proteins
holding the two chromatids together at the centromere
break apart. The spindle fibres had been stretched like elastic
bands between the chromosomes at the middle of
the cell and the centrosomes at the opposite ends of the
cell. Now the spindle fibres retract, each pulling a chromatid
toward one end of the cell. Once the chromatids separate,
each becomes a chromosome in its own right. At this
point. the cell has twice as many chromosomes
as usual.
anaphase the phase
of mitosis in which the
centromere splits apart and
the chromatids are pulled to
opposite sides of the cell by
the spindle fibres
spindle fibres pulling

chromatids to one end of the cell
Telophase
During telophase (telos means "end"), the spindle fibres start to
disappear. Membranes form around two new daughter nuclei, one
at each end of the cell. Within each nucleus, a nucleolus appears, and
the chromosomes become less coiled and harder to see. Mitosis, the
division of one nucleus into two identical nuclei, is now complete.
The rest of the cell is ready to divide.
telophase the phase
- -+---- spindle fibres

beginning to
disappear
of mitosis in which two

daughter nuclei are formed
nuclear
membrane
Chapter 1 Cells and More Cells MHR 35
Mitosis Is Continuous
Go to sclenceontario
to find out more
Scientists-and students-use various strategies to make complicated

ideas and processes easier to understand. One such strategy is to
describe the process of mitosis as if it consists of a set of separate steps,
as described on the previous pages. In reality, mitosis is continuousthere are no breaks between phases.
Modelling Mitosis
Understanding the process of mitosis can be easier if you
make a model of it. What kinds of materials would best
model the various parts of a cell during mitosis?
Safety Precaution
Materials
coloured paper
poster paper
markers
various construction materials, such as toothpicks, string,
twist-ties, paper clips, pipe cleaners, tongue depressors,
several colours of yarn, elastic bands, and thread
Use caution when working with scissors.

As you choose your materials, be
prepared to give a rationale for
your selections.
glue
scissors
Procedure
1. Your teacher will assign you one phase of mitosis.
Make a model of this phase using some of the supplied
materials. Use four chromosomes in your model.
2. When finished, arrange your class's models in the order

in which mitosis occurs.
Questions
1. Compare the various models, and discuss why students
may have chosen different materials to represent the
same structures.
2. In which phases is the nucleus visible?

3 . How many cells does a dividing cell form?
.......................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................................
Inquiry Investigation 1-8,

Mitosis in Plant and Animal
Cells, on page 48
Learning Check
5. What does a cell do to prepare for cell division?

6. What structures ensure that each of the sister chromatids
becomes part of a different daughter cell?
7.
Using Figure 1.25 as a model, sketch each phase of mitosis in your

notebook. Include point-form notes that explain each phase.
8 . Which cells of the human body do you think undergo mitosis

more frequently than other cells? Why?
36
The Second Stage in Cell Division: Cytokinesis

The division of the rest of the cell-the cytosol and organelles-usually
begins before telophase is complete. Figures 1.26 and 1.27 show the
process for animals and plants.
Cytokinesis in Animal Cells
In animal cells, a ring of specialized proteins around the middle of the cell
starts to contract. Like pulling the drawstrings on a bag, this contraction
pinches the cell membrane until the parent cell is divided into two parts.
Each daughter cell has a complete set of chromosomes in a nucleus and its
own share of cytosol and organelles.
cell membrane
pinching in
daughter cells
Figure 1.26 Cytokinesis completes

the process of cell division. The
micrograph here shows cytokinesis
taking place in a human kidney cell.
magnified 1800 times.
..
37
Cytokinesis in Plant Cells
cell plate a structure that

that helps to form the cell
wall in the process of plant
cell cyt okinesis
The process of mitosis in plant cells is the same as in animal cells.

However, in plant cells, the rigid cell wall makes it necessary for
cytokinesis to be slightly different. In plant cells, the Golgi body starts to
produce small vesicles. Each of these sacs carries the materials needed
to form a new cell wall. The vesicles line up between the two new nuclei,
forming a cell plate. The cell plate grows outward and joins the old cell
wall. New cell walls are secreted on each side of the cell plate, dividing the
cytoplasm into two. Then new cell membranes form inside the cell walls,
and the division is complete.
new cell wall
vesicles lining up
Figure 1.27 Cytokin esis in plant cells is slight ly

different from cytokinesis in animal cells because plant
cells must form a new cell wall. In the micrograph on
the left. you ca n see cytokinesis taking place in the
cell of a lily, magnified 400 times.
The Same, but Different
You have seen that cell division produces two cells from one. Repeated
over and over again, millions of times, this process allows you to grow
from a single cell (after fertilization) into a multicellular fetus and
finally into a full-sized human. The processes of DNA replication and
mitosis ensure that each of your body cells has identical genes and can
theoretically produce the same proteins.
Yet, you know that different cells have different structures and
functions. Although all cells have the same basic set of internal structures,
they make different proteins and contain different numbers of certain
types of organelles. This happens as a result of cell specialization, a process
you will learn more about in the next chapter. When cells specialize, they
use only some of their genes-others are deactivated. In fact, most of the
cells in your body use only about 10 percent of their genes to produce the
proteins they need to do their particular job. So, although all of your body
cells contain the same information, they do not all use it in the same way.
38
Section Summary
When single-celled organisms and body cells
of animals and plants divide, they form two
identical daughter cells. For single-celled
organisms, cell division results in population
growth. For multicellular organisms, cell division
allows individuals to grow or to replace lost or
damaged cells.
Cell division must be preceded by DNA

replication so that each daughter cell gets the
same DNA and genes as its parent cell.
Cell division is a continuous process that involves
two stages: mitosis, to divide the nucleus, and
cytokinesis, to divide the cytoplasm.
Review Questions
t::n!) 1. Give as many reasons why cells divide as you can.
t::n!) 2. Compare prophase and telophase in mitosis.
. . 3. Create a graphic organizer to summarize the essential activities
during each phase of mitosis. Go to Study Toolkit 4 to see

possible organizers you might choose.
. . 4. How do the prefixes pro-, meta-, ana-, and tela- relate to what
happens in each phase of mitosis? Look back to Figure 1.25
for dues .
. 0 5. If there are 10 chromosomes in a particular cell at the start of

prophase, how many will be present in the same cell at the end
of anaphase, before cytokinesis has begun? How many will there
be after cytokinesis has occurred?
. . 6. Use diagrams to show the difference between cytokinesis in
plants and animals.
t::n!)
7. You have been given the micrograph on the right.

Describe the cell structures you see and what this
tells you about the cell.
-.JI 8. Biologists have noticed that within many groups of

similar organisms, types that live farther north tend
to be larger. For example, grey squirrels in Ontario
and the northern United States are much larger than
grey squirrels in the southern United States. Why do
you think this might be?
Onion root tip, SO Ox
39
Key Terms
interphase
cell cycle
1.4
cell cycle checkpoint
The Cell Cycle
tum our
As shown in Table 1 .3 , the life span of different types of cells varies widely.
Some cells live a rough life, exposed to constant abrasion (rubbing) and
chemicals that are sometimes toxic. This describes the experience of the
cells that line your stomach, and those that make up your skin. They have
short lifetimes compared with muscle cells, which last an average of 15 years.
Nerve cells may last even longer. This means that cell division happens
frequen tly in some parts of your body, but is a rare event in other parts.
cancer
Table 1.3 Average Life Span

of Various Human Body Cells
Type of
Body Cell
Brain
Red blood
Stomach lining
Liver
Intestine lining
Skin
Average
life Span
30-50 years
Stages of the Cell Cycle
120 days
For your body to function properly, the cell division process must be
carefully controlled. Some types of cells must be "encouraged" to divide,
and others m ust be "encouraged" to remain as they are. This is the job
of molecules, mostly proteins, that carry signals among cells, sharing
information about various cells' abundance and health. These molecules
control the cell cycle. As you can see in Figure 1 .28, the cell cycle-the life
cycle of a cell- consists of two main phases: cell division and interphase.
2 days
200 days
3 days
20 days
i nterphase periods of
growth in t he lif e of a cell;
consists of two growth
st ages and a st age of DNA
replication
growth and preparation

cytokinesis
1\
cell cycle a continuous

sequence of cell growth and
division, including t he stages
of int erphase, mitosis, and
cytokinesis
A Cell division First. the

cell's nucleus divides into two
par ts during mitosis. Then, t he
two nuclei and cell contents
I
DNA
1
j
divide into two daughter cells

during cytokinesis.
.
continued growth and preparation
Figure 1.28 The cell cycle for all

cells consists of two main stages,
but different types of cells spend
different amounts of time in
each stage.
B Interphase Cells do whatever activities they are designed to do, such as

producing specific proteins. For example, a muscle cell might produce the
proteins that allow muscles t o contract. It also does the things that all cells
do, such as t aking in oxygen and glucose, releasing energy from glucose
(cellular respiration), and removing wastes. In addition, DNA replicates in
preparation for cell division. Before and after the DNA replicates are two
periods during which the cell produces more organelles and grows larger.
Checkpoints: Can This Cell Pass?
Controlling the timing and rate of cell division in different parts of a plant
or animal is vital to normal growth and development. Too few or too
many cells in any one body part can lead to serious problems. Although
many details are not understood, scientists have a general picture of how
the cell cycle is controlled in many cells.
Researchers have discovered that there are three main points
at which the cell "checks" its growth. Figure 1.29 shows how these
cell cycle checkpoints work. At each checkpoint, specialized proteins act
like stop signs. Unless they receive specific go-ahead signals, they will not
let the cell cycle proceed. In general, cell division will not occur if
there are not enough nutrients to support cell growth
to f ind out more
cell cycle checkpoints a

point in the life of a cell when
proteins determine whether
cell division should or should
not occur
the DNA has not replicated

the DNA is damaged
St;;op/ Some of t;;he chromosomes
have not;; at;;t;;ached t;;hemselves
t;;o spindle fibres in metaphase.
St;;op/ Some of t;;he chromosomes
have not;; moved to the poles
in anaphase. lhe cell must be
repaired or destroyed.
St;;op/ lhe cell

lacks nutrients to
support its growth.
St;;op/ l he DNA is
damaged. lh.e cell
must;; be destroyed/
growth and
DNA replication
Stop/ lhe DNA

has not;; replicat;;ed.
Stop/ lhe DNA is
damaged. lhe cell
must be repaired
or dest;;royed.
Figure 1.29 Checkpoints in the cell cycle ensure
that cell division occurs only when required.
For many cells, the first checkpoint after mitosis seems to be the most
important. Many cells leave the cycle at this point, often just because more
cells of that type are not required. The body does not need that cell to
divide, so it does not receive a go-ahead signal. Celis that leave the cycle
enter a non-dividing stage. Most cells in the human body-all muscle and
nerve cells, for example-are in this stage.
41
Cell Death
Go to scle nceontario
to find out more
Some cells do not leave the cell cycle to become specialized- they leave
the cell cycle because it is time for them to die. In some cases, this is
because they have been damaged beyond repair, perhaps by physical
forces or by exposure to toxic chemicals. The contents of the cells leak out,
often irritating surrounding cells, causing swelling and redness in that
body part.
Cell Suicide
Other cells carry out a kind of suicide. In this case, a cell breaks down
in an organized way. Its contents are packaged and distributed so that
other cells can use them. Scientists have learned that this type of death is
pre-programmed into cells, determined by what are often called "suicide
genes:' These genes code for proteins whose job is to kill cells in specific
situations. For example, as you can see in Figure 1.30, suicide genes are
responsible for normal finger and toe development in human embryos.
Cells may also ensure their own death when their survival would be
a threat to the organism. This would happen if a cell were infected with a
virus, for example, or if its DNA had been damaged.
Figure 1.30 In various birds and mammals, t he parts of the embryo t hat develop into
hands and feet are solid at first. Separated f ingers or toes are produced through t he
programmed death of the cells between the digits.
Cancer and the Cell Cycle

tumour an abnormal clump
or group of cells
42
Some cells start out normally, but are then transformed so that they
ignore the stop signs in the cell cycle. Instead of leaving the cell cycle
to die, they divide repeatedly and excessively, forming a clump of
cells called a tumour, which you can see in Figure 1.31 .
Effects of Cancer on Other Tissues
These abnormal cells, with further mutations, can become cancer.

Some cancers can spread to other body parts and continue dividing
uncontrollably there. Tumours reduce the effectiveness of other body
tissues. For example, the abnormal cancerous cells that are part of a lung
tumour take up space in the lung that should be filled with normal cells
performing normal lung functions. In addition, the abnormal cells use up
nutrients that are needed by the normal cells.
cell stimulated
to divide
blood vessel
normal lung cells
.
In healthy tissue, cell division is
carefully controlled by chemical
messages that pass from cell to cell.
-.
- --
----
cancer cells with abnormal

genetic material that are
dividing uncontrollably and
can spread to other body
parts
daughter cells produced

through mitosis
As cells mature and die, a normal part

of the cell cycle, other cells are
stimulated to divide and replace them.
The rate of cell division is normally equal

to the rate of cell death.
tumour
cancer
abnormal cells beginning
to divide more frequently
than required
developing
tumour
. -----..
Sometimes cells lose the normal

constraints on their rate of division.
They begin to divide much more often
and no longer function normally. All the
cells that result from their division also
divide uncontrollably, so the abnormal
cells multiply rapidly.
---
The mass of rapidly dividing cells

grows to form a tumour. Further
changes to the cells can produce
cancer. The cancer cells invade and
destroy neighbouring cells.
...
Eventually, some cancer cells may break

away, move into the circulatory system,
and spread to a new location in the body,
where they again begin to divide
uncontrollably.
Go to sclenceontario
to find out more
Figure 1.31 Abnormal cell division is responsible for the development of tumours
and cancer.
43
losing Control
Data Analysis Investigation

1-c. Does the Patient Have
Cancer? on page 50
Most normal cells are attached to a surface while they divide. If a normal
cell senses that it is not attached, it stops dividing. Many cancer cells,
however, have a mutation that allows them to keep dividing even when
they are not attached to a surface. This mutation encourages the abnormal
cells in a tum our to spread. Still other cancer cells have mutatio ns
affecting the proteins that check and repair any errors made during DNA
replication. These mutations, in turn, lead to more mutations.
Most normal cells can undergo 20 to 30 rounds of cell division.
Any m ore divisions might result in mutated cells that might harm the
organism. At this point, a normal cell carries out programmed suicide.
However, many cancer cells have been found to make an enzyme called
telomerase, which signals they do not have to stop dividing. ln other
cancer cells, mutations do not allow them to produce or recognize
suicide-causing proteins. Thus, they keep reproducing, even if their DNA
has been mutated.
Cancer cells generally must have several mutations before control of
cell division is completely lost. Some mutations occur simply by chan ce
and ar e unavoidable. Others can be inherited from parents. However,
people can also avoid mutations by reducing their contact with mutagens
that can lead to cancer; these types of mutagens are called carcinogens.
Many types of carcinogens are known, such as asbestos, tobacco smoke,
and the human papilloma virus (HPV). More are being discovered all
the time. Cancer prevention- reducing gene mutations-is perhaps the
best way to avoid cancer. However, cancer is a complex disease. Its causes
are varied and our knowledge of how cells are changed by mutations is
still far from complete. Cells still hold lots of secrets-eno ugh to keep
researchers busy for many years.
Making a Difference
Ted Paranjothy's goal is to contribute to the discovery of a universal cure for
cancer. Because he has known several people with cancer, Ted has witnessed
the suffering caused by the disease and the effects of chemotherapy, a cancer
treatment. He wants to develop new, non-toxic alternatives to chemotherapy.
While still in high school, Ted discovered an anti-cancer agent while working
on a science project . He also co-authored scientific papers as a volunteer
researcher at the Manitoba Institute of Cell Biology.
Ted's work has earned him many honours, including a first place in the
Sanofi-aventis International BioGENEius Challenge, a Manning Young Canadian
Innovation Award, and the Canadian Cancer Society Researcher of Tomorrow
Award. Ted has also volunteered with patients at a hospital and won an
award for his community service. In 2007, Ted was named one of
Canada's Top 20 Under 20. He attends the Universit y of Manitoba
and plans to become a physician-scientist. involved in both
patient care and cancer research.
What could you do to help people with cancer in
your community?
Section Summary
Some cells live a long time, while others have a

short life span, depending on where in the body
they are found and the conditions they endure.
The life of a cell, called the cell cycle, can be
divided into two main stages: cell division and
interphase. Interphase consists of two growth
stages and a stage of DNA replication.
Cell division is carefully controlled so that cells

are produced only when needed. The control
is exerted by proteins at checkpoints in the cell
cycle. In cells that accumulate enough mutations,
this control can be lost, which may lead to the
development of cancer.
Review Questions
trm) 1. The micrograph on the right shows a cell undergoing mitosis.
a. In what stage of mitosis is this cell?

b. When cell division is complete, what cell cycle checkpoints
will occur before the cell moves into interphase?
. . 2 . Using Figures 1.28 and 1.29, write a paragraph describing the life
of a cell.
trm) 3. Give two examples of places in your body where you would find
cells that live for a short time. Explain why.

trm) 4 . Put the four photographs on the right in order, from the body part
where cell division is happening most rapidly to the body part

where cell division is happening least rapidly.
tm
5. Describe three conditions during the cell cycle that determine

whether the cycle will be allowed to continue .
. _ 6. Some treatments for cancer involve the use of drugs that

specifically attack cells that are actively dividing. Why would this
be effective for fighting cancerous cells?
. . 7. Prepare a "Most Wanted" poster in which cancer cells are cast in

the role of villains. Your poster needs to describe how to
recognize these villains. What "cell crimes" do they commit?
. . 8. Edward Abbey, an American writer and environmentalist, has
stated, "Growth for the sake of growth is the ideology of the
cancer cell:' This quotation is often used by people who, like
Abbey, worry about the negative effects that uncontrolled
population and economic growth can have on the environment.
Do you think this comparison to cancer makes sense? Explain
your answer.
Cell undergoing mitosis, 450x
Skill Check
Examining Cell Structures
Initiat ing and Planning
The light microscopes used today in high school and university

laboratories are based on the same principles as those used by
Hooke and van Leeuwenhoek. For many years, scientists had to rely
on light microscopes to make discoveries about the structure and
functions of cells.
./ Performing and Recording

./ Analyzing and Interpreting
./ Communicating
Safety Precautions
Be sure your hands are

dry when you plug in or
disconnect the cord of the
microscope.
The glass or plastic slides and
cover slips used to mount
specimens are fragile and can
break easily. Handle them
carefully to avoid getting a cut.
Materials
Elodea leaf cells, 160x
compound microscope
prepared slide of Elodea (or
similar) leaf cells
prepared slide of human
skin cells
Science Skills
Go to Science Skills
Toolkit 8 for
information about
using a microscope
and Science Skills
Toolkit 6 for information
about making a labelled
biological drawing.
Human skin cells, 100x
Question
How do the cell structures of plants and animals differ?

Predictions
1. Predict what cell structures you will see in both the plant and
animal cells.
2. Predict what cell structures you will see in only the plant cells or
the animal cells.

Procedure
1. Set up a microscope.
2. Place the slide of the Elodea leaf cells on
the microscope's viewing platform. Adjust
the microscope on low power, and view the
specimen. Do you see one cell, a few cells,
or many cells?
3. Rotate the nosepiece until the medium power
objective clicks into place. Again, adjust the
microscope and view the specimen.
4. Repeat step 3 using the highest-power objective.

Use extra caution when adjusting the focus.
Even a slight turn of the fine-adjustment knob
may crack the slide. Observe the specimen
carefully. Is the entire specimen in focus at
once, or do parts of it come in and out of
focus as you adjust the knob? Make a proper
biological drawing of one cell, remembering to
include the magnification.
5. When you are done, turn the objective lenses
so that the lowest power is again above the
specimen and remove the slide from the stage.
6. Repeat steps 2 to 5 for the slide of human
skin cells.
Analyze and Interpret
1. Consider the differences in what you see using

the low, medium, and high-power objective
lenses. Think about the level of detail you can
see, the amount of the specimen that is visible
(the whole specimen or a portion), and how
much of the specimen you can focus on at once
(without using the fine-adjustment knob).
Which lens do you think gives you the best
view of your specimens? Why?
2. Consult your drawings and recall the specimens

under medium or high power, whichever you
think gave you the clearest or most interesting
view. Create a two-column table for each
specimen. In the first column, write questions
about what you see in the drawing. Your
questions might start with phrases like "What
is ... ?"or "What does the
do?" These
questions may be similar to questions asked by
early microscopists.
3. In the second column of your table, answer

your own questions as best you can. You are not
expected to know all the answers.
Conclude and Communicate
4. Look back at the predictions you made at

the beginning of this investigation. Did your
observations support them? That is, what
structures were you able to see inside the cells?
How did the animal and plant cells differ?
5. Write a short statement that explains what you
think you would need to improve your view of
the contents of a cell.
Extend Your Inquiry and Research Skills
6. Inquiry How would the cell structures of other

types of plants compare with the leaf cells you
examined in this investigation? Use Science
Skills Toolkit 8 to plan an investigation in which
you make and examine your own slides of plant
cells. If your teacher asks you to conduct your
planned investigation, have it approved by your"
teacher before proceeding.
7. Research Research what other cell structures
you can see in a human skin cell using an

electron microscope. Do the following:
a. List organelles that can be seen with the

electron microscope that you could not see
with the compound light microscope.
b. Draw and label a magnified view of
one organelle visible with the electron
microscope.
Skill Check
Mitosis in Plant and Animal Cells
Initiating and Planning
Plant and animal body cells reproduce by the process of mitosis. You
will observe slides of the tip of an onion root and a whitefish embryo
to see how mitosis in cells allows them to divide, producing new cells .
.I Performing and Recording

.; Analyzing and Interpreting
Communicating
Safety Precautions
Be sure your hands are

dry when you plug in or
disconnect the cord of
the microscope.
The glass or plastic slides and
cover slips used to mount
specimens are fragile and can
break easily. Handle them
carefully to avoid getting a cut.
Prophase: whitefish embryo, 450 x
Prophase: onion root tip, 630x
Metaphase: whitefish embryo, 450x
Metaphase: onion root tip, 630x
Materials
compound microscope
prepared slide of an onion
root tip
prepared slide of a
whitefish embryo
Science Skills
Go to Science Skills
Toolkit 8 for
information about
using a microscope
and Science Skills
Toolkit 6 for
information about
making a labelled
biological drawing.
Question
How does mitosis produce new cells, and how is mitosis the same and
different in plant and animal cells?
Procedure
1. Set up a microscope.
2. Set your microscope on low power, and examine the onion root
tip. Focus the microscope, and move the slide until you can see
the area just behind the root tip. Carefully turn the nosepiece to
medium power, refocus, and then turn to high power and refocus.
Be careful when adjusting the fine-adjustment knob at high
power. Even slight turns can crack the slide .
3. Use the photographs on page 48 to help you

find a cell in prophase. While looking through
the eyepiece of the microscope, you may have to
gently move the slide to find a cell in prophase.
Draw this cell, and label the parts of the cell
you observe.
4. Repeat step 3 for metaphase, anaphase,
and telophase.

4. Inquiry How do you think the tip of a live onion
can be prepared so that you can observe it

under a light microscope?
5. Research Research the stains that are used
to view different organelles and any safety

precautions or hazards associated with
those stains.
5 . Turn the microscope back to low power.

Remove the slide of the onion root tip.
6. Place the whitefish embryo slide on the

microscope stage under low power. Focus
using low power, and find a region of dividing
cells. Switch to medium power. If you need
more detail, carefully switch to high power.
Find a cell at prophase, and ensure that it is in
the middle of your field of view. As with the
onion root tip cell at this stage, draw what
you see.
Anaphase: whitefish embryo
Anaphase: onion root tip
Telophase: whitefish embryo
Telophase: onion root tip
7. Repeat steps 3 and 4 using the whitefish
embryo slide.
8. Return the nosepiece to low power.
Remove the whitefish embryo slide from
the microscope stage.
1. How do the cells in the region close to the end
of the onion root tip compare to those farther

back in the root tip? Compare the size of the
cells, the number of cells undergoing mitosis,
and the number cells in different phases
of mitosis.
2. Look at your drawings of telophase from the
root tip and whitefish embryo. How does the
onion root tip cell look different from the
whitefish embryo cells at this phase?
3. Infer why whitefish embryo cells and root-tip

cells are used to study mitosis instead of cells in
a human bone or plant leaf.
Skill Check
Initiating and Planning
Performing and Recording
./ Analyzing an.d Interpreting
./ Communicating
Does the Patient Have Cancer?

A physician supplied your laboratory with two samples of the same
type of cells: one is normal, and the other is from a patient who may
have a tumour. You were asked to culture the cells, record the cells'
rates of division, and report back on any abnormalities. Your results
are shown in the table below.
Number of Cells in Samples over Time
Time (days)
Normal Cells
Patient Sample
15
30
45
10
60
16
30
75
32
92
90
64
180
Question
What will you report back to the physician who requested the test?
Math Skills
Go to Math Skills
Toolkit 3 for
information about
making graphs.
Organize the Data
Draw a line graph showing the rate of cell division of normal cells
and the patient's cells. Put time on the x-axis and population size
on the y-axis.
1. Compare the rates of cell division in the patient sample and the
normal sample. How would you interpret the graph?
2. Write a one- or two-sentence summary of your findings and your

interpretation for the physician.
3. Inquiry All cells, whether they are normal or cancerous, need

energy. Cell division actually requires more energy than many
other cell activities. Imagine that each cell in your sample needs
two units of energy to divide.
a. Compare the amount of energy used by the cells in each sample
at 90 days.
b. How might this energy requirement affect an individual who
has a cancerous tumour?
50
1.1 Studying the Structure of Cells

Key Concepts
Developments in microscopy (microscope technology) have
made it possible to look at the internal structures of cells.
Cells contain a variety of organelles, each of which has
its own structure and function. Some organelles are
Advances in knowledge about cells have

helped researchers find new ways to
diagnose and treat diseases.
found in all cells, while others are found only in plant cells
or animal cells.
1.2 Genes: Answers and Questions

Key Concepts
The nucleus of a cell contains chromosomes, which are
composed of DNA and divided into segments called genes.
Genes control a cell's structure and function by controlling
the production of proteins.
Mutations in genes change the structure

and function of the proteins in the cells.
Many, but not all, genetic mutations are
harmful.
There are many ethical issues related to technological

developments in DNA screening, transgenic research, and
clinical drug trials. Researchers often make progress faster
than society's ability to make decisions about how to use
such research.
1.3 Cells from Cells

Key Concepts
When single-celled organisms and body cells of animals
and plants divide, they form two identical daughter
cells. For single-celled organisms, cell division results
in population growth. For multicellular organisms. cell
division allows individuals to grow and to replace lost
or damaged cells.
Cell division must be preceded by DNA

replication so that each daughter cell gets
the same genes as its parent.
Cell division is a continuous process that involves
two stages: mitosis, to divide the nucleus, and cytokinesis,
to divide the cytoplasm.
1.4 The Cell Cycle

Key Concepts
Some cells live a long time, while others have a short life
span, depending on where in the body they are found
and the conditions they endure.
The life of a cell, called t he cell cycle, can be divided
into two main stages: cell division and interphase.
Interphase consists of two growth stages and a stage
of DNA replication.
Cell division is carefully controlled so that

cells are produced only when needed. The
control is exerted by proteins at checkpoints
in the cell cycle. In cells t hat accumulate enough
mutations, this control can be lost. which may lead
to the development of cancer.
Chapte r 1 Cells and More Cells MHR
51
Make Your Own Summary
15. Use these diagrams to answer the

questions below.
Summarize the key concepts of this chapter using

a graphic organizer. The Chapter Summary on the
previous page will help you identify the key concepts.

Refer to Study Toolkit 4 on pages 565-566 to help
you decide which graphic organizer to use.
G
Reviewing Key Terms
Complete each statement below using key terms.

1. The cytoplasm is composed of cytosol and
. (1.1 )
2. A(n)
is a photograph taken
with a m icroscope. (1.1)
a. Which diagram shows a cell in metaphase?
3. A chromosome consists of a single molecule of
b. Which diagram shows a cell with sister

chromatids moving to opposite ends of
the cell?
. ( 1.2)
4. A change in the usual order of a gene's A, C, T, and
G build ing blocks is called a(n)
. (1.2)
c. Which diagram illustrates a cell in which a

new nuclear membran e is forming?
5. The material in the nucleus divides by a process
d. Which diagram shows a cell in anaphase?
called
, whereas the rest of the cell
divides by the process of
. ( 1.3)
G. The
e. Write down the letters of the diagrams in

the order in which they occur in m itosis.
consists of interphase
and cell division. (1.4)
16. Create a table that shows the benefits and
drawbacks of genetically modified plants.

Knowledge and Understanding 01!1
7. Compare and contrast light microscopes and

electron m icroscopes.
17. Cells have checkpoints to determine whether

cell division should occur. Why are these
checkpoints importan t?
8 . How did the invention of the microscope help

to improve human health?
18. Explain the difference between a tumour
9. Describe the relationship between the

nucleolus, ribosom es, and proteins.
19. Why is the cell considered to be the basic
10. Use a Venn diagram to compare chloroplasts
and mitochondria.
11. Why do cells divide?
12. Draw and label a diagram to show metaphase
and cancer.
unit of life?
20. How are the cells in your body identical?
Thinking and Investigation .:0

21. Herbicide-resistant plants are usually selected
in the process of mitosis. Include spindle fibres,

centromeres, and centrosomes in your diagram.
13. What happens during interphase?
14. What is the function of spindle fibres?
52
MHR Unit 1 Tissues, Organs, and Syst ems of Living Things
to resist specific herbicides. Why would it

be an advantage for a company to produce
both the genetically modified seed and the
herbicide? That is, why would a company not
necessarily want to develop a seed that would
resist all herbicides?
22. Banana growers plant no seeds, yet banana

plantations are filled with trees bearing bunches
of fruit. How is this possible?
23. The table below shows the number of cells at
each of the stages of the cell cycle that a student
observed in a slide of a carrot root tip.
Number of Cells in Carrot Root Tip
during Stages of the Cell Cycle
Cell Stage
I Number of Cells
Interphase
82
Prophase
13
Metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
a. If you know that it takes 800 min for a full

cell cycle to take place, calculate the amount
of time spent in each stage of the cell cycle.
Hint: To calculate the amount of time spent in
prophase, for example, do the following:
number of cells in prophase

total number of cells viewed
time spent in prophase
=-:::8 00~m.,.-in-:(t:-o-::-'ta..,..lt-:-:-im_e_t':-h-'at' -c-yc-=-le:-t:a:-k

- e-s')
7
b. Why do you think so much time is spent in

interphase?
c. Do you think the cell cycle for a cell in a leaf

would be longer or shorter th an the cell cycle
for the cell in the carrot root tip? Explain
your answer.
Communication . .
24. BIG ~ Developments in medicine and
medical technology can have social
and ethical implications. Imagine that you are a
journalist writing an article for the magazine
Ethics Today. You have been asked to research
and explain the social and ethical implications
of a new technology related to medicine or
biology. Suggested topics include using
transgenic organisms to supply organs for
transplant into humans, genetic screening for a
specific disease, for-profit companies offering
"personal genotyping" services, and cloning.
25. Chemicals that cause cancer are often called

carcinogens. Explain the following statement:
'~11 carcinogens are mutagens, but not all
mutagens are carcinogens:' Pick a particular
carcinogen, and produce a pamphlet to educate
people about it. Your pamphlet should include
information such a~ what type of products
contain it (for example, cleaning products),
and what alternatives could be used instead.
26. Make a crossword puzzle that uses the key
words from one of the sections of this chapter.
Trade with someone who made a crossword
puzzle using the key terms from another section,
and see if you can solve each other's puzzles.
Application tDt
27. If a microscope were unavailable, you might be
able to detect the existence of a micro-organism
by its influence on the environment. Give
examples of situations in which you could
know that a microscopic organism was present,
even if you could not see individuals of this
species (that is, if you could not see its cells).
Explain why you would know that the organism
was there.
28. Your home has internal walls that divide it into
rooms, just as most of the organelles inside
a cell are separated from the cytoplasm by
membranes. Compare the walls of a home with
the membranes of organelles. What do they have
in common, and what makes them different?
29. Explain why animals and plants are made of
billions or trillions of microscopic cells rather
than a few large cells.
30. Treatment for bladder cancer often involves
chemotherapy, which uses chemicals to attack
certain cells. Explain how each of the following
methods of chemotherapy will interfere with
the rapidly growing cancer cells. Remember
what you have learned about the checkpoints in
the cell cycle.
a. a chemical that blocks the replication of DNA
b. a chemical that prevents the formation of

spindle fibres

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BIG~

Developments in medicine and medical

A pediatric heart surgeon's hand crad les an infant's tiny

What are some social and ethical issues related

Plants: From Cells

Animals: From Cells

4. Diagrams A, B, and C show the process of

theory is true or false. If a statement is false,

concentration, high, low, membrane, permeable,

a. The cell is the basic unit of life.

c. All living things are made up of many cells.

2. Find the pond organism that is labelled A, and

3. In your notebook, write the number

MHR Unit 1 Sustainable Ecosystems

characteristics of unicellular and multicellular

following table in your notebook. Identify

Numeracy and literacy Check

into two cells. When conditions are favourable

a. If conditions are favourable, how many

multicellular organisms are structured.

Looking Ahead to the Unit 1 Projects

Investigate the phases

Deuc1J *ttl~-., )Oil ........

0 I would f1ko lo donoto ,..,J, ~Od Organs or lissuos.

Get Ready for Unit 1 MHR 3

What You Will learn

In this chapter, you will learn how to ...

common, as well as differences

mitosis for growth and repair

and related issues

To prevent and treat diseases,

In this chapter, you will learn how to ...

using microscopes and labelled

plant and animal cells

in normal and abnormal cells

of some new medical technologies

Over 4000 Canadians are waiting for an organ transplant-a liver,

MHR Unit 1 Tissues, Organs, and Systems of Living Things

Did You Get the Message?

The simple game of "broken

2. Repeat step 1 with a second message.

Chapter 1 Cells and More Cells MHR

Preparing For Reading

Previewing Text Features

Before read ing non-fiction text preview the features

Visualizing means forming an image in your mind

Steps for Visualizing While Reading

image in the text

Some text features give you clues about the most

Use the Strategy

How I Form an Image

2. Look for details

The examples "some proteins

3. Once you have

My sketch shows a strand of

Use the Strategy

Use the Strategy

2. As you read the rest of the section, note any words

MHR Unit 1 Tissues, Organs, and Systems of Living Things