PROBLEM SOLVING

Mathematics Assessment Project

CLASSROOM CHALLENGES
A Formative Assessment Lesson

Proofs of the
Pythagorean
Theorem

Mathematics Assessment Resource Service

University of Nottingham & UC Berkeley
Beta Version
For more details, visit: http://map.mathshell.org
2012 MARS, Shell Center, University of Nottingham
May be reproduced, unmodified, for non-commercial purposes under the Creative Commons license
detailed at http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/ - all other rights reserved

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

MATHEMATICAL GOALS
This lesson unit is intended to help you assess how well students are able to produce and evaluate
geometrical proofs. In particular, this unit is intended to help you identify and assist students who
have difficulties in:
Interpreting diagrams.
Identifying mathematical knowledge relevant to an argument.
Linking visual and algebraic representations.
Producing and evaluating mathematical arguments.

COMMON CORE STATE STANDARDS

This lesson relates to the following Mathematical Practices in the Common Core State Standards for
Mathematics:
3.
Construct viable arguments and critique the reasoning of others.
7.
Look for and make use of structure.
This lesson gives students the opportunity to apply their knowledge of the following Standards for
Mathematical Content in the Common Core State Standards for Mathematics:
G-CO: Prove geometric theorems.
G-SRT: Prove theorems about triangles.

INTRODUCTION
This lesson unit is structured in the following way:
Before the lesson, students attempt the assessment task individually. You then review students
work and formulate questions that will help them to improve.
The lesson begins with a whole-class discussion of the geometric diagram from the assessment
task. Students then work collaboratively on the task, in pairs or threes, to produce a better
collective solution than those they produced individually. Throughout their work they justify and
explain their decisions to peers.
In the same small groups, students critique examples of other students work.
In a whole-class discussion, students explain and evaluate the arguments they have seen and used.
Finally, students work alone on a new task similar to the original assessment task.

MATERIALS REQUIRED

Each student will need a copy of the assessment tasks Proving the Pythagorean Theorem and
Proving the Pythagorean Theorem (revisited), and some grid paper.
Each small group of students will need a large sheet of paper, copies of each of the Sample
Methods to Discuss, and the sheet Comparing Methods of Proof.
Provide copies of the extension activity, Proving the Pythagorean Theorem using Similar
Triangles, as necessary.
There are some projector resources to help with whole-class discussion.

TIME NEEDED
20 minutes before the lesson, a 1-hour lesson, and 20 minutes in a follow-up lesson (or for
homework). All timings are approximate; exact timings will depend on the needs of your students.
Teacher guide

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

T-1

BEFORE THE LESSON

Assessment Task: Proving the Pythagorean Theorem (20 minutes)
Have the students do this task a day or more
Proving the Pythagorean Theorem
before the formative assessment lesson. This
Marty is trying to prove the Pythagorean Theorem.
will give you an opportunity to assess their
He draws a sketch.
work and identify students who have
difficulty. You will then be able to target your
help more effectively in the follow-up lesson.
Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

Student Materials

Beta Version February 2012

Give each student a copy of the task, Proving

the Pythagorean Theorem, and a sheet of grid
paper.
Introduce the task briefly to help the class
understand the work they are being asked to
do.
Spend twenty minutes working
individually and answering these
questions.

1. Re-draw Martys diagram accurately using pencil and ruler.

Label your diagram clearly.
2. Write down what you know about the lengths, angles, shapes, and areas on the diagram.
Give reasons for your statements.
3. Use the diagram to prove that in any right triangle with sides a, b, c and hypotenuse c, a2+b2=c2

Write all your reasoning on the sheet,

explaining what you are thinking.
Students who sit together often produce similar answers so that, when they come to compare their
work, they have little to discuss. For this reason, we suggest that when students do the task
individually you ask them to move to different seats. At the beginning of the formative assessment
lesson allow them to return to their usual places. Experience has shown that this produces more
profitable discussions.
2012 MARS University of Nottingham

S-1

It is important that students try to answer the questions without assistance, as far as possible.
Assessing students responses
Collect students responses to the task. Read through their scripts and make some notes on what their
work reveals about their current levels of understanding, and their different approaches to producing a
proof.
We strongly suggest that you do not score students work. Research shows that this is
counterproductive as it encourages students to compare scores, and distracts their attention from what
they might do to improve their mathematics.
Instead, help students to make further progress by asking questions that focus their attention on
aspects of the work. Some suggestions for these are given on the next page. These have been drawn
from common difficulties observed in trials of this unit.
We suggest that you write your own lists of questions, based on your own students work, using the
ideas below. You may choose to write questions on each students work, or, if you do not have time
for this, select a few questions that apply to most students, and write these on the board when the
assessment task is revisited.

Teacher guide

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

T-2

Common issues:

Suggested questions and prompts:

Student constructs an inaccurate diagram

For example: The students diagram does not
show a square because she has not drawn all
lengths labeled a equal in length.
Student does not identify and use her relevant
mathematical knowledge
For example: The student does not deduce that the
angle between the sides marked c is right.
Or: The student does not recognize that the side
length of the large square is a + b.

Student writes an incomplete solution

For example: The student writes some relevant
theorems and notices some relevant structure but
has lost direction.

Student relies on perceptual properties of

diagram
For example: The student writes that the area of
the square side c on the first diagram is equal to
a2 + b2 on the second diagram, but doesnt justify
that claim.

Look carefully at the diagram Marty drew.

Which lengths are equal?
Label the sides of each triangle in Martys
diagram. Use this to help you draw accurately.
What can you say about the angles in this
diagram?
What different geometrical figures can you
see?
What do you know about the areas of these
figures?
How could you write this side length using
algebra?
What do you already know?
What do you want to find out?
Try working backwards: what will the end
result be?
Your rearrangement shows that c2 = a2+b2, but
can you explain why this is true using words
and algebra?
You have assumed that the area is a2 + b2.
How do you know that this is correct?
You have assumed that the two triangles form
a rectangle. They do look like a rectangle, but
how do you know you this is not a different
type of parallelogram?

Or: The student assumes that two conjoining

triangles form a rectangle.
Student reasons empirically
For example: The student measures the sides of
the triangle and uses those measures in
length/area calculations.
Student relies on visual reasoning
For example: The student draws arrows to show
how to move from one diagram to another, but
does not provide a written, algebraic argument.
Student writes a complete and correct solution
Provide a copy of the extension task, Proving the
Pythagorean Theorem using Similar Triangles.

Teacher guide

Think of your triangle as representing any

right triangle with sides a, b, c.
Think of what is needed for a proof. Is your
argument a proof?
How can you make your argument clearer?
How can you turn your visual argument into a
proof?
Here is a new diagram. Use it to prove the
Pythagorean Theorem.

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

T-3

SUGGESTED LESSON OUTLINE

Whole-class introduction (10 minutes)
Remind students of the assessment task A Proof of the Pythagorean Theorem they completed prior to
this lesson:
What is the Pythagorean Theorem?
Are there any other ways of stating the theorem?
Prompt students for both length and area expressions.
Check that students understand when the Pythagorean Theorem can be applied:
For what kind of triangles is Pythagorean Theorem true?
Is it true for any right triangle? Even one that looks like this? [Draw some extreme cases.]
There are many different ways of proving the Theorem.
We are going to look at some this lesson.
Re-introduce Martys diagram from
the assessment task, using the
projectable resources (P-1P-12).
Work through the construction
processes step-by-step.
Dont try to complete the proof at this
stage. Instead, help students to
understand the construction of the
diagram. Research shows that
students benefit from reconstructing
and analyzing diagrams.
At each stage, prompt students to use
clear mathematical language to
describe the construction processes,
such as congruent, perpendicular,
reflect in a horizontal/vertical line,
translate, and rotate by 90
(counter) clockwise.

b
a

a
b

c
c

b
a

a
b

a
a

b
c

a
b

c
c

a
a

a
a

a
a

Describe how the blue triangle has moved.

How do you know that the sides of the square are straight?
How do you know that the center shape is a square?
The sides of the triangle are a and b. So what is the total length of this line?
How do you know that the orange area never changes?
Teacher guide

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

T-4

Collaborative group work (15 minutes)

Organize students into groups of two or three. Give each group a large sheet of paper.
Remember the task I gave you [last lesson]? I have read your solutions to the task and have some
questions about your work.
Spend a few minutes on your own, reading my questions. Use my questions to review your work.
Then work together. Take turns to share your ideas with the rest of the group, and then work
together in your group to come up with a better solution.
Explain that when proving, it is useful to gather knowledge of the mathematical structure:
When thinking about your joint solution, you may first want to discuss how the diagram is
constructed.
Think about what you already know about lengths, areas and angles and think about what you
know of this diagram in particular.
Think about how you can use the diagram to figure out the statement of the Pythagorean
Theorem.
Make sure you explain everything really clearly on your poster paper.
You have two tasks during small group work: to note different student approaches to the task and
support student problem solving.
Note different student approaches to the task.
Notice how students make a start on the task, if they get stuck, and how they respond if they do come
to a halt. Note which properties they identify, and how they choose which information may be useful.
Notice when students look for different ways of writing the same information. Do they use
visual/geometrical as well as algebraic language? Do they produce a general (algebraic or visual)
solution, or do they introduce measures and work empirically?
Support student problem solving.
Try not to make suggestions that move students towards a particular approach to this task. Instead,
ask questions to help students clarify their thinking. If several students in the class are struggling with
the same issue, write a relevant question on the board. You might also ask a student who has
performed well on a particular part of the task to help a struggling student.
The following questions and prompts have been found most helpful:
Which side(s) of the triangle form(s) the side of the square?
What is the length of this line segment?
How could you calculate the area of this square? Is that the only way to figure out the area?
How do you know this is always true? Maybe it only works for these numbers.
You have assumed that. Why do you believe that is true?
Collaborative analysis of Sample Methods to Discuss (20 minutes)
Give each small group of students a copy of the two sheets: Sample methods to discuss, a blank sheet
of paper to write their responses on, and a copy of the sheet: Comparing the methods. Draw students
attention to the questions on these sheets (P-13P-16).
Read through these proofs. None of them is perfect.
Describe what each student has done on the blank sheet.
Teacher guide

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

T-5

Will their approach lead to a proof? Why?

Explain how the work can be improved.
When you have done this, evaluate the completed arguments.
Which approach do you find most convincing? Why?
Produce a complete correct solution using your preferred method.
I have some grid paper if you want to use it.
This analysis task will give students the opportunity to engage with and evaluate different types of
argument without providing a complete solution strategy. It also raises questions about what counts as
a good mathematical argument for discussion in the plenary.
We have included methods here that reflect some common issues in student reasoning. Penelope and
Sophie have only considered specific cases. In Penelopes case, her reasoning can be generalized,
using algebra, but Sophies diagram will only work for isosceles right triangles, so her method cannot
be generalized. Nadias approach shows the beginnings of an algebraic method, but this is incomplete
and contains an error.
During small group work, support student thinking as before. Also, listen to see what students find
difficult. Identify one or two aspects of these approaches to discuss in a whole-class discussion. Note
similarities and differences between the sample approaches and those the students took in small group
work. If students require more work, ask them to produce a proof using Penelopes diagram and
compare this with their improved version of Martys (visual and algebraic) solution method.
Whole-class discussion comparing the Sample Methods to Discuss (15 minutes)
Organize a whole-class discussion to analyze the different methods of the Sample Responses to
Discuss (projector resources P-14P1-16). The intention is that you focus on getting students to
explain the methods of working and compare different styles of argument, rather than just checking
numerical or algebraic solutions.
Penelope has measured the diagram and found
the area of the figure in two different ways. She
finds that the whole trapezoid has an area that
is roughly equal to the three triangles added up.
This does not amount to a proof of the
Pythagorean theorem, because it only considers
a special case. She has some material here for
developing a proof, notably the (implied)
equation:

1
1
1
(a + b) 2 = ab " 2 + c 2 .
2
2
2
If this were simplified, it could be made into a
proof.

Penelope assumes the shape is a trapezoid.

How do you know she is correct?
How can we develop her ideas into a
proof?
Teacher guide

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

T-6

Nadias method is rather like Martys: she has

not tried to transform the diagram, but has tried
to find the area in two different ways. Some
students may notice that Nadias diagram is
like two of Penelopes placed on top of one
another.
There is an algebraic error in the last line (a
common one), but if this were corrected the
proof could be completed. By equating

(a + b) 2 = 2ab + c 2

Nadia assumes the angle in the inner

quadrilateral is a right angle. Is she
correct? How do you know?
Your group used a similar solution method
to Nadia. Can you explain the solution?
How can we develop her ideas into a
proof?
Sophies method does not generalize. It can be
used only for isosceles right triangles, in which
case a = b. Emphasize the need to check that
diagrams work for all possible cases.
Will Sophies method work for all right
angled triangles?
What would happen if you tried to draw
Sophies diagram making the sides of the
right triangle unequal?

How could Penelope or Nadia improve her solution?

Was it hard to understand these approaches?
Once students have explained both methods, ask them to compare them.
Which did you think was the most convincing proof? Why?
Follow-up lesson: Proving the Pythagorean Theorem (revisited) (20 minutes)
Invite students to work individually on the sheet: Proving the Pythagorean Theorem (revisited). This
is intended to help you, and the students, ascertain whether students can apply what they have learned
from the lesson. Some teachers might ask students to complete this task for homework.
Optional extension task
A further method for proving the Pythagorean Theorem is begun on the extension sheet: Proving
Pythagorean Theorem using Similar Triangles. This may be given to students that have been
successful with the other approaches shown in this lesson, as a further challenge.

Teacher guide

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

T-7

SOLUTIONS
Students may choose visual, empirical, or algebraic approaches to proof with any of the diagrams. We
provide sample algebraic proofs in the Sample Methods to Discuss (below).
Assessment: Martys solution
Marty relies on visual transformation of the area. This visual transformation is a powerful
mathematical tool, but it leaves too much for the reader to do; it does not constitute a full proof.
Marty provides no explanation of his approach. He moves the four congruent triangles to form two
rectangles of side lengths a and b, with two squares of sides length a, b respectively making up the
rest of the large square area.
Marty could strengthen his solution by showing the connection between the variables he uses to label
the side lengths and the areas of the constituent parts of the figures more explicitly. In particular, he
needs to describe how the algebra he uses links the lengths a, b, c to the transformed areas in his
second diagram. He needs to provide much more explanation of his work to make it clear for the
reader.
For example, he could write:

The side length of the large square is a+b. So the area of the large square is (a+b)2 = a2+b2+2ab.
Now I can find the area of the individual pieces of the large square.

The inner square has side length c and area c2.

Each of the right triangles has area 12 ab . Two of these triangles form a rectangle ab. There are
four of them. So this gives an area of 2ab from the triangles.

Adding together all the pieces gives the area of the large square. So the area of the large square is
c2+2ab.

I now have two ways of writing the area of the large square. So c2+2ab= a2+b2+2ab.

Subtract 2ab from each side to see that c2= a2+b2.

Analysis of Sample Methods to Discuss

Penelopes solution
Penelope gives a clear explanation of her approach at the beginning of her solution. She is finding the
area of the trapezoid as a whole and as the sum of three triangle areas. She provides more information
for the reader than the others, so her solution is a better (but still incomplete) explanation. However,
she takes an empirical approach, using the measures of the sides of the triangles to find that the area is
approximately equal whether found as a trapezoid or as the sum of the areas of three triangles. This is
not a proof of the Pythagorean Theorem because it is not a general argument.
Penelopes solution can be improved using some of the formulas she identified. However, she first
needs to show that the quadrilateral is a trapezoid. The two (apparently) vertical sides are parallel,
since they meet the line segment ab at the same (right) angle.
Then area of the trapezoid = 12 h(a + b) = 12 (a + b)(a + b) = 12 (a + b) 2 = 12 (a 2 + 2ab + b 2 )
Penelope can also find the area of the trapezoid as the sum of three triangles. Area of triangle with
side lengths a, b = 12 !
ab . There are two of these, with total area ab .

!
Teacher guide

!
Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

T-8

Penelope needs to establish that the angle between the segments of length c is right before using these
to calculate the area of the triangle with side lengths c. Since the triangle with sides a, b is right, the
two unknown angles sum to 90. The angle in the triangle with side lengths c forms a straight line
with these two angles. So the missing angle in the triangle with side lengths c is 90.
The area of triangle with perpendicular side lengths c is 12 c2 . So the total area of the trapezoid is
1
2

c2 + ab

Since both methods give the total area of the trapezoid, 1 c 2 + ab =

1
2

1
2

1
2

(a + 2ab + b ) = a + ab + b

Cancelling ab from both sides,

1
2

c2 = 12 a 2 + 12!b2 , so c2 = a 2 + b2 as required.

Nadias Method

Students may recognize the figure in Nadias Method: Nadia has drawn the first diagram from
!
! only draws one diagram
Martys Method. Nadia
and therefore does not show any transformations of
the geometric shapes. Instead, she adopts an algebraic method of proof.
Nadia makes a mistake: she writes (a + b) 2 = a 2 + b 2 . To improve her solution, Nadia could correct
that error. To complete her proof, she could link the algebraic expansion of the parentheses with the
areas of the shapes making up the diagram.
Expanding the parentheses
! correctly gives:

(a + b) 2 = a 2 + 2ab + b 2
Writing the area of the square in terms of its constituent parts:

1
(a + b) 2 = c 2 + 4 " ab = c 2 + 2ab
2

Thus a 2 + 2ab + b 2 = c 2 + 2ab

And a 2 + 2ab + b 2 = c 2 + 2ab

! Subtracting 2ab from each side gives the required result.

!

Sophies Method
The triangle is Sophies triangle is right, but also isosceles. She represents a general right isosceles
!
triangle. However, the special properties of the right isosceles triangle are an important part of the
structure of the diagram. Changing to the general right triangle by choosing a " b makes the
relationship between the areas of the large square and isosceles triangles of side lengths a, b unclear.

Teacher guide

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

T-9

So Sophies is a proof of the Pythagorean Theorem only for right isosceles triangles. Check that
students recognize the reason for this restricted result. To improve her work, Sophie might redraw the
diagram and work on a proof for all right triangles.
Assessment: Proving the Pythagorean Theorem (revisited)
This assessment task is another dissection proof. The sides a, b are perpendicular and so can be used
to calculate the area of each right triangle. The hypotenuse of the right triangle, c, forms the side of
the large square.
Area of large square = c2.
Area of large square = area of four triangles + area of small square.
Area of one triangle =

1
1
base " perp.height = ab .
2
2

Area four triangles = 4 "

1
ab = 2ab .
2

Side length of inner square = a " b .

2

Area of inner square = ( a " b) = a 2 " 2ab + b 2 .

So area of the large!square is c 2 = 2ab + a 2 " 2ab + b 2 = a 2 + b 2 as required.

!
!

Teacher guide

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

T-10

Proving the Pythagorean Theorem

Marty is trying to prove the Pythagorean theorem.
He draws a sketch.

1. Re-draw Martys diagram so it is more accurate, using pencil and ruler.

Label your diagram clearly.
2. Write down what you know about all the lengths, angles, shapes, and areas on the diagram.
Give reasons for your statements.
3. Using the diagram, construct a proof to show that in any right triangle with sides a, b and
hypotenuse c, a2+b2=c2.

Student Materials

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

2012 MARS, Shell Center, University of Nottingham

S-1

Grid Paper

Student Materials

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

2012 MARS, Shell Center, University of Nottingham

S-2

Sample Methods to Discuss: Penelope

1.

What connects Penelopes diagram to the Pythagorean Theorem?

2.

Is Penelopes reasoning convincing? Explain your answer.

3.

Explain how Penelope could improve her proof.

Student Materials

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

2012 MARS, Shell Center, University of Nottingham

S-3

Sample Methods to Discuss: Nadia

!
1.

Describe the method Nadia used in her proof.

2.

Is Nadias reasoning convincing? Explain your answer.

3.

Explain how Nadia could improve her proof.

Student Materials

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

2012 MARS, Shell Center, University of Nottingham

S-4

Sample Methods to Discuss: Sophie

!
1. What type of triangle does Sophie use in her proof?

2. Is Sophies reasoning convincing? Explain your answer.

3. Explain how Sophie could improve her proof.

Student Materials

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

2012 MARS, Shell Center, University of Nottingham

S-5

Comparing the Sample Methods

1. Compare the work written by Penelope, Nadia, and Sophie.
Whose solution method do you find most convincing? Why?

Produce
2. Produce a complete and correct proof using your preferred method.
Your teacher has grid paper if you want to use it.

Student Materials

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

2012 MARS, Shell Center, University of Nottingham

S-6

Proving the Pythagorean Theorem (revisited)

Four congruent right triangles and a square can be rearranged to get from Diagram 1 to Diagram 2.

1. Using a pencil and a ruler, re-draw the diagrams accurately.

Label your diagrams clearly.
2. Write down what you know about the lengths, angles, shapes and areas on the diagrams.
Give reasons for your statements.
3. Use the diagrams to prove that in any right triangle with sides a, b and hypotenuse c, a2+b2=c2

Student Materials

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

2012 MARS, Shell Center, University of Nottingham

S-7

Extension: Proving the Pythagorean Theorem using

Similar Triangles.
Max has started to prove the Pythagorean Theorem using similar triangles.

1. Explain why the three triangles are similar.

2. Try to complete Maxs proof. (Use grid paper if you need it.)

Student Materials

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

2012 MARS, Shell Center, University of Nottingham

S-8

a
Projector Resources

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

P-1

a
Projector Resources

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

P-2

b
a

a
Projector Resources

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

P-3

a
b

b
a

c
c

a
Projector Resources

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

P-4

a
b

b
a

c
c
c
c

a
Projector Resources

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

P-5

a
b

c
c
c

a
Projector Resources

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

P-6

a
b

c
c
c

a
Projector Resources

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

P-7

a
b

c
c
c

a
Projector Resources

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

P-8

b
b

a
Projector Resources

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

P-9

b
b

a
Projector Resources

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

P-10

a
Projector Resources

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

P-11

a
Projector Resources

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

P-12

Analyzing and Comparing

1. Describe what each student has done.
2. Will the approach lead to a proof of the theorem?
3. Explain how the work can be improved.
4. Compare the three solutions.
5. Whose solution method do you find most
convincing? Why?
6. Produce a complete correct solution using your
preferred method.
Projector Resources

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

P-13

Penelope s Method

!
Projector Resources

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

P-14

Nadia s Method

Projector Resources

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

P-15

Sophie s Method

!
Projector Resources

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

P-16

Proving the Pythagorean Theorem (revisited)

Projector Resources

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

P-17

Proving the Pythagorean Using Similar Triangles

!
Projector Resources

Proofs of the Pythagorean Theorem

P-18

Mathematics Assessment Project

CLASSROOM CHALLENGES

This lesson was designed and developed by the

Shell Center Team
at the
University of Nottingham
Malcolm Swan, Nichola Clarke, Clare Dawson, Sheila Evans
with
Hugh Burkhardt, Rita Crust, Andy Noyes, and Daniel Pead

It was refined on the basis of reports from teams of observers led by

David Foster, Mary Bouck, and Diane Schaefer
based on their observation of trials in US classrooms
along with comments from teachers and other users.

This project was conceived and directed for

MARS: Mathematics Assessment Resource Service
by
Alan Schoenfeld, Hugh Burkhardt, Daniel Pead, and Malcolm Swan
and based at the University of California, Berkeley

We are grateful to the many teachers, in the UK and the US, who trialed earlier versions
of these materials in their classrooms, to their students, and to
Judith Mills, Carol Hill, and Alvaro Villanueva who contributed to the design.
This development would not have been possible without the support of
Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation
We are particularly grateful to
Carina Wong, Melissa Chabran, and Jamie McKee
2012 MARS, Shell Center, University of Nottingham
This material may be reproduced and distributed, without modification, for non-commercial purposes,
under the Creative Commons License detailed at http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-nd/3.0/
All other rights reserved.
Please contact map.info@mathshell.org if this license does not meet your needs.