Night Vision Technology Seminar Report PDF

NIGHT VISION TECHNOLOGY

INTRODUCTION
Night vision technology, by definition, literally allows one to see in the dark.
Originally developed for military use, it has provided the United States with a strategic
military advantage, the value of which can be measured in lives. Federal and state agencies
now routinely utilize the technology for site security, surveillance as well as search and
rescue. Night vision equipment has evolved from bulky optical instruments in lightweight
goggles through the advancement of image intensification technology.
The first thing you probably think of when you see the words night vision is a spy
or action movie you've seen, in which someone straps on a pair of night-vision goggles to
find someone else in a dark building on a moonless night. And you may have wondered
"Do those things really work? Can you actually see in the dark?"
The answer is most definitely yes. With the proper night-vision equipment, you can
see a person standing over 200 yards (183 m) away on a moonless, cloudy night! Night
vision can work in two very different ways, depending on the technology used.
Image enhancement - This works by collecting the tiny amounts of light,

including the lower portion of the infrared light spectrum, that are present but may be
imperceptible to our eyes, and amplifying it to the point that we can easily observe
the image.
Thermal imaging - This technology operates by capturing the upper portion of the
infrared light spectrum, which is emitted as heat by objects instead of simply reflected
DEPT OF ECE MKITW,Rajampet
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as light. Hotter objects, such as warm bodies, emit more of this light than cooler
objects like trees or buildings. In this article, you will learn about the two major
night-vision technologies. We'll also discuss the various types of night-vision
equipment and applications. But first, let's talk about infrared light.
THE BASICS
In order to understand night vision, it is important to understand something about
light. The amount of energy in a light wave is related to its wavelength: Shorter
wavelengths have higher energy. Of visible light, violet has the most energy, and red has the
least. Just next to the visible light spectrum is the infrared spectrum.
Infrared light can be split into three categories:
Near-infrared (near-IR) - Closest to visible light, near-IR has wavelengths

that range from 0.7 to 1.3 microns, or 700 billionths to 1,300 billionths of a
meter.
Mid-infrared (mid-IR) - Mid-IR has wavelengths ranging from 1.3 to 3

microns. Both near-IR and mid-IR are used by a variety of electronic devices,
including remote controls.
Thermal-infrared (thermal-IR) - Occupying the largest part of the infrared

spectrum, thermal-IR has wavelengths ranging from 3 microns to over 30
microns. The key difference between thermal-IR and the other two is that
thermal-IR is emitted by
ATOMS
Atoms are constantly in motion. They continuously vibrate, move and rotate.
Even the atoms that make up the chairs that we sit in are moving around. Solids are
actually in motion! Atoms can be in different states of excitation. In other words, they
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can have different energies. If we apply a lot of energy to an atom, it can leave what is
called the ground-state energy level and move to an excited level. The level of
excitation depends on the amount of energy applied to the atom via heat, light or
electricity. An atom consists of a nucleus (containing the protons and neutrons) and an
electron cloud. Think of the electrons in this cloud as circling the nucleus in many
different orbits. Although more modern views of the atom do not depict discrete orbits
for the electrons, it can be useful to think of these orbits as the different energy levels of
the atom. In other words, if we apply some heat to an atom,
Types of Thermal Imaging Devices

Most thermal-imaging devices scan at a rate of 30 times per second. They can sense
temperatures ranging from -4 degrees Fahrenheit (-20 degrees Celsius) to 3,600 F (2,000
C), and can normally detect changes in temperature of about 0.4 F (0.2 C).
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Image Enhancement
Image-enhancement technology is what most people think of when you talk about night
vision. In fact, image-enhancement systems are normally called night-vision devices
(NVDs). NVDs rely on a special tube, called an image-intensifier tube, to collect and
amplify infrared and visible light.
The image-intensifier tube changes photons to electrons

and back again.
Here's how image enhancement works:
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A conventional lens, called the objective lens, captures ambient light and
some near-infrared light.
The gathered light is sent to the image-intensifier tube. In most NVDs, the
power supply for the image-intensifier tube receives power from two N-Cell
or two "AA" batteries. The tube outputs a high voltage, about 5,000 volts, to
the image-tube components.
The image-intensifier tube has a photocathode, which is used to convert the
photons of light energy into electrons.
As the electrons pass through the tube, similar electrons are released from
atoms in the tube, multiplying the original number of electrons by a factor of
thousands through the use of a microchannel plate (MCP) in the tube. An
MCP is a tiny glass disc that has millions of microscopic holes
GENERATIONS
Generation 0 - The earliest (1950's) night vision products were based on image
conversion, rather than intensification. They required a source of invisible infrared (IR)
light mounted on or near the device to illuminate the target area.
Generation 1 - The "starlight scopes" of the 1960's (Vietnam Era) have three image
intensifier tubes connected in a series. These systems are larger and heavier than Gen 2 and
Gen 3. The Gen 1 image is clear at the center but may be distorted around the edges. (Lowcost Gen 1 imports are often mislabeled as a higher generation.
Figure 1 illustrates first-generation night vision. [Not a great topic sentence but it does has
the advantage of calling attention to the figure.] Incoming light is collimated by fiber optic
plates before impacting a photocathode t which releases electrons, which in turn impact a
phosphor screen. The excited screen emits green light into a second fiber optic plate, and the
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process is repeated. The complete process is repeated three times providing an overall gain
of 10,000.
Generation 2 - The micro channel plate (MCP) electron multiplier prompted Gen 2
development in the 1970s. The "gain" provided by the MCP eliminated the need for backto-back tubes - thereby improving size and image quality. The MCP enabled development
of hand held and helmet mounted goggles.
Second-generation image intensification significantly increased gain and
resolution by employing a microchannel plate. Figure 2 depicts the basic configuration.
[These two sentences could have been combined: "Figure2 depicts how second-generation
image ... plate."] The microchannel plate is composed of several million microscopic
hollow glass channels fused into a disk. Each channel, approximately 0.0125 mm in
diameter, is coated with a special semiconductor which easily liberates electrons. A single
electron entering a channel initiates an avalanche process of secondary emission, under
influence of an applied voltage, freeing hundreds of electrons. These electrons, effectively
collimated by the channel, increase the resolution of the device. With additional electron
optics, details as fine as 0.025 mm can be realized (half the diameter of a human hair).
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Generation 3 - Two major advancements characterized development of Gen 3 in the late

1970s and early 1980s: the gallium arsenide (GaAs) photocathode and the ion-barrier film
on the MCP. The GaAs photocathode enabled detection of objects at greater distances under
much darker conditions. The ion-barrier film increased the operational life of the tube from
2000 hours (Gen 2) to 10,000 (Gen 3), as demonstrated by actual testing and not
extrapolation.
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Generation 4 - for a good explanation of this commonly misunderstood advancement in

night vision technology.
When discussing night vision technology, you also may hear the term "Omnibus" or
"OMNI". The U.S. Army procures night vision devices through multi-year/multi-product
contracts referred to as "Omnibus" - abbreviated as "OMNI". For each successive OMNI
contract, ITT has provided Gen 3 devices with increasingly higher performance. ( See range
detection chart directly below) Therefore, Gen 3 devices may be further defined as OMNI
3, 4, 5, etc. Current Omnibus contract as of 2006 is OMNI 7.
If you're using night vision to find a lost person in the woods, to locate boats or buoys on
the water, or to stargaze into the wilderness, you need Generation 3 because it creates the
best images when there is very little ambient light. Generation 2 may be the choice in
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situations with higher levels of ambient light.

KEY GENERATION DEVELOPMENTS:
GENERATION
(Developed
in
1960's); o Vacuum Tube Technology

o Full Moon Operation o
Amplification: 1,000
o Operating Life: 2,000 Hours
GENERATION 2 (Developed in 1970's);
o
First Micro channel Plate (MCP) Application
One-Quarter Moon Operation
Operating Life: 2,500 Hours
GENERATION 2+ (1970s)
o
Development increased image tube bias voltage to improve gain.
Additionally, a glass faceplate was added to improve resolution.
GENERATION 3 (Developed in 1990's);
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Improved MCP & Photocathode
Starlight Operation
Operating Life: 10,000 Hour
GENERATION 3 Enhanced (2000's);

o
Improvements in the photocathode and MCP resulted in increased gain

and resolution.
Characteristics of Night Vision

Using intensified night vision is different from using regular binoculars and/or your own
eyes. Below are some of the aspects of night vision that you should be aware of when you
are using an image intensified night vision system.
Textures, Light and Dark
Objects that appear light during the day but have a dull surface may appear darker,
through the night vision unit, than objects that are dark during the day but have a highly
reflective surface. For example, a shinny dark colored jacket may appear brighter than a
light colored jacket with a dull surface.
Depth Perception
Night vision does not present normal depth perception.
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Fog and Rain

Night vision is very responsive to reflective ambient light; therefore, the light reflecting
off of fog or heavy rain causes much more light to go toward the night vision unit and
may degrade its performance.
Honeycomb
This is a faint hexagonal pattern which is the result of the manufacturing process.
Black Spots
A few black spots throughout the image area are also inherent characteristics of all night
vision technology. These spots will remain constant and should not increase in size or
number. See example below of an image with black spots.
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* Do not be concerned if you see this feature-it is an inherent characteristic found in light
amplification night vision systems that incorporate a microchannel plate in the intensifier.
Equipment and Applications

Night-vision equipment can be split into three broad categories:
Scopes - Normally handheld or mounted on a weapon, scopes are monocular
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(one eye-piece). Since scopes are handheld, not worn like goggles, they are good
for when you want to get a better look at a specific object and then return to
normal viewing conditions.
Goggles - While goggles can be handheld, they are most often worn on the
head. Goggles are binocular (two eye-pieces) and may have a single lens or
stereo lens, depending on the model. Goggles are excellent for constant
viewing, such as moving around in a dark building.
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Cameras - Cameras with night-vision technology can send the image to a

monitor for display or to a VCR for recording. When night-vision capability is
desired in a permanent location, such as on a building or as part of the equipment
in a helicopter, cameras are used. Many of the newer camcorders have night
vision built right in.
Applications
Common
applications
for
night
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vision include:
Military
Law enforcement
Hunting
Wildlife observation
Surveillance
Security
Navigation
Hidden-object detection
Entertainment
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INVADER
night-vision
goggles.
This soldier is using DARK
The original purpose of night vision was to locate
enemy targets at night. It is still used extensively by the military for that purpose, as
well as for navigation, surveillance and targeting. Police and security often use both
thermal-
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imaging and image-enhancement technology, particularly for surveillance. Hunters and

nature enthusiasts use NVDs to maneuver through the woods at night.
Detectives and private investigators use night vision to watch people they are assigned to
track. Many businesses have permanently-mounted cameras equipped with night vision to
monitor the surroundings.
A really amazing ability of thermal imaging is that it reveals whether an area has been
disturbed -- it can show that the ground has been dug up to bury something, even if there is
no obvious sign to the naked eye. Law enforcement has used this to discover items that have
been hidden by criminals, including money, drugs and bodies. Also, recent changes to areas
such as walls can be seen using thermal imaging, which has provided important clues in
several cases.
Many people are beginning to discover the unique world that can be found after darkness
falls. If you're out camping or hunting a lot, chances are that night-vision devices can be
useful to you -- just be sure to get the right type for your needs.
Biological Night Vision

In biological night vision, molecules of rhodopsin in the rods of the eye undergo a change
in shape as light is absorbed by them. The peak rhodopsin build-up time for optimal night
vision in humans is 30 minutes, but most of the adaptation occurs within the first five or
ten minutes in the dark. Rhodopsin in the human rods is insensitive to the longer red
wavelengths of light, so many people use red light to preserve night vision as it will not
deplete the eye's rhodopsin stores in the rods and instead is viewed by the cones.
Some animals, such as cats, dogs, and deer, have a structure called tapetum lucidum in
the back of the eye that reflects light back towards the retina, increasing the amount of
light it captures. In humans, only 10% of the light that enters the eye falls on
photosensitive parts of the retina. Their ability to see in low light levels may be similar to
what humans see when using first or perhaps second generation image intensifiers.
Early Attempts at Night Vision Technology
Military tacticians throughout history have seen the advantages of being able to maneuver
effectively under the cover of darkness. Historically, maneuvering large armies at night
carried such risks that it was rarely attempted.
During WW II, the United States, Britain, and Germany worked to develop rudimentary
night vision technology. For example, a useful infrared sniper scope that used near-infrared
cathodes coupled to visible phosphors to provide a near-infrared image converter was
fielded. A small number, perhaps 300 Sniperscopes, were shipped to the Pacific sometime in
1945, but received very little use. Their range was less than 100 yards, and they were used
mainly for perimeter defense. However this device had several disadvantages. The infrared
sniper scope required an active IR searchlight that was so large it had to be mounted on a
flatbed truck. This active IR searchlight could be detected by any enemy soldier equipped
with similar equipment. The rifle-mounted scope also required cumbersome batteries and
provided limited range.
However, the infrared sniper scope showed that night vision technology was on the
horizon. Military leaders immediately saw many uses for this technology beyond sniping at
the enemy under cover of darkness. An army equipped with night vision goggles,
helmets, and weapons sights would be able to operate 24 hours a day. The Army Corps of
Engineers, for example, would be able to build bridges and repair roads at night
providing a measure of safety from airborne attack. The next challenge in night vision
technology would be the development of passive systems that did not require IR
searchlights that might give away a soldier's position to the enemy.
Application of Night Vision:Automatic Brightness Control (ABC)

An electronic feature that automatically reduces voltages to the microchannel plate to keep
the image intensifier's brightness within optimal limits and protect the tube. The effect of
this can be seen when rapidly changing from low-light to high-light conditions; the image
gets brighter and then, after a momentary delay, suddenly dims to a constant level.
Auto-Gated Power Supply
When the power supply is "auto-gated," it means the system is turning itself on and off at a
very rapid rate. This, combined with a thin film attached to the microchannel plate (an ion
barrier) reduces blooming. While "blooming" can be noticeably less on systems with a thin
film layer, systems with thicker film layers can be perfectly acceptable depending on the
end user's application. Deciding which night vision goggle is better should not be based
solely on blooming.
Black Spots
These are common blemishes in the image intensifier of the NVD or can be dirt or debris
between the lenses of the NVG. Black spots that are in the image intensifier do not affect
the performance or reliability of a night vision device and are inherent in the manufacturing
processes. Every night vision image intensifier tube is different. They are like diamonds.
See image to the right.
Binocular
Viewing a single image source with both eyes (example: watching a television set).
Binocular
Viewing a scene through two channels; i.e. one channel per eye.
Blooming
Loss of the entire night vision image, parts of it, or small parts of it, due to intensifier tube
overloading by a bright light source. Also, known as a "halo" effect, when the viewer sees a
"halo" effect around visible light sources. When such a bright light source comes into the
night vision device's view, the entire night vision scene, or parts of it, become much
brighter, "whiting out" objects within the field of view. Blooming is common in Generation
0 and 1 devices. The lights in the image to the right would be considered to be "blooming".
Bright-Source Protection (BSP) - High-Light Cut-Off
An electronic function that reduces the voltage to the photocathode when the night vision
device is exposed to bright light sources such as room lights or car lights. BSP protects the
image tube from damage and enhances its life; however, it also has the effect of lowering
resolution when functioning.
Boresighting
The alignment of a weapon aiming device to the bore of the weapon. See also Zeroing.
C-Mount
A standard still and video camera lens thread size for mounting to the body of a camera.
Usually 1/2" or 3/4" in diameter.
COMSPEC (Commercial Specification)
A term used to describe image tube quality, testing and inspection done by the original
equipment manufacturer (OEM).
Chicken Wire
An irregular pattern of dark thin lines in the field of view either throughout the image area
or in parts of the image area. Under the worst-case condition, these lines wwill form
hexagonal or square wave-shape lines.
Daylight Lens Cover
Usually made of soft plastic or rubber with a pinhole that allows a small amount of light
to enter the objective lens of a night vision device. This should be used for training
purposes only, and is not recommended for an extended period of time.
Daylight Training Filter
A glass filter assembly designed to fit over the objective lens of a night vision device. The
filter reduces light input to a safe (night-time) level, allowing safe extended daytime use of
the night vision device.
Diopter
The unit of measure used to define eye correction or the refractive power of a lens.
Usually, adjustments to an optical eyepiece accomodate for differences in individual
eyesight. Most ITT systems provide a +2 to -6 diopter range.
Distortion
There are two types of distortion found in night vision systems. One type is caused by the
design of the optics, or image intensifier tube, and is classical optical distortion. The other
type is associated with manufacturing flaws in the fiber optics used in the image intensifier
tube.
Classical Optical Distortion:
Classical optical distortion occurs when the design of the optics or image intensifier
tube causes straight lines at the edge of the field of view to curve inward or outward.
This curving of straight lines at the edge will cause a square grid pattern to start to look
like a pincushion or barrel. This distortion is the same for all systems with the same
model number. Good optical design normally makes this distortion so low that the
typical user will not see the curving of the lines.
Fiber Optics Manufacturing Distortions:
Two types of fiber optics distortions are most significant to night vision devices: Sdistortion and shear distortion:
o S-Distortion: Results from the twisting operation in manufacturing fiberoptic inverters. Usually S-distortion is very small and is difficult to detect
with the unaided eye.
o
Shear Distortion: Can occur in any image tube that use fiber-optic bundles
for the phosphor screen. It appears as a cleavage or dislocation in a straight
line viewed in the image area, as though the line was "sheared".
Equivalent Background Illumination (EBI)

This is the amount of light you see through a night vision device when an image tube is
turned on but no light is on the photocathode. EBI is affected by temperature; the warmer
the night vision device, the brighter the background illumination. EBI is measured in
lumens per square centimeter (lm/cm2). The lower the value the better. The EBI level
determines the lowest light level at which an image can be detected. Below this light level,
objects will be masked by the EBI.
Emission Point
A steady or fluctuating pinpoint of bright light in the image area that does not go away when
all light is blocked from the objective lens. The position of an emission point within the
field of view will not move. If an emission point disappears or is only faintly visible when
viewing under brighter nighttime conditions, it is not indicative of a problem. If the
emission point remains bright under all lighting conditions, the system needs to be repaired.
Do not confuse an emission point with a point of light source in the scene being viewed.
Eye Relief
The distance a person's eyes must be from the last element of an eyepiece in order to
achieve the optimal image area.
Field-of-View
The diameter of the imaged area when viewed through an optic
Figure of Merit (FOM)
Image Intensification tube specification designation, calculated on line pair per mm x
signal to noise.
Fixed-Pattern Noise (FPN)
A faint hexagonal (honeycomb) pattern throughout the image area that most often occurs
under high-light conditions. This pattern is inherent in the structure of the microchannel
plate and can be seen in virtually all Gen 2 and Gen 3 systems if the light level is high
enough.
Footlambert (fL)
a unit of brightness equal to one footcandle at a distance of one foot.
Gain
Also called brightness gain or luminance gain. This is the number of times a night vision
device amplifies light input. It is usually measured as tube gain and system gain. Tube gain
is measured as teh light output (in fL) divided by the light input (in fc). This figure is
usually expressed in values of tens of thousands. If tube gain is pushed too high, the tube
will be "noiser" and the signal-to-noise ration many go down. U.S. military Gen 3 image
tubes operate at gains of between 20,000 and 45,000. On the other hand, system gain is
measured as teh light output (fL) divided by the light input (also fL) and is what the user
actually sees. System gain is usually seen in the thousands. U.S. military systems operate at
2,000 to 3,000. In any night vision system, the tube gain is reduced by the system's lenses
and is affected by the quality of the optics or any filters. Therefore, system gain is a more
important measurement to the user.
Gallium Arsenide (GaAs)
The semiconductor material used in manufacturing the Gen 3 photocathode. GaAs
photocathodes have a very high photosensitivity in the spectral region of about 450 to
950 nanometers (visible and near-infrared region).
Highlight Shutoff
An image intensifier protection feature incorporating a sensor, microprocessor and circuit
breaker. This feature will turn the system off during periods of extreme bright light
conditions.
Interpupillary Adjustment
The distance between the user's eyes (pupils) and the adjustment of binocular optics to
adjust for differences in individuals. Improperly adjusted binoculars will display a scene
that appears egg-shaped or as a reclining figure-8.
Interpupillary Distance
The distance between the user's pupils (eyeball centres). The 95th percentile of US
military personnel falls within the 55 to 72mm range of IPD.
IR Illuminator
Many night vision devices incorporate a built-in infrared (IR) diode that emits invisible
light or the illuminator can be mounted on to it as a separate component. IR light cannot
be seen by the unaided eye; therefore, a night vision device is necessary to see this light.
IR Illuminators provide supplemental infrared illumination of an appropriate wavelength,
typically in a range of wavelengths (e.g. 730nm, 830nm, 920nm), and eliminate the
variability of available ambient light, but also allow the observer to illuminate only specific
areas of interest while eliminating shadows and enhancing image contrast.
IR Laser
High-power devices providing long-range illumination capability. Ranges of several
thousand meters are common. Most are not eye-safe and are restricted in use. Each IR
laser should be marked with a warning label like the one shown here. Consult FDA CFR
Title 21 for specific details and restrictions.
I2 (Image Intensification) Collects and intensifies the available light in the visible and
near-infrared spectrum. Offers a clear, distinguishable image under low-light conditions.
IR (Infrared) Area outside the visible spectrum that cannot be seen by the human eye
(between 700 nanometers and 1 millimeter). The visible spectrum is between 400 and
700 nanometers.
Ip/mm (Line Pairs per Millimeter) Units used to measure image intensifier resolution.
Usually determined from a 1951 U.S. Air Force Resolving Power Test Target. The target is a
series of different-sized patterns composed of three horizontal and three vertical lines. A user
must be able to distinguish all the horizontal and vertical lines and the spaces between them.
Typically, the higher the line pair, the better the image resolution. Generation 3 tubes
generally have a range of 64 - 72 lp/mm, although line pair measurement does not indicate
the generation of the tube. Some Generation 2+ tubes measure 28-38 lp/mm, while a
Generation 1+ tube may have measure at 40 lp/mm.
Lumen: Denotes the photons perceptible by the human eye in one second.
Monocular
A singlechannel op-tical device. The American Eagle in this catalogue is an example of a
monocular
Nato-Stanag
Term for the North Atlantic Treaty Organization STANdard AGreement. This can be
described as an international MILSPEC
mA/W (Milliamps per Watt):
The measure of electrical current (mA) producted by a photocathode when exposed to a
specified wavelength of light at a given radiant power (watt).
MCP (Microchannel Plate):
A metal-coated glass disk that mulitplies the electrons produced by the photocathode. An
MCP is found only in Gen 2 or Gen 3 systems. MCPs eliminate the distortion characteristic
of Gen 0 and Gen 1 systems. The number of holes (channels) in an MCP is a major factor
in determining resolution. ITT Industries' MCPs have 10.6 million holes or channels
compared to the previous standard of 3.14 million.
Near-Infrared:
The shortest wavelengths of the infrared region, nominally 750 to 2,500 nanometers.
Also see IR (infrared).
Photocathode:
The input surface of an image intensifier tube that absorbs light energy (photons) and in
turn releases electrical energy (electrons) in the form of an image. The type of material
used is a distinguishing characteristic of the different generations.
Photocathode Sensitivity:
Photocathode sensitivity is a measure of how well the image intensifier tube converts light
into an electronic signal so it can be amplified. The measureing units of photocathode
sensitivity are micro-amps/lumen (A/lm) or microamperes per lumen. This criterion
specifies the number of electrons released by the Photocathode (PC). PC response is always
measured in isolation with no amplification stage or ion barrier (film). Therefore, tube data
sheets (which always carry this raw figure) do not reflect the fact that over 50% of those
electrons are lost in the ion barrier. While for most latest 3rd generation image intensifiers
the photoresponse is in the 1800 A/lm (2000 A/lm for the latest Omni VI Pinnacle
tubes), the actual number is more like 900 A/lm. The 4th generation DOES NOT use ion
barrier and while its raw photoresponse is the same as 3rd, the actual number is actually
100% higher.
Resolution
The ability of an image intensifier or night vision system to distinguish between objects
close together. Image intensifier resolution is measured in line pairs per millimetre (lp/mm)
while system resolution is measured in cycles per miliradian. For any particular night
vision system, the image intensifier resolution will remain constant while the system
resolution can be affected by altering the objective or eyepiece optics by adding
magnification or relay lenses. Often the resolution in the same night vision device is very
different when measured at the centre of the image and at the periphery of the image.
This is especially important for devices selected for photograph or video where the entire
image resolution is important. Measured in line pairs per millimetre (lp/mm).
Reticle (Reticle Pattern)
An adjustable aiming point or pattern (i.e. crosshair) located within an optical weapon
sight
Signal-to-Noise Ratio (SNR)
A measure of the light signal reaching the eye divided by the perceived noise as seen by the
eye. A tube's SNR determines the low-light-resolution of the image tube; therefore, the
higher the SNR, the better the ability of the tube to resolve objects with good contrast under
low-light conditions. Because SNR is directly related to the photocathode's sensitivity and
also accounts for phosphor efficiency and MCP operating voltage, it is the best single
indicator of an image intensifier's performance
Scintillation
Also known as electronic noise. A faint, random, sparkling effect throughout the image
area. Scintillation is a normal characteristic of microchannel plate image intensifiers and is
more pronounced under low-light-level conditions
Screen
The image tube output that produces the viewable image. Phosphor (P) is used on the
inside surface of the screen to produce the glow, thus producing the picture. Different
phosphors are used in image intensifier tubes, depending on manufacturer and tube
generation. P-20 phosphor is used in the systems offered in this catalogue
Stereoscopic Night Vision

When two views or photographs are taken through one device. One view/photograph
represents the left eye, and the other the right eye. When the two photographs are viewed in
a stereoscopic apparatus, they combine to create a single image with depth and relief.
Sometimes this gives two perspectives. However, it is ususally not an issue because the
object of focus is far enough away for the perspectives to blend into one.
System Gain
Equal to tube gain minus losses induced by system components such as lenses, beam
splitters and filters.
Variable Gain Control
Allows the user to manually adjust the gain control ( basically like a dim control ) in
varying light conditions. This feature sets the PVS-14 apart from other popular
monoculars that do not offer this feature.
Weaver Mounting System
A US weapon mounting system used for attaching sighting devices to weapons. A
Weaver Rail is a weapon-unique notched metal rail designed to receive a mating throwlever or Weaver Squeezer attached to the sighting device
Zeroing
A method of boresighting an aiming device to a weapon and adjusting to compensate for
projectile characteristics at known distances.
Weapons Suppression in Night Operations
Much has been written about the need for our army to be able to operate 24 hours a day. Of
the key elements being studied, friend or foe identification and weapons signature reduction
should be given serious thought. The most reliable means of identifying our own forces at
night is to have active IR emitters or reflective IR patches placed on or near our personnel
and equipment. But what of the enemy identifying us? When we fire our weapons at night,
the muzzle flash gives our position away at ranges well beyond 1000 metres.
Some thought has to be given to the weapons signature our small arms produce and how to
mask it. The fitting of suppressors to our small arms would be the answer. The benefits
would be numerous; firstly, the flash effect produced at the muzzle is reduced to the point
where it would not be observable either with the naked eye or with night vision much past
100 metres. (5.56) This would allow the firer to engage targets and remain undetected at
much closer distances than are currently possible.
Another benefit is that the washout that occurs in night vision sights or goggles when a
weapon is fired would no longer occur. This allows the firer to engage targets rapidly and
safely, without having to wait for the corona effect to disappear or for the sight to come
on-line again after being blacked out.
When firing within buildings, muzzle flash and noise, especially at night, have a
disorienting effect on not only the firer but on his or her teammates as well. If we were to
equip our small arms fleet with suppressors, the ear splitting blast and blinding flash from a
C9,C7, or GPMG fired within a building would virtually disappear. An enemy unequipped
with suppressors would be very easy to ID and at a distinct disadvantage.
For snipers in particular, the muzzle blast produced by our Tac .50 or any rifle equipped
with a muzzle brake instantly reveals the position of the weapon to even the most casual
observer. In dry conditions in particular, the cloud of dust produced by the diffusion of
gasses at the muzzle not only pinpoints where the shot came from, but it also makes the
spotters job nigh on impossible, as he spits debris from his mouth and tries to clear his
eyes. There is another danger as well, anyone in the vicinity of the weapon is actually
receiving more energy and noise than if they were near a weapon that had no muzzle
brake.
NIGHT OPERATIONS
OUT OF THE DARK:
NIGHT VISION EQUIPMENT FOR THE INFANTRY
The Reality
The historically based and hard-earned reputation of Canadian infantrymen being
aggressive and effective night fighters is currently being put into question through a
reluctance by soldiers to fully employ currently issued night vision devices (NVDs)
coupled with an inadequate allotment of the required equipment. Unlike the past where
boldness, stamina and skills could win the day or night, modern night operations require upto-date equipment and procedures. Unfortunately, the equipment acquisition of the
Canadian Infantry Corps has not kept pace with the advances in modern technology. The
situation has evolved to a point where the dismounted Canadian soldier with limited Gen-2
and NVDs no longer possesses the capability to effectively fight at night; this shortfall is
especially clear when comparing our dismounted infantrys ability to that our allies and
potential adversaries.
More bluntly stated, we will not be able to see the enemy, so we will not be able to kill
him. More critically though, our current disadvantage will mean that our soldiers will be
unnecessarily put at risk by allowing them to be seen in situations where they cannot.
The Analysis
It will be useful to address this problem by examining the three following combat
functions: manoeuvre, fire power and command. All three of these are affected by the
shortfalls that exist in our NVD stores. It is important to keep in mind, however, that more
equipment alone is not the solution to all of our problems. The correct attitude of
individual soldiers about the employment of NVDs must also be guaranteed; it is
unacceptable to see night vision goggles (NVGs) dangling around soldiers necks
instead of being mounted to a head harness or helmet. The optimistic news is that one
estimate shows an entire battalion could be outfitted with the ability to "own the night"
for less than two million dollars (roughly the price of one LAV-3).
The Prescription
1. Manoeuvre
In order for infantry sub-units to move and fight at night, every soldier requires some type
of NVD. These devices allow the soldier to engage targets at the maximum range of his
personal weapon and manoeuvre across the battlefield with good situational awareness.
The infantry needs to replace all of their current Gen-2 and older Gen-3 NVDs with the
far superior Gen-3 Omni-5 models. The authors suggest that the minimum number required
by dismounted infantry sections is one set of NVGs per fire team. With these, the sect
will be able to move at night as it does in the day. However, as noted earlier, in order to
take full advantage of the technology, leaders and soldiers must wear them at all times.
While the initial training will be difficult and resisted by some soldiers, the benefits will
soon become clear to leaders.
NVGs should have the ability to be mounted to the helmet and flip up in the same manner
as an aviators or the US Army's PVS-7Ds. The LAV crew comd requires NVGs in
addition to the gunners thermal sight to enable him to operate with his head outside of the
turret. This would increase his peripheral vision capabilities and assist him in maintaining
situational awareness; both of these would be lost if he remained inside the turret and
focused on the thermal sight.
A possible alternative to the AN/PVS-7D is the AN/PVS-14. This monoculars flexibility
is unsurpassed in that it can be used as a hand-held, helmet-mounted or weapon-mounted
NVD. It is currently being issued to US Ranger battalions. Its great advantage is that in
helmet-mounted mode it leaves one eye unrestricted to allow for increased situational
awareness.
An added piece of available equipment to be considered for limited purchase is the afocal
magnifier lens that can be attached to PVS-7D Gen-3 Omni-5 NVGs or PVS-14. It would
be useful for soldiers who require long-range observation capabilities (such as pl comds)
who do not necessarily require a weapon sight. It is especially worthy of consideration
because of its relative low procurement cost.
With a PVS-7D (NVG) and one of these afocal lenses, the user gains dual NVD capability;
he can move at night using the NVGs and then attach the afocal lens (to be used like
conventional hand-held binoculars) upon reaching a fixed position. US sniper teams have
found this combination indispensable. Such a pairing would also be useful for
OPs
2. Firepower
Seeing is not enough; soldiers must also be able to hit and kill a target. Canadian infantry
units do not have the ability to effectively engage targets at night without illumination. The
only way to gain this capability is by using NVGs coupled with an IR pointing device
(such as the PAQ-4C) or by using a weapon night sight such as the British-made Kite sight.
The PAQ-4C (called "Pack 4" by US forces) is the latest and improved version of the
PAQ-4B, and currently in use by Canadians deployed with KFOR/SFOR. The AN/PAQ-4C
is an infared weapon aiming light that allows the soldier to aim his weapon while still using
NVGs. The IR light that is projected from this device is invisible to the naked eye;
however, the light can easily be seen when using image intensification devices. The light
provides a rapid, accurate aiming point from which to engage targets at night.
With their longer ranges, the C-9 LMG and C-6 GPMG require a night sight with a
corresponding range capability. One option is to employ a night sight such as the Gen-3
Kite or Maxikite sight (which is also being employed by Canadian Forces in KFOR/SFOR).
This will allow the C-9 and C-6 gunners to engage targets out to 600m. With the Kite sight
the sect would also gain greater depth in their ability to observe of the battlefield going
beyond the range of their NVGs.
FIBUA and certain other operations require special considerations and equipment. For a
number of years special and police forces have employed weapon-mounted white light
devices in FIBUA-type operations. In addition to allowing rapid target acquisition, white
light has the advantage of blinding image intensification equipment. It can also temporarily
dazzle and disorient an enemy with unprotected eyesight even in daylight or lighted
rooms. SureFire lights In addition to optical NVDs there are pyrotechnic IR illumination
devices. These include Para flares, illumination rounds, pen flares, and trip flares. To the
naked eye, these have the same brightness as a burning match; however, through NVDs,
they "light up the sky." The US Army employs them and we should too.
All of these equipment choices beg the question "what is the right mix?" The answer is not
universal and depends on the operation at hand. However, it is suggested that the scale of
issue for the C-9 and C-6 should be Gen-3 Kite/Maxikite sights. Riflemen should be
equipped with NVGs and PAQ-4Cs. When it is desirable to mount the Kite sights on the
C-7s for pinpoint accuracy, the C-9 gunners would utilize the NVG and PAQ-4C
combination (this is not necessarily a compromise for the latter since it would reduce
washout from muzzle flash). Thus, comds would allot night vision equipment based on the
tasks for his sub-unit. It is clear that other forces similar in size and composition to our,
reflect this same concern for adequate NVDs.
3. Command and Control
Commanding dismounted infantry during normal daylight operations is an intricate task; to
attempt the same during reduced visibility operations is infinitely more challenging. Even
after NVDs are obtained, there must be a means for leaders to guarantee control and thus
reduce the risk of fratricide. This risk is an important consideration not only for
sub-unit fire, but also for supporting fire, such as provided by attack helicopters and close
air support.
The most important infantry night command aid is the Ground Commander's Pointer
(GCP). This device is an IR laser with a range of 8 km+. It allows comds to direct soldiers
equipped with NVDs by indicating both targets and boundaries. For example, a pl comd
could indicate trenches to his sect comds and the OC, subsequently giving his arcs for the
consolidation. Recce Pl could then mark depth objectives for attack helicopters.
The GCP-1 comes in two versions: the GCP-1/2A (50mW) and the longer range GCP1/2B (100mW). The GCP-1s are hand held, and the GCP-2s can be mounted on a
weapon. If the GCP-2A/B are employed, the PAQ-4C is not required.
Soldiers and comds must have a means to establish positive combat identification at night in
order to prevent fratricide; "Warrior Glotape" is a very inexpensive solution. To the naked
eye, it appears as black duct tape in both finish and texture. When illuminated by normal
visible light it exhibits no special reflective characteristics. However, when illuminated by
an IR source (for example, GCPs, PAQ-4Cs, or LAV-3 IR spotlights)
the tape glows brightly. "Warrior Glotape" could be placed on the back of a soldiers
helmet and on the forestock of his weapon. An obvious criticism of this system is that NVD
equipped enemy forces would also see our forces during IR illumination. This is true;
however, illumination by comds would take place only seconds before engagement as a
final confirmation of identity. Thus, the safeguard against fratricide far outweighs the risk of
detection.
The Phoenix IR beacon is a longer-range device that should be used in addition to glow
tape. The IR beacon - when activated - emits a strobe, which can only be detected by
NVDs. The programmable nature of this device means it lends itself to marking
different friendly locations during the conduct of patrols, link up operations, and other
night operations. It can be also be used to mark vehicles, routes, attack positions, rolling
replenishments, and landing zones.
The problem of control and identification remains during the use of thermal sights, so an
item to meet this requirement needs investigation. It must be remembered that thermal
sights prevent one from seeing visible white light or IR light sources, such as chem lights.
Thermal panel markers are a useful and cost-effective solution. They will assist in the
marking of a variety of operationally significant locations (such as identifying obstacle
breach sites for LAV-3 drivers using thermal viewers) and help to prevent fratricide. The
Thermal Identification Panel (TIP - manufactured by NVEC) is a thermal reflective marker
designed for use with thermal sights and viewers. TIPs work by showing the contrast
between their cold spots and the warmer background temperature.
DEVELOPMENT OF A NIGHT VISION DEVICE

1. INTRODUCTION
1.1Statement of the problem
The use of night vision devices (NVDs), including image intensification (I2) and thermal
devices, in a tactical environment has the potential for enhancing driving operations at
night by allowing increased mobility and safer operations.
However, with this increased capability has come the requirement to manage risks and
provide suitable training. A review of accidents involving Army drivers using I2 devices
and the results of experiments conducted by the military suggest that problems experienced
by drivers with NVDs can be largely attributed to a limited understanding of the NVD
capabilities and limitations and to perceptual problems.1
2. OBJECTIVES
The overall SBIR project objective is to develop a low cost, effective PC-based training aid
for training drivers of wheeled and tracked vehicles to drive safely and effectively with I2
devices. During Phase I we explored concepts and design possibilities, developed concepts
for each of the relevant design possibilities, and assessed the feasibility for each concept.
We also developed. a Concept Development Tool containing four sample lessons on CDROM. Furthermore, we validated the need for and the technical feasibility of an NDTA and
identified a preliminary set of training requirements (what knowledge and skills need to be
trained) and NDTA functional requirements (what the training aid should be able to do).1,5
We performed the work reported in this paper during the first year of the two-year Phase II
SBIR effort. The objectives of Phase II are (1) to validate the functional and training
requirements identified in Phase I, (2) to develop a fully functional prototype NDTA, and
(3) to assess NDTA user acceptability. In this paper, we provide an interim summary of our
work during the first year of the Phase II effort to include validating the requirements,
developing instructional materials, and developing techniques to deliver the instruction in a
multimedia, interactive PC environment. In addition, we discuss issues and lessons learned
for training NVD driving knowledge and skills in a PC
environment and the potential for extending the NDTA to driver training with thermal
NVDs. The assessment of NDTA user acceptability will be performed during the second
contract year.
FRATRICIDE
Sitrep
The battle group was put on the highest alert status, in anticipation of Serb retaliation for
the NATO air strikes in another sector. As a precaution, the CO moved his TUAs (TOW
Under Armour APCs) to support his companies with either their C-6 MG or the deadly
TOW 2A missiles.
Sgt Bloggins was waiting in his TUA, Call Sign 74. Although recently posted in to the
platoon as a section commander, he was not qualified advanced TOW. He had once spent
three years in the anti armour platoon as driver and gunner, but that was before the thermal
sight and upgrade to TUA. His section had only two weeks of training on the TUA before
deploying.
He received his orders. OP C-29 was under fire, and he was to move to position 102.
They pulled off the main road and he ordered the driver to kill the lights as they moved
up the winding track. "Fuck, it's dark," he told his driver. Bloggins had been here once
before, and that was a month ago in the daytime.
The OP reported that they could hear the Serbs moving up tracked vehicles. Suddenly the
OP was receiving fire from a M-80. Bloggins' gunner was ready. As soon as the TUA
stopped the gunner knew he had to be ready to fire, showing those Serbs that we couldn't
be pushed around. He just finished the TOW course and was top tracker on the TVIGS
(TOW Video Interactive Gunnery Simulator), and PGS (Precision Gunnery Simulator).
Unfortunately the gunner had fired only one live missile during his course, and that was by
day against a stationary target.
The TUA came to a halt. On his command net, Bloggins received orders to engage any
hostile force attacking the OP. This must be it, Bloggins thought, and ordered the gunner to
search for targets - no time to align that CCTAS (Crew Commander's Target Acquisition
System) device to Grid North and besides he wasn't sure how to do it. The gunner, using
the thermal sight, quickly found a hot spot on wide field of view, and
quickly changed the sight to full 12 power magnification. "Target!" he yelled to Sgt
Bloggins. He didn't know what it was, but he was never any good at that AFV stuff.
Bloggins gave the order to fire. The missile roared away. The gunner maintained the 5
second track to the target 1000 metres away, then armed the other missile as he looked
for a new target.
"Holly Fuck", the MCpl in 62A yelled. Having just finished his advanced recce course and
after spending hours on the Target Identification Recognition Training System (TIRTS)
mastering both thermal and optical recognition, he knew a TUA had just hit Call Sign 62's
M-113 with a missile. He called 60 to report the incident, but before they could figure out
what to do another missile slammed into the side of his APC. The MCpl died within a
second....
Later on at the Board of Inquiry into the fratricide deaths of five soldiers it was found that
poor navigation, the lack of rehearsals by day and night to position 102, the lack of arcs of
fire for the gunner, the lack of effective thermal AFV recognition training, and the absence
of any SOPs to deal with fratricide incidents led to the deplorable events that took place.
Aim
The aim of this article is to bring to light the very serious problem of units being engaged
by friendly fire which is commonly known as "FRATRICIDE". Fratricide has been a
problem throughout warfare but the Gulf War brought to light some serious problems to
the high technology battle field regarding the thermal imagery sight during reduced
visibility operations. War Fratricide Casualties UK Gulf War 9 killed, 16 wounded US
Gulf War 24 killed, 57 wounded
During Operation Desert Storm, direct fire vehicular engagements caused 12 of the 15
U.S. Army friendly fire incidents. Of these 12, all but one occurred at night, 10 of these
happened within 1500m. Commanders at all levels must make an assessment of the risk
that an operation could produce a fratricide incident, and then plan and train to prevent it.
The Problems We Face and The Solutions We Can Implement
Although the US Army has been investing heavily in both equipment and training to
prevent fratricide, there seems to be little, or no doctrinal thought on this matter within the
Canadian Army. The following observations and solutions are the first steps we must take
in order to prevent fratricide within our Army, both in peacekeeping and war.
Observation
Thermal Recognition Training.
During the Gulf War, many fratricide incidents were avoided because crews were able
identify a target as friendly even though they were told from higher that it was enemy. In
Canada, with the exception of ADATS gunners who use the Target Identification
Recognition Training System (TIRTS), there is no comprehensive thermal recognition
training available for soldiers who are required to use thermal imagery devices.
Recommendation
Thermal Recognition Training. While training standards in thermal recognition seem to
be evolving, there are no comprehensive training aids available for use. Initial and
continuation training is practically non existent at the unit level. Some progress is being
made. The Advanced Recce and Anti-Armour Courses at the Infantry School are now
taught thermal recognition training (14 periods), using the Air Defence School's TIRTS,
but the Advance Mortar Course which trains our FCs (Fire Controllers) does not cover this
vital topic. Nevertheless, the major shortcoming is at unit level where there are no effective
means to teach thermal recognition. This is particularly critical when in the very near
future every Section will be issued a thermal sight fitted to their Eryx anti armour missiles.
In addition, the gunnery systems on the new APCs may also have a thermal sight for the
25mm Bushmaster Chain Gun. Thermal imaging sights are excellent passive observation
and target acquisition devices, but the sight picture is not as clear as one might assume. It
takes training to be able to properly use a TI sight and to ensure that the heat source you
see is either friend or foe, and therefore it is essential that thermal recognition training be
conducted for all soldiers. Expedient means are possible by taking soldiers to the field and
have them observe targets in a wide variety of situations. Unfortunately, the lack of enemy
vehicles precludes any hope of high standards. The answer is to purchase the TIRTS
system for each Battalion, so that initial, and more importantly, continuation training is
conducted by all TI users.
Thermal Recognition Standards.
The AFV (Armoured Fighting Vehicle) recognition standards set out in LFCO 21-13
should also include thermal AFV recognition standards. The following are the proposed
Infantry standards for thermal AFV/AC recognition, and have been written into the training
plans for the Basic and Advanced Recce and Anti Armour courses
M STAR radar on the LAV Recce vehicle can track targets 24 km distant. Beyond the
thermal recognition range, commanders at all levels can only base the decision on whether
a target should be engaged and killed, solely on their situation awareness, or more simply
stated, are there any friendly units in the area they wish to engage? Poor communications,
navigation, misunderstood orders, and so on, create situational awareness problems, and
headquarters often believe an area to be clear of for TOW DET/SECT/PL COMD 3 TOW
SIGHT/ CCTAS 13X 3500M TOW NIGHT SIGHT 12X 1500M 1
References
1. www.answer.com
2. www. night vision.com
3.

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NIGHT VISION TECHNOLOGY