CONFESSIONS, SEARCH, SEIZURE, AND ARREST

A GUIDE FOR POLICE OFFICERS

AND PROSECUTORS
JUNE 2012
Pamela B. Loginsky, Staff Attorney, Washington Association of Prosecuting Attorneys1

Any opinions expressed are those of the author, and not the official position of the W ashington Association
of Prosecuting Attorneys, nor of any individual prosecuting attorneys office.
Ms. Loginsky may be contacted at pamloginsky@waprosecutors.org or at W ashington Association of
Prosecuting Attorneys, 206 10th Avenue S.E., Olympia, W A 98501, or at 360-753-2175.
Permission to reproduce any portion of these materials is granted to prosecutors, courts, law enforcement, and
any other government agencies, as well as to schools and universities for educational and research purposes, on the
condition that the W ashington Association of Prosecuting Attorneys and the W ashington State Criminal Justice Training
Commission are credited.

TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONFESSIONS.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Fifth Amendment Right to Counsel.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14

Miranda Warnings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
Custodial Interrogation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
Invocation of Rights.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Public Safety Exception to Miranda. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
Sixth Amendment Right to Counsel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
When Right Attaches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
Charge Specific Right. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
Waiver of Right. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
Court Rule Right to Counsel .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
CrR 3.1(c)(1) and CrRLJ 3.1(c)(1). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Practical Aspects of the Court Rule Right to Counsel.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Actual Contact. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
Choice of Attorney.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Reasonable Privacy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
Length of Contact.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Physical presence of attorney.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Waiver. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
Violations.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Consular Notification.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Treaty Obligations in Criminal Cases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
Summary of Obligations in Criminal Cases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
Procedure to Follow When a Foreign National is Arrested or Detained. . . . . . . . 51
Answers to Frequently Asked Questions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
Procedure for Establishing the Admissibility of Statements. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Admissibility Hearings. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
Establishing a Valid Miranda Waiver. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
Children. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
i

Establishing a Voluntary Statement.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63

Specific Issues that May Impact a Finding of Voluntariness.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Physical abuse. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Isolation. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
Withholding of sleep, food, beverages, medical care and/or bathroom
privileges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Intoxicated or medicated individuals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
Promises or threats.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
Mental illness or low intelligence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Language barriers.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Prior experience with the criminal justice system. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Deception. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
Sympathy, Empathy, or Paternal Manner. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
Confession and Interrogation (Seth Fines Summary of the Rules). . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71

Search, Seizure and Arrest.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72

Introduction. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 72
Definitions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Search.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
Seizure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
Probable Cause.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80
For Arrest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Pre-Text Stops/Arrests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
Suspect Specific. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
Erroneous Belief. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Possible Defense. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
Presence of Potentially Exculpatory Facts. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Child Abuse Cases. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
For Searches.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
Distinguished from Probable Cause for Arrest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91

ii

Types of Intrusions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Social Contacts.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
Community Caretaking . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
Protective Custody. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Person incapacitated by alcohol or drugs.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Protective custody for detoxification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Intoxicated pedestrians.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
Intoxicated cyclists.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
Child.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
Person disabled by a mental illness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
Protective custody of abused or neglected child. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
Mendez Restrictions.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
Mendez Passenger Control Checklist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
Terry Detentions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Washington Specific Limitations.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
Completed Crimes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
Witnesses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
Reasonable Suspicion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
Persons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
Vehicles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
Bicycles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Boats. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Scope of Seizure. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
Purpose for stop. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 128
Amount of physical intrusion.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
Length of time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
Identification. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
Weapons Frisk. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
When Allowed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
Admissibility of Evidence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
iii

Persons.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
Vehicles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
Plain Feel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Return of Weapon. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
Terry Stop and Frisk Checklist. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
Arrests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Custodial Arrests. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
Arrest Warrants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Who May Issue. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
Warrants Check. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 145
Where may the warrant be served. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 146
Booking searches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
Warrantless Arrests... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
When Allowed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Committed in the presence of the officer.. . . . . . . . . . . . 150
Timing of warrantless arrest for misdemeanor. . . . . . . . 152
Officer's Discretion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 156
Comparison of Court Orders. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163
Where Allowed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Residences... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Businesses. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Hospitals.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 168
Pursuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 169
Out-of-State Pursuits .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
Use of force in making an arrest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
Post-arrest control of suspect. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
Arrestees with Special Needs.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180

iv

SEARCHES.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
General Rule. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
Sanctions for Unreasonable Searches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
Warrants.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Authority. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
Person Issuing Warrant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Superior Court Judges and Commissioners.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
District Court Judges and Commissioners.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
Municipal Court Judges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Out-of-State Judges. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Special Restrictions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
Place/Person to be Searched.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
Buildings/Houses/Apartments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
Vehicles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Person.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
Crime Under Investigation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
Items that May be Seized. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
Evidence of Dominion and Control. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
Oath. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 196
Record. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 198
Probable Cause.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200
Basis of Information.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
Reliability of Information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
Informants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 203
Fellow Officer Rule/Collective or Imputed Knowledge Doctrine2..07
Staleness of the Information. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
Nexus.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
Anticipatory Search Warrants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
Protecting the Integrity of the Investigation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
Other Issues to Consider. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 215
v

Computers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 217
How to Obtain a Warrant.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
In person.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 219
Telephonic .. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 222
Execution of Warrant.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Time of Service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 223
Control of Individuals Outside the Place to be Searched.. . . . . . 224
Entry Into Building. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Knock and Announce Rule. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
Exemptions from the rule.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
No Knock Warrants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
Who May Serve Warrant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
Qualified person to collect blood.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Out-of-State Police Officers.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Protective Sweeps. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
Detention and Search of Individuals Inside the Residence. . . . . 230
Use of Force to Overcome Resistance. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 232
Paperwork. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Presenting the Warrant to the Occupant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
Inventory of Items Seized. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Return of Service. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Securing Premises While Obtaining Search Warrant. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 234
Expanding or Renewing the Search. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 235
Damage to Property from the Execution of a Search Warrant.. . . . . . . . 236
Administrative Search Warrants. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 236

Exceptions to the Warrant Requirement.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239

Consent.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Voluntariness. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 239
Authority to Consent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
Multiple People Present. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 241
vi

Third Person Consent.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 245

Scope of Consent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
Prior Consents... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Special Limitations to Consent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Open View.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
Plain View. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
Computers. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
Search Incident to Arrest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Actual, Lawful Custodial Arrest Required. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 256
Scope of Search Persons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
Cell phones.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
Scope of Search Places. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Scope of Search Vehicles.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
Use of Canines. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
Suggestions for Processing Vehicles Pursuant to Snapp. . . . . . . 273
Inventory Searches.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Vehicles. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Reasonable Alternative Rule. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
Exceptions to the Reasonable Alternative Rule.. . . . . . . 282
Wrongful Impoundment.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Persons. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Emergency Doctrine.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
Domestic Violence Exigencies. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
On-Going Violence. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
Medical Emergencies.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 294
Fire/Explosion. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Meth Lab Odor.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 297
Other Toxic Chemicals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 299
Fire Scene.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
Death Scenes. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
vii

Juvenile Parties. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301

Burning Marijuana. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Miscellaneous Exceptions. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Hot Pursuit. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
Private Individuals. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
Silver Platter . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
Special Needs.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
Implied Consent. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Probation/Parolee Searches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
Civil Standby. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
Administrative and Regulatory Inspections and Seizures. . . . . . . . . . . . 309
Exclusionary Rule. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Purpose.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
The Evolution of Washingtons Exclusionary Rule. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
Trial Court. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Prior to the Filing of Charges.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
After Charges are Filed. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
Waiver of Issue. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
Evidence Rules Applicable to Hearing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Possible Disqualification of Judge.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Appeal. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Presenting Claim for First Time. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
Ineffective Assistance of Counsel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
Findings of Fact. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
Gunwall. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
Collateral Attacks.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Procedural Issues. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Ineffective Assistance of Counsel. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
Retroactivity of New Rules. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
Who May Raise Claim . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
viii

General Rule. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326

Burden of Proof. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
When Raised. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Special Circumstances. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327
Automatic Standing. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
Essential Element. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Nature of Interest. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
Who Has the Burden of Proof. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Warrantless Searches. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Warrants.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
Inclusion of Illegally Obtained Evidence.. . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Franks v. Delaware. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
Overbroad Warrants and the Severability Doctrine. . . . . 334
Lost Tape Recording. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Exceptions to Exclusionary Rule. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Good Faith. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
Inevitable Discovery. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Independent Source Doctrine.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
Attenuation.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
Silver Platter.. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Choice of Law. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
Impeachment. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
Basic Rules of Jurisdiction in Indian Country. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
The Differences Between the Fourth Amendment and Const. Art. I, 7. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344

ix

CONFESSIONS
I. Fifth Amendment Right to Counsel
A.

Constitutional Requirement
1.

No person shall be compelled in any criminal case to be a witness against

him/herself. (Fifth Amendment, U.S. Constitution)
a.

Right must be asserted to take effect.

b.

Provision prevents the defendant from being called as a witness for the
prosecution in a criminal case.

c.

Provision prevents the prosecution or any witness from commenting upon the
defendant's failure to take the stand or to answer questions.

d.

Limited to testimonial evidence (oral or written).

2.

Protects an individual from being forced to decrypt hard drive

contents. United States v. Doe (In re Grand Jury Subpoena Duces
Tecum Dated March 25, 2011), 670 F.3d 1335 (11th Cir. 2012).

No person shall be compelled in any criminal case to give evidence against himself,
or be twice put in jeopardy for the same offense. (Wash. Const. art. I, 9).
a.

State constitution is co-extensive with the federal constitution. See State v.

Russell, 125 Wn.2d 24, 59-62, 882 P.2d 747 (1994) (refusing to extend
greater protection through Const. Art. 1, 9 than that provided by the federal
constitution to the use of un-Mirandized statements); State v. Earls, 116
Wn.2d 364, 374-75, 805 P.2d 211 (1991). ("[R]esort to the Gunwall analysis
is unnecessary because this court has already held that the protection of
article 1, section 9 is coextensive with, not broader than, the protection of the
Fifth Amendment."); Dutil v. State, 93 Wn.2d 84, 606 P.2d 269 (1980) (state
constitution provides no greater protection for minors waiving their right to
remain silent than is provided by the Fifth Amendment); State v. Moore, 79
Wn.2d 51, 57, 483 P.2d 630 (1971) ("The Washington constitutional
provision against self-incrimination envisions the same guarantee as that
provided in the federal constitution. There is no compelling justification for
its expansion.").

b.

With respect to Miranda, Const. art. I, 9 is arguably less protective than the
Fifth Amendment. The Washington Supreme Court stated in numerous cases
that it was unnecessary to advise a suspect that she was not obligated to
10

answer questions. See, e.g., State v. Brownlow, 89 Wash. 582, 154 P. 1099
(1916); State v. Boyer, 61 Wn.2d 484, 486-87, 378 P.2d 936 (1963). In fact,
less than a year before the United States Supreme Court decided Miranda, the
Court indicated in State v. Craig, 67 Wn.2d 77, 83, 406 P.2d 599 (1965),
that:
[E]veryone suspected of crime or charged therewith
has the right to voluntarily speak or act, or refrain from doing
so, without having sections of the state and federal
constitutions recited to him before he can exercise that right....
Where such voluntary act tends to link him with [a] crime ...,
should we disregard his freedom to speak and to write in
order to save him, the wrongdoer, from paying for his crime
and forget his victims entirely? If so, we are guilty of
coddling the criminal and are, in effect abrogating the laws
enacted for the protection of society in its person and
property.
3.

Fifth Amendment right can take effect in one of two ways:

a.

Suspect states, "I do not wish to answer any questions without my lawyer"

b.

Suspect is taken into custody and interrogated by police officer.

i.

B.

Once a person is taken "into custody" (advised they are under arrest
and/or have their freedom of movement curtailed to the same extent
as that normally associated with formal arrest) and "interrogated",
any statement is presumed to be involuntary.

History of the Miranda Rule

1.

Police questioned arrested person at police station for four hours until he confessed.
The court was concerned about psychological coercion. Escobedo v. Illinois, 378
U.S. 478 (1964).

2.

Officers agreed to drop some charges if suspect would confess to kidnaping. Suspect
agreed and confessed. He was convicted of kidnapping and rape. Conviction
overturned by court. Miranda v. Arizona, 384 U.S. 436 (1966).
a.

Court announces rule requiring people who are taken into custody to be
advised of certain rights/warnings:

that he has the right to remain silent

11

that any statement he does make can and will be used as evidence
against him in a court of law

that he has the right to consult with counsel before answering any
questions

that he has the right to have his counsel present during the
interrogation

that if he cannot afford an attorney, one will be appointed for him

without cost to him, prior to questioning, if he so desires.

State v. Creach, 77 Wn.2d 194, 199, 461 P.2d 329 (1969).

3.

C.

Congress promptly enacted a law designed to supersede the Miranda requirement.

It was not until 2000, that the United States Supreme Court declared that the rule
announced in Miranda is a constitutional rule that cannot be superseded by
legislation. Dickerson v. United States, 530 U.S. 428, 120 S. Ct. 2326, 147 L. Ed.
2d 405 (2000).

Miranda Warnings
1.

The actual warnings given need not track the language of Miranda word for word,
nor must they parrot the language in State v. Creach. See Florida v. Powell, __ U.S.
__, 130 S. Ct. 1195, 1203, 175 L. Ed. 2d 1009 (2010) (The four warnings Miranda
requires are invariable, but this Court has not dictated the words in which the
essential information must be conveyed.). In determining whether police officers
adequately conveyed the four warnings, the Supreme Court applies a common sense
approach, instead of a legalistic one. The inquiry is simply whether the warnings
reasonably 'conve[y] to [a suspect] his rights as required by Miranda. Id.
a.

Most Washington Miranda warnings include additional information for

juveniles:
If you are under the age of 18, anything you say can be used
against you in a Juvenile Court prosecution for a juvenile
offense and can also be used against you in an adult court
criminal prosecution if the juvenile court decides that you are
to be tried as an adult.

These additional juvenile warnings do not invalidate the Miranda warning. The
absence of any language indicating that a defendant may appear in adult court
without a juvenile court declination hearing does not invalidate a juvenile arrestees
waiver of the rights. State v. Campos-Cerna, 154 Wn. App. 702, 226 P.3d 185,
review denied, 169 Wn.2d 1021 (2010).
12

2.

The warnings are only necessary when the person asking the questions is a
representative of the State or a person acting as an agent of the State. A
"representative of the State" includes individuals other than law enforcement officers.
See State v. Heritage, 152 Wn.2d 210, 95 P.3d 345 (2004) (park bicycle security
officers, city employees who were not commissioned police officers, must give
Miranda warnings if conducting custodial interrogation).
a.

3.

A defendant's Miranda rights can be violated only by the State or a person

acting as an agent of the State. State v. Cadena, 74 Wn.2d 185, 190-93, 443
P.2d 826 (1968), overruled on other grounds in State v. Gosby, 85 Wn.2d
758, 767, 539 P.2d 680 (1975); State v. Peerson, 62 Wn. App. 755, 816 P.2d
43 (1991), review denied, 118 Wn.2d 1012 (1992); State v. Brooks, 38 Wn.
App. 256, 261-62, 684 P.2d 1371, review denied, 103 Wn.2d 1005 (1984).

The warnings are not required whenever a police officer asks questions. Examples
of When Miranda Warnings Are Not Necessary
a.

When administering field sobriety tests to a DUI suspect. Heinemann v.

Whitman County, 105 Wn.2d 796, 718 P.2d 789 (1986).

b.

When a suspect has been stopped on reasonable suspicion for an investigation

(Terry stop). See, e.g. State v. Heritage, 152 Wn.2d 210, 95 P.3d 345 (2004);
State v. Marshall, 47 Wn. App. 322 (1987).

c.

When a suspect is being asked to consent to a search. (But, Miranda

warnings will be considered in determining the voluntariness of the consent.)

d.

When suspect comes to the police station on his or her own initiative and the
person is free to leave.

e.

Persons voluntarily accompanying police to the police station as material

witnesses are not under custodial interrogation if their freedom of action is
not curtailed to a degree associated with a formal arrest. See State v. Green,
91 Wn.2d 431, 94 Wn.2d 216, 588 P.2d 1370, 616 P.2d 628 (1980); State v.
Grogan, 147 Wn. App. 511, 195 P.3d 1017 (2008),, review granted and case
remanded, 168 Wn.2d 1039 (2010), reaffd on reconsideration, 158 Wn.
App. 272, 246 P.3d 196 (2010), review denied, 171 Wn.2d 1006 (2011).

f.

Questioning an individual who has not yet been arrested at his or her
workplace or home.

g.

Telephone conversations. State v. Denton, 58 Wn. App. 251, 792 P.2d 537
(1990); Saleh v. Fleming, 512 F.3d 548 (9th Cir. 2008) (call to investigators
that was initiated by a suspect who was in jail for an unrelated offense).

13

4.

h.

Exchanges with barricaded individuals. State v. Pesa, 75 Wn. App. 139,

876 P.2d 963 (1994), review denied, 125 Wn.2d 1015 (1995).

i.

When suspect is taken into custody but no interrogation is anticipated. Note:

CrR 3.1/CrRLJ 3.1 warnings must still be given in these circumstances.

j.

When compelling the production of physical evidence such as fingerprints,

handwriting samples, blood samples, urine, or line-ups.

k.

Routine inquiries by a guard concerning the security status of prisoners.

Kemp v. Ryan, 638 F.3d 1245 (9th Cir.), cert. denied, 132 S. Ct. 553 ( 2011).

Procedural issues.
a.

Warnings must be given to suspect in a language that the suspect can

understand. Utilize an interpreter when necessary.
i.

Be aware that the use of an uncertified interpreter during a police

interrogation may render any statements made by the defendant
inadmissible for any purpose, including impeachment. See State v.
Gonzalez-Hernandez, 122 Wn. App. 53, 92 P.3d 789 (2004).

When warnings are read to a suspect by an interpreter, the

State must demonstrate that the interpreter actually read the
warnings correctly. This requirement can be met by the
testimony of the interpreter, the testimony of a witness who
also understands the language the interpreter spoke, or by a
tape recording of the interaction coupled with the in court
testimony of a competent interpreter. Cf. State v. Morales,
173 Wn.2d 560, 269 P.3d 263 (2012) (stating rule applicable
to the statutorily required implied consent warnings).
When using an interpreter, a prudent officer will make every
possible effort to videotape or otherwise record the interview.
Police, however, are not required to electronically record any
custodial interrogations in Washington. See State v. Turner,
145 Wn. App. 899, 187 P.3d 835 (2008), review denied, 165
Wn.2d 1016 (2009).

The Yakima County Prosecuting Attorneys web site contains

a Spanish translation of Miranda and the DUI warnings?
These are recordings of the 2009 DUI Arrest Report form.
http://www.yakimacounty.us/pa/Miscellaneous/Spanish%2
0Rights.html (last visited (June 13, 2012).

14

b.

Departmental issued cards forms should be utilized.

i.

Departmental issued cards are updated frequently to comply with

current case law and to respond to current challenges. Officers
should make sure they have the most current version of the warnings
in their possession. Officers should not deviate from the language on
the card. See Doody v. Ryan, 649 F.3d 986 (9th Cir.), cert. denied,
132 S. Ct. 414 (2011) (Miranda warnings were defective where the
officer deviated from the language of the form).

The portion of the warnings that is specific to juveniles is not

mandatory. A juvenile offender need not be advised that he
may be tried in superior court rather than juvenile court. State
v. Miller, 165 Wn. App. 385, 267 P.3d 524 (2011), review
denied, 173 Wn.2d 1035 (2012). Thus if an officer omits the
juvenile language on the grounds that the suspect is over the
age of 18, and the suspect is actually younger, this omission
will not render the warnings defective.

ii.

The warnings need not be administered by the officer who actually

engages in the questioning or by an officer from the same department
as the officer who engages in the questioning so long as the warnings
are given by a law enforcement agent prior to the start of questioning.
See, e.g., United States v. Banner, 356 F.3d 478 (2nd Cir. 2004); .
United States v. Andaverde, 64 F.3d 1305, 1313 (9th Cir. 1995)
(repeat of warnings not required even though suspect had been moved
to a different room and faced a new interrogator).

iii.

Warnings must be read slowly enough to be understood.

iv.

Some warning cards, such as the one that appears below, incorporate
the CrR 3.1/CrRLJ 3.1 warnings.

15

YOUR CONSTITUTIONAL RIGHTS MIRANDA WARNING

1.
2.
3.
4.

5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

You have the right to remain silent.

You have the right at this time to an attorney.
Anything you say can and will be used against you in a court of law.
If you are under the age of 18, anything you say can be used against you in a Juvenile Court prosecution
for a juvenile offense and can also be used against you in an adult court criminal prosecution if the
juvenile court decides that you are to be tried as an adult.
You have the right to talk to an attorney before answering any questions.
You have the right to have an attorney present during the questioning.
If you cannot afford an attorney, one will be appointed for you without cost, if you so desire.
You can exercise these rights at any time.
Do you understand these rights?

Having been informed of these rights, do you wish to talk with me? If the answer is YES, then ask:
Have any threats or promises been made to you to convince you to waive your rights?

c.

d.

Warnings may become "stale".

i.

When resuming interrogation of a suspect who previously waived his

or her Miranda rights, it is preferable to re-advise the suspect of his
or her Miranda rights. There is, however, no need to rewarn suspects
from time to time during a single lengthy interrogation. Berghuis v.
Thompkins, ___ U.S. ___, 130 S. Ct. 2250, 2263, 176 L. Ed. 2d 1098
(2010).

ii.

Whether prior warnings have become "stale" is judged under a totality

of the circumstances approach. United States v. Rodriquez-Preciado,
399 F.3d 1118, 1128 (9th Cir. 2005).

iii.

Statements made more than 15 hours after advising the suspect of his
or her Miranda warnings have been found to be admissible. See, e.g.,
United States v. Rodriquez-Preciado, 398 F.3d 1118, 1128 (9th Cir.
2005) (interval of 16 hours); Puplampu v. United States, 422 F.2d
870 (9th Cir. 1970) (interval of two days); Maguire v. United States,
396 F.2d 327, 331 (9th Cir. 1968) (interval of three days); State v.
Blanchey, 75 Wn.2d 926, 454 P.2d 841 (1969), cert. denied, 396 U.S.
1045 (1970)(interval of four days).

Do not downplay the significance of the warnings.

Miranda warnings were rendered defective by the officers deviation from
a simple reading of the accurate Miranda waiver form and by the officers
statements that the warnings were mutually beneficial. See Doody v. Ryan,
16

649 F.3d 986 (9th Cir. 2011). The Doody court found the following
statements to the 17-year-old suspect to be problematic:
Its only
something for, for your benefit and for our benefit, okay; [A]ll it is, is its
[sic] something thats ah for your benefit, as well as four ours [sic], okay;
its for your benefit, its for your protection and for ours [sic] as well
okay?
D.

Custodial Interrogation
1.

Miranda Rights are only triggered when a suspect is "in custody" and is subjected
to "interrogation".
Any interview of one suspected of a crime by a police officer will
have coercive aspects to it, simply by virtue of the fact that the police
officer is part of a law enforcement system which may ultimately
cause the suspect to be charged with a crime. But police officers are
not required to administer Miranda warnings to everyone whom they
question. Nor is the requirement of warnings to be imposed simply
because the questioning takes place in the station house, or because
the questioned person is one whom the police suspect. Miranda
warnings are required only where there has been such a restriction on
a person's freedom as to render him "in custody." It was that sort of
coercive environment to which Miranda by its terms was made
applicable, and to which it is limited.
Oregon v. Mathiason, 429 U.S. 492, 495, 97 S. Ct. 711, 50 L.Ed.2d 714 (1977).
a.

Officers may speak to a person who may be a suspect without implicating

Miranda as long as that person remains free to leave if he refuses to
cooperate.

b.

Whether the officer has probable cause to arrest a suspect is irrelevant to

whether the officer was required to administer Miranda warnings if the
suspect's freedom of movement has not been curtailed to the extent associated
with formal arrest. See, e.g., State v. McWatters, 63 Wn. App. 911, 915, 822
P.2d 787, review denied, 119 Wn.2d 1012 (1992).
i.

There is no court requirement that a suspect be given Miranda

warnings when probable cause has been reached if there is no formal
arrest. See, e.g., State v. McWatters, 63 Wn. App. 911, 822 P.2d
787, review denied, 119 Wn.2d 1012 (1992).

ii.

An officer may question a suspect without Miranda even after the

officer has probable cause, as long as the suspect's freedom of
movement has not been curtailed to the extent associated with formal
17

arrest. See, e.g., State v. Short, 113 Wn.2d 35, 40 - 41, 775 P.2d 975
(1989) (explaining that the rule in Washington is coextensive with the
rule announced in Berkemer v. McCarty, 468 U. S. 420, 82 L. Ed.2d
317, 335, 104 S. Ct. 3138 (1984), and earlier Washington decisions
that utilized a probable cause test are no longer binding); State v.
McWatters, 63 Wn. App. 911, 915, 822 P.2d 787, review denied, 119
Wn.2d 1012 (1992).
iii.

2.

There is no requirement that an officer make an arrest as soon as

probable cause is present so that constitutional protections are
triggered at the earliest possible moment. Statements made pre-arrest
in answer to questions are not subject to suppression solely because
the judge thinks it was not sporting to provide Miranda warnings
prior to the defendant incriminating himself. See Hoffa v. United
States, 385 U.S. 293, 310, 87 S. Ct. 408, 17 L. Ed. 2d 374 (1966);
United States v. Wynne, 993 F.2d 760 (10th Cir. 1993).

"Custody" means:
a.

b.

The suspect has been placed under arrest, or the suspect's freedom of action
or movement has been curtailed to a degree associated with formal arrest.
State v. Harris, 106 Wn.2d 784 (1986).
i.

A barricaded individual is not in custody for Miranda purposes. State

v. Pesa, 75 Wn. App. 139, 876 P.2d 963 (1994), review denied, 125
Wn.2d 1015 (1995).

ii.

A suspect who, due to injuries, is confined to a hospital bed at the

time of the interview is not in custody. State v. Butler, 165 Wn.
App. 820, 269 P.3d 315 (2012).

"In custody" and "seizure" or "seized" (not free to leave) are not the same.
i.

"Seizure" means "not free to leave." A Terry detention is a seizure,

but not an arrest.
A.

A person who is only subjected to a Terry routine

investigative stop need not be given Miranda warnings prior
to questioning. State v. Phu v. Huynh, 49 Wn. App. 192, 201,
742 P.2d 160 (1987).

B.

Even the fact that a suspect is not "free to leave" during the
course of a Terry or investigative stop does not make the
encounter comparable to a formal arrest for Miranda
purposes. State v. Walton, 67 Wn. App. 127, 130, 834 P.2d
18

624 (1992). This is because an investigative encounter, unlike

a formal arrest, is not inherently coercive since the detention
is presumptively temporary and brief, relatively less "police
dominated," and does not lend itself to deceptive interrogation
tactics. State v. Cunningham, 116 Wn. App. 219, 228, 65 P.3d
325 (2003); Walton, 67 Wn. App. At 130.
C.

Miranda warnings are required when a temporary detention

ripens into a custodial interrogation. State v. Templeton, 148
Wn.2d 193, 208, 59 P.3d 632 (2002);State v. King, 89 Wn.
App. 612, 624-25, 949 P.2d 856 (1998) (Because a Terry
stop is not a custodial interrogation, an officer making a Terry
stop need not give the Miranda warnings before asking the
detainee to identify himself.); State v. D.R., 84 Wn. App.
832, 836, 930 P.2d 350, review denied, 132 Wn.2d 1015
(1997) (Miranda safeguards apply as soon as a suspects
freedom of action is curtailed to a degree associated with
formal arrest).
A temporary detention does not ripen into a custodial
interrogation simply because officers have probable cause to
arrest the suspect. See State v. Short, 113 Wn.2d 35, 40-41,
775 P.2d 458 (1989); State v. Ustimenko, 137 Wn. App. 109,
151 P.3d 256 (2007). Because there is no constitutional right
to be arrested, a suspect cannot complain that officers
postponed arresting him in order to obtain more incriminating
statements or other evidence against him. Hoffa v. United
States, 385 U.S. 293, 310, 87 S. Ct. 408, 417, 17 L. Ed. 2d
374 (1966); United States v. Wynne, 993 F.2d 760, 765 (10th
Cir. 1993); Koran v. United States, 469 F.2d 1071, 1071-72
(5th Cir. 1972).
Unfortunately, many trial court judges erroneously apply the
repudiated probable cause test, and a fairly recent Division
Two case further muddied the waters. See State v. France,
129 Wn. App. 907, 120 P.3d ( 2005) petition for review
granted and remanded for reconsideration in light of State v.
Hilliard, 89 Wn.2d 430, 573 P.2d 22 (1977) (Miranda
warnings were required because the officers had probable
cause to make an arrest but delayed doing so to circumvent
Miranda requirements).
If questions asked during a Terry detention elicit
incriminating answers, Division II of the Court of Appeals
may suppress the statements if Miranda warnings were not
19

provided. See State v. France, 129 Wn. App. 907, 120 P.3d
(2005) (Miranda warnings were required because the officers
had probable cause to make an arrest but delayed doing so to
circumvent Miranda requirements); State v. France, 121 Wn.
App. 394, 88 P.3d 1003 (2004), petition for review granted
and remanded for reconsideration in light of State v. Hilliard,
89 Wn.2d 430, 573 P.2d 22 (1977), and State v. Heritage, 152
Wn.2d 210, 214, 95 P.3d 345 (2004), 153 Wn.2d 1008
(2005); contra State v. Heritage, 152 Wn.2d210, 95 P.3d 345
(2004); and State v. Ustimenko, 137 Wn. App. 109, 151 P.3d
256 (2007).
This passage from State v. Heritage identifies the error in
Division IIs analysis:
Whether a defendant was in custody for
Miranda purposes depends on "whether the
suspect reasonably supposed his freedom of
action was curtailed." State v. Short, 113
Wn.2d 35, 41, 775 P.2d 458 (1989) (citing
State v. Watkins, 53 Wn. App. 264, 274, 766
P.2d 484 (1989)); see Berkemer, 468 U.S. at
442, 104 S. Ct. 3138 ("[T]he only relevant
inquiry is how a reasonable man in the
suspect's position would have understood his
situation."). It thus is irrelevant whether the
police had probable cause to arrest the
defendant, Harris, 106 Wn.2d at 789-90, 725
P.2d 975 (citing Berkemer, 468 U.S. at 442,
104 S. Ct. 3138); whether the defendant was
a "focus" of the police investigation, Beckwith
v. United States, 425 U.S. 341, 347, 96 S. Ct.
1612, 48 L.Ed.2d 1 (1976); whether the
officer subjectively believed the suspect was
or was not in custody, Berkemer, 468 U.S. at
442, 104 S. Ct. 3138; or even whether the
defendant was or was not psychologically
intimidated, Sargent, 111 Wn.2d at 649, 762
P.2d 1127.
State v. Heritage, 114 Wn. App. 591, 598-99, 61 P.3d 1190
(2002), affd, 152 Wn.2d 210, 95 P.3d 345 (2004).
On remand, Division II affirmed the defendants conviction.
See State v. France, 129 Wn. App. 907, 120 P.3d 654 (2005).
20

Division II acknowledged that the Supreme Court reiterated

the test for determining whether police contact was a
custodial interrogation stating whether a reasonable person
in a suspect's position would have felt that his or her freedom
was curtailed to the degree associated with a formal arrest.
France, 129 Wn. App. at 910 (quoting State v. Heritage, 152
Wn.2d 210, 218, 95 P.3d 345 (2004). Division II,
nonetheless, held that the questioning of France without
Miranda warnings was improper as it occurred after police
told him that he could not leave until the matter was cleared
up, its duration was open-ended and because police had
probable cause to arrest France. France, 129 Wn. App. At
910-11. Division IIs continued reliance on the existence of
probable cause indicates that the court has not completely
embraced the modern rule that was reaffirmed in Heritage.
ii.

"In custody" often means the suspect has been cuffed and is in a
secure environment, even if not actually arrested.

iii.

"In custody" for purposes of Miranda means freedom of action

curtailed to a degree associated with formal arrest. Berkemer v.
McCarty, 468 U.S. 420 (1984).

iv.

A person is not placed in the functional equivalent of custody for

Miranda purposes simply because that person is the focus of a
criminal investigation and is being questioned by authorities.
Beckwith v. United States, 425 U.S. 341, 346-48, 48 L. Ed. 2d 1, 96
S. Ct. 1612 (1976).
A police officer's "unarticulated plan has no bearing on the question
whether a suspect was 'in custody' at a particular time." State v.
Solomon, 114 Wn. App. 781, 790, 60 P.3d 1215 (2002), review
denied, 149 Wn.2d 1025 (2003), citing Berkemer v. McCarthy, 468
U.S. 420, 442 (1984).
Whether a person has been restrained by a police officer must be
determined based upon the interaction between the person and the
officer. State v. O'Neill, 148 Wn.2d 564, 574, 62 P.3d 489, 495
(2003) citing State v. Knox, 86 Wn. App. 831, 839, 939 P.2d 710
(1997) (subjective intent of police is irrelevant to the question
whether a seizure occurred unless it is conveyed to the defendant).
The nature of the officer's subjective suspicion is generally irrelevant
to the question whether a seizure has occurred. O'Neill, 148 Wn.2d
at 575.

21

c.

Suspect is "in custody" when arrested, taken into full custody, or otherwise
deprived of his or her freedom of action in a "significant way." State v.
McWatters, 63 Wn. App. 911, 822 P.2d 787, review denied, 119 Wn.2d 1012
(1992).

d.

Incarcerated defendants are only in custody for purposes of Miranda when

they are subjected to more than just the normal restrictions on freedom
incident to incarceration. See State v. Warner, 125 Wn.2d 876, 885, 889 P.2d
479 (1995) (juvenile offender was not in custody when he made statements
within the context of a sex offender treatment program at DJRs Maple Lane
center); State v. Post, 118 Wn.2d 596, 826 P.2d 172 (1992) (defendant who
was on work release not in custody when he made statements to a prison
psychologist). Accord Howes v. Fields, ___ U.S. ___, 132 S. Ct. 1181, 182
L. Ed. 2d 17 (2012) (an inmate, who is questioned in prison about events in
the outside world, is not necessarily in custody for Miranda purposes);
Maryland v. Shatzer, ___ U.S. ___, 130 S. Ct. 1213, 175 L. Ed. 2d 1045
(2010) (incarceration does not constitute custody for Miranda purposes; a
prisoner, who is removed from the general population and taken to a separate
location for questioning, is in custody for Miranda purposes).

e.

Factors to be considered in deciding whether someone is in custody:

i.

the place of the interrogation

ii.

whether the interrogation is conducted during normal business hours

or is conducted at an odd hour of the night

iii.

the presence of friends, relatives or neutral persons at the interview

iv.

the presence or absence of fingerprinting, photographing, and other

booking procedures

v.

telling a suspect that s/he is under arrest

vi.

the length and mode of the interrogation

vii.

the existence or probable cause to make the arrest

Ferguson, 12 Wash. Prac., Criminal Practice and Procedure 3309, at 85859 (3d ed. 2004).
f.

Reasonable Person Standard

Whether a suspect is in custody is an objective inquiry. Two discrete
inquiries are essential to the determination: first, what were the circumstances
22

surrounding the interrogation; and second, given those circumstances, would

a reasonable person have felt he or she was at liberty to terminate the
interrogation and leave. For the most part, the reasonable person standard
ignores the subjective views harbored by the person being questioned. See
generally Stansbury v. California, 511 U.S. 318, 323, 114 S. Ct. 1526, 128
L. Ed. 2d 293 (1994). The test, in other words, involves no consideration of
the actual mindset of the particular suspect subjected to police questioning.
Yarborough v. Alvarado, 541 U.S. 652, 667, 124 S. Ct. 2140, 158 L. Ed. 2d
938 (2004). The benefit of the objective custody analysis is that it is
designed to give clear guidance to the police. Alvarado, 541 U.S., at 668.
Officers are under no duty to consider . . . contingent psychological factors
when deciding when suspects should be advised of their Miranda rights.
Alvarado, 541 U.S., at 668. This means that an individuals lack of prior
exposure to the criminal justice system plays no part in deciding whether an
individual is"in custody" for purposes of Miranda. Id.
i.

g.

Youth. The reasonable person standard is modified to a reasonable

child standard if the child's age was known to the officer at the time
of police questioning, or would have been objectively apparent to a
reasonable officer. See J.D.B. v. North Carolina, ___ U.S. ___, 131
S. Ct. 2394, 2406, 180 L. Ed. 2d 310 (2011). This is not to say that
a child's age will be a determinative, or even a significant, factor in
every case. Id. Merely, this is a recognition that a reasonable child
subjected to police questioning will sometimes feel pressured to
submit when a reasonable adult would feel free to go. See J.D.B. v.
North Carolina, ___ U.S. ___, 131 S. Ct. 2394, 180 L. Ed. 2d 310
(2011). Washington courts applied this rule prior to the issuance of
the Supreme Courts 2011 decision in J.D.B.. See, e.g., State v. D.R.,
84 Wn. App. 832, 930 P.2d 350, review denied, 132 Wn.2d 1015
(1997) (teenage student who was questioned by a police officer in an
administrative office of the school was "in custody" for Miranda
purposes as most children that age would feel they were not free to
leave the principal's office).

Interviews conducted at police stations will be subjected to heightened

scrutiny. See, e.g., United States v. Jacobs, 431 F.3d 99, 105 (3rd Cir. 2005).
Factors that will be considered in determining whether an interview
conducted at a police station is custodial include the following:
i.

Whether the questioner informed the person being interviewed that

they are not under arrest, see, e.g., California v. Beheler, 463 U.S.
1121, 103 S. Ct. 3517, 77 L. Ed. 2d 1275 (1983); Oregon v.
Mathiason, 429 U.S. 492, 97 S. Ct. 711, 50 L. Ed. 2d 714 (1977);
State v. Grogan, 147 Wn. App. 511, 195 P.3d 1017 (2008), review
23

granted and case remanded, 168 Wn.2d 1039 (2010), reaffd on

reconsideration, 158 Wn. App. 272, 246 P.3d 196 (2010), review
denied, 171 Wn.2d 1006 (2011).
ii.

Whether the person being interviewed was allowed to have friends,

relatives or neutral persons at the interview, see, e.g. State v. Daniels,
160 Wn.2d 256, 156 P.3d 905 (2007) (defendant was in custody
where she was questioned for over 90 minutes by two police
detectives at the precinct in an 8 foot by 10 foot room and the
detectives refused to allow the defendants father to accompany her
in the interrogation room).

iii.

Whether the person being interviewed voluntarily went to the police

station understanding that questioning would ensue, see, e.g., United
States v. Jacobs, 431 F.3d 99, 106 (3rd Cir. 2005) ; United States v.
Kim, 292 F.3d 969, 974 (9th Cir. 2002).

iv.

Whether the person being interviewed was able to leave the station at
the end of the interview or whether they were arrested, see, e.g.,
Slwooko v. State, 139 P.3d 593, 600 (Alaska Ct. App. 2006) (the fact
that the police arrest a suspect following an interview may shed light
on otherwise ambiguous facets of the police officers interaction with
the suspect. But the fact that the police decide to arrest a person after
the person has confessed to a serious crime is, of itself,
unremarkable.); Commonwealth v. Barnes, 20 Mass. App. Ct. 748,
482 N.E.2d 865 (1985); Roman v. State, 475 So.2d 1228, 1231-32
(Florida 1985) (the mere fact that an arrest follows a confession does
not convert what theretofore had been a noncustodial situtation into
a custodial one); State v. Grogan, 147 Wn. App. 511, 195 P.3d 1017
(2008), review granted and case remanded, 168 Wn.2d 1039 (2010),
reaffd on reconsideration, 158 Wn. App. 272, 246 P.3d 196 (2010),
review denied, 171 Wn.2d 1006 (2011) (defendant allowed to leave
at the end of the interview).

v.

Whether the person being interviewed was transported to the station

by a police officer or whether they drove themself to the station, see,
e.g., State v. Pinder, 250 Con.. 385, 736 A.2d 857, 874 (1999) (noting
that defendant had been given the option or riding in his own car or
with the state police).

vi.

Whether the door to the interview room was locked and/or whether
there were locked doors between the person being interviewed and
the police stations entry, see, e.g. State v. Grogan, 147 Wn. App.
511, 195 P.3d 1017 (2008), review granted and case remanded, 168
Wn.2d 1039 (2010), reaffd on reconsideration, 158 Wn. App. 272,
24

246 P.3d 196 (2010), review denied, 171 Wn.2d 1006 (2011) (noting
defendant did not need a door key or police escort to leave the
interview room); Slwooko v. State, 139 P.3d 593, 598-99 (Alaska Ct.
App. 2006).

h.

vii.

How long the interview lasted. Compare State v. Daniels, 160 Wn.2d
256, 156 P.3d 905 (2007) (defendant was in custody where she was
questioned for over 90 minutes by two police detectives at the
precinct in an 8 foot by 10 foot room and the detectives refused to
allow the defendants father to accompany her in the interrogation
room) with Slwooko v. State, 139 P.3d 593, 597 (Alaska Ct. App.
2006) (suspect was not in custody where the station house interview
lasted less than 30 minutes); Roman v. State, 475 So.2d 1228, 1231
(Florida 1985) (where questioning lasts less than 30 minutes, the
length of the contact favors a finding that a reasonable person would
assume that they were not in custody). But see State v. Pinder, 250
Conn. 385, 736 A.2d 857 (1999) (in light of the repeated reminders
that the defendant was free to leave, the fact that the defendant had
been at the polygraph unit for approximately 2 hours doe not
necessitate the conclusion that a reasonable person would believe that
he could not leave).

viii.

Whether the questioning is non-confrontational and polite or

accusatorial in nature. Slwooko v. State, 139 P.3d 593, 597, 599
(Alaska Ct. App. 2006).

Interviews conducted in a suspects home may, if imbued with a policedominated atmosphere, be considered custodial for purposes of Miranda
warnings. Factors that courts will consider in deciding whether a policedominated atmosphere exists include:
i.

the number of law enforcement personnel

ii.

the number of law enforcement agencies represented

iii.

whether the law enforcement representatives are armed

iv.

whether the suspect was at any point restrained, either by physical

force or by threats;

v.

whether the suspect was isolated from others

vi.

whether the suspect was informed that he was free to leave or

terminate the interview, and the context in which any such statements
were made.
25

United States v. Craighead, 539 F.3d 1073 (9th Cir. 2008) (in-home
interview was custodial for Miranda purposes where 8 armed officers, from
3 different agencies entered the suspects home, it was unclear whether the
officer who informed the suspect that his statements were voluntary and that
he was free to leave spoke for all three agencies, the suspect was escorted to
a back storage room and one officer leaned with his back against the door in
such a way as to block the suspects exit).
3.

"Interrogation" involves express questioning, as well as all words or actions on the

part of the police, other than those attendant to arrest and custody, that are likely to
elicit an incriminating response. Rhode Island v. Innis, 446 U.S. 291, 301, 64 L. Ed.
2d 297, 100 S. Ct. 1682 (1980); State v. Johnson, 48 Wn. App. 681, 739 P.2d 1209
(1987).
a.

b.

When not dealing with express questioning, the focus is primarily upon the
perception of the suspect, rather than the intent of the police. Rhode Island
v. Innis, 446 U.S. 291, 301, 64 L. Ed. 2d 297, 100 S. Ct. 1682 (1980).
i.

The standard is an objective one, focusing on what the officer knows

or ought to know will be the result of his words and acts. State v.
Sargent, 111 Wn.2d 641, 650, 762 P.2d 1127 (1988). In determining
whether the officer should know what impact his words or acts will
have, the focus is on the perceptions of the suspect, rather than on the
intent of the police. State v. Wilson, 144 Wn. App. 166, 181 P.3d 887
(2008).

ii.

Declaratory statements intended to affect the personality and

psychological makeup of the suspect may constitute interrogation.
See, e.g., Brewer v. Williams, 430 U.S. 387, 97 S. Ct. 1232, 51 L. Ed.
2d 424 (1977) (Christian burial speech); State v. Wilson, 144 Wn.
App. 166, 181 P.3d 887 (2008) (death notification to woman who
was in custody for stabbing her husband).

Case law examples of interrogative questions and acts:

Questions as "did you do it?" and "come to the truth", are

interrogative in nature. State v. Sargent, 111 Wn.2d 641, 650, 762
P.2d 1127 (1988).

Police officer's general statement in presence of arrestee that "God

forbid a handicap child might find the murder weapon" was not the
functional equivalent of interrogation. Rhode Island v. Innis, 446
U.S. 291, 64 L. Ed. 2d 297, 100 S. Ct. 1682 (1980).

26

Officers' statements to suspect that they "need[ed] to adhere to the

search warrant and continue the sexual assault kit collection
procedures" was not the functional equivalent of interrogation. State
v. Chapple, 103 Wn. App. 299, 12 P.3d 153 (2000) (unpublished
portion of opinion).

Officers informing a woman who was in custody for stabbing her

husband that her husband had died was the functional equivalent of
interrogation. The suspects subsequent statement that I didn't
mean to kill him. I didn't mean to stab him, was inadmissible even
though the officers death notification was not intended to provoke a
response. State v. Wilson, 144 Wn. App. 166, 181 P.3d 887 (2008).

Routine questions asked during the booking process are not

interrogation; general questions regarding someone's background are
not interrogation; and questions normally attendant to an arrest are
not interrogation. Rhode Island v. Innis, 446 U.S. 291, 301, 64 L. Ed.
2d 297, 100 S. Ct. 1682 (1980); State v. Bradley, 105 Wn.2d 898,
903-04, 719 P.2d 546 (1986); State v. McIntyre, 39 Wn.App. 1, 6,
691 P.2d 587 (1984). But see State v. Denney, 152 Wn. App. 665,
218 P.3d 633 (2009) (routine jail booking questions constitute
interrogation for which the Miranda warnings are required if the
questions are reasonably likely to produce an incriminating response;
a standard booking question regarding recent drug use is not shielded
from Miranda requirements when the defendant is arrested for a drug
offense).

Routine inquiries by a guard concerning the security status of

prisoners are not interrogation. Kemp v. Ryan, 638 F.3d 1245 (9th
Cir.), cert. denied, 132 S. Ct. 414 (2011).

Officer's negotiations with barricaded individual not the functional

equivalent of interrogation. State v. Pesa, 75 Wn. App. 139, 876 P.2d
963 (1994), review denied, 125 Wn.2d 1015 (1995).

An officers request that a suspect hand over or reveal the location of

incriminating evidence can elicit a nonverbal act that may be
testimonial in nature. If the request is made after the suspect is in
custody, the suspects acts will be suppressed if performed in the
absence of Miranda warnings. The produced evidence, however, will
still be admissible if the suspects actions were not the product of
coercion. State v. Wethered, 110 Wn.2d 466, 755 P.2d 797 (1985).

27

E.

Invocation of Rights
1.

A suspect may knowingly, voluntarily and intelligently waive his or her rights under
Miranda.

2.

A suspect who has waived his or her rights under Miranda may change his or her
mind at any time.

3.

Once a suspect requests counsel, police must cease questioning the suspect and
cannot try again until counsel has been made available or the suspect himself
reinitiates conversation. Edwards v. Arizona, 451 U.S. 477, 68 L. Ed. 2d 378, 101
S. Ct. 1880 (1981). This request must, however, be made to an officer during a
custodial encounter. See Bobby v. Dixon, ___ U.S. ___, 132 S. Ct. 26, 29, 181 L.
Ed. 2d 328 (2011) (a persons refusal to answer questions without a lawyer present
during a non-custodial interview, does not prevent an officer from conducting a
custodial interrogation four days later; And this Court has never held that a person
can invoke his Miranda rights anticipatorily, in a context other than custodial
interrogation.' McNeil v. Wisconsin, 501 U.S. 171, 182, n. 3, 111 S. Ct. 2204, 115 L.
Ed. 2d 158 (1991); see also Montejo v. Louisiana, 556 U.S. 778, ___, 129 S. Ct.
2079, 173 L. Ed. 2d 955 (2009) (If the defendant is not in custody then [Miranda
and its progeny] do not apply).); Montejo v. Louisiana, ___ U.S. ___, 129 S. Ct.
2079, 173 L. Ed. 2d 955 (2009) ( A request for counsel at arraignment or first
appearance, however, does not prevent officers from contacting the defendant to
request an interview. )
a.

Police may not reinitiate questioning without counsel being present even if
the suspect has consulted with an attorney in the interim. Minnick v.
Mississippi, 498 U.S. 146, 111 S. Ct. 486, 112 L. Ed. 2d 489 (1990).
i.

An exception to this rule clearly applies where there is a break in

custody of at least two weeks in length. See Maryland v. Shatzer, ___
U.S. ___, 130 S. Ct. 1213, 175 L. Ed. 2d 1045 (2010). A break in
custody can include incarceration in the general prison population.
Id.

ii.

A break in custody that is contrived, pretextual, or made in bad faith

may be insufficient to remove the protections of the Edwards rule.
State v. Jones, 102 Wn. App. 89, 96-97, 6 P.3d 58 (2000), review
denied, 142 Wn.2d 1018 (2001).

ii.

Edwards and Roberson protections also may not apply to a defendant

who has already been tried and convicted of the crime for which he
was taken into custody and with respect to which he asserted a right
to counsel. See, e.g., Maryland v. Shatzer, ___ U.S. ___, 130 S. Ct.
1213, 175 L. Ed. 2d 1045 (2010); United States v. Arrington, 215
28

F.3d 855 (8th Cir. 2000) (Edwards protections do not continue

indefinitely just because a person remains in custody).
b.

After a suspect invokes his or her right to counsel, police may not contact the
suspect regarding a separate investigation. Arizona v. Roberson, 486 U.S.
675, 108 S. Ct. 2093, 100 L. Ed. 2d 704 (1988).
i.

c.

The break in custody exception announced in Maryland v. Shatzer,

___ U.S. ___, 130 S. Ct. 1213, 175 L. Ed. 2d 1045 (2010), will also
apply in the different investigation context.

Suspect's request for counsel must be unequivocal. Davis v. United States,

512 U.S. 452, 458-59, 129 L. Ed. 2d 362, 114 S. Ct. 2350 (1994). "Although
a suspect need not speak with the discrimination of an Oxford don, he must
articulate his desire to have counsel present sufficiently clearly that a
reasonable police officer in the circumstances would understand the
statement to be a request for an attorney." Id. A request is equivocal if further
questions are needed to determine if the suspect has made a request. State v.
Smith, 34 Wn. App. 405, 408-09, 661 P.2d 1001 (1983). Context",
however, will not transform an unambiguous invocation of the right to
counsel into open-ended ambiguity. State v. Nysta, No. 65774-7-I, ___
Wn.2d ___, ___ P.3d ___ (May 7, 2012).
An officer who is confronted with an equivocal or ambiguous request for
counsel may simply proceed with questioning. Davis v. United States, 512
U.S. 452, 129 L. Ed. 2d 362, 114 S. Ct. 2350 (1994); State v. Radcliffe, 164
Wn.2d 900, 194 P.3d 250 (2008) (repudiating the rule adopted in State v.
Robtoy, 98 Wn.2d 30, 653 P.2d 284 (1982).
Cases have established that the following constitutes ambiguous requests for
counsel:

Suspect's statement "maybe I should talk to a lawyer," was

ambiguous, and hence was not a request for counsel. Davis v. United
States, 512 U.S. 452, 458-59, 129 L. Ed. 2d 362, 114 S. Ct. 2350
(1994).

Suspects statement that he did not know how much trouble he was
in and did not know if he needed a lawyer was an equivocal request
for an attorney. State v. Radcliffe, 164 Wn.2d 900, 194 P.3d 250
(2008).

A suspect's statement that he might want to talk to a lawyer

constitutes an equivocal request for an attorney. United States v.
Fouche, 776 F.2d 1398, 1405 (9th Cir. 1985).
29

Suspect's question, "[b]ut excuse me, if I am right, I can have a

lawyer present through all of this, right?, was an equivocal request for
an attorney. United States v. Younger, 398 F. 3d 1179, 1187-88 (9th
Cir. 2005).

An inquiry whether the police officer thinks that the interrogated

person in custody needs an attorney does not constitute even an
equivocal request for a lawyer. Norman v. Ducharme, 871 F.2d 1483,
1486 (9th Cir. 1989).

"Do I need a lawyer?" or "do you think I need a lawyer" does not rise
to the level of even an equivocal request for an attorney. United
States v. Ogbuehi, 18 F.3d 807, 814 (9th Cir. 1994).

"What time will I see a lawyer?" not an unambiguous request for

counsel. United States v. Doe, 170 F.3d 1162, 1166 (9th Cir. 1999).

"Maybe [I] ought to see an attorney" not a clear and unambiguous

request for counsel. United States v. Doe, 60 F.3d 544, 546 (9th Cir.
1995).

"Go ahead and run the lawyers" not a clear and unambiguous request
for counsel. Mincey v. Head, 206 F.3d 1106, 1132 (11th Cir. 2000),
cert. denied, 532 U.S. 926 (2001).

On the other hand, the following requests were found to be unambiguous:

"Can I talk to a lawyer? At this point, I think maybe you're looking at

me as a suspect, and I should talk to a lawyer. Are you looking at me
as a suspect?" was an unambiguous request for counsel. Smith v.
Endell, 860 F.2d 1528, 1529 (9th Cir. 1988).

Suspect's questions "(1) Can I get an attorney right now, man? (2)
You can have attorney right now? and (3) Well, like right now you
got one?" constituted an unambiguous request. Alvarez v. Gomez,
185 F.3d 995, 998 (9th Cir. 1999).

"My attorney does not want me to talk to you" in tandem with a

refusal to sign written waiver of right to attorney form was an
unambiguous request for counsel. United States v. Cheely, 36 F.3d
1439, 1448 (9th Cir. 1994).

A suspects statement during a custodial interrogation that shit man

I gotta talk to my lawyer, is an unequivocal invocation by the suspect
of his right to an attorney. State v. Nysta, No. 65774-7-I, ___ Wn.2d
30

___, ___ P.3d ___ (May 7, 2012).

The case law is inconsistent on whether the phrase "I think" will render a
request for counsel equivocal. Compare Shedelbower v. Estelle, 885 F.2d
570, 571 (9th Cir. 1989) ( the statement "you" know, I'm scared now. I think
I should call an attorney," was a valid invocation of the suspect's right to an
attorney); Cannady v. Dugger, 931 F.2d 752, 754 (11th Cir. 1991) ("I think
I should call my lawyer" was an unequivocal request for counsel); United
States v. Perkins, 608 F.2d 1064, 1066 (5th Cir. 1979) ("I think I want to talk
to a lawyer" was an unequivocal request for counsel) with Diaz v.
Senkowski, 76 F.3d 61, 63 (2d Cir. 1996) (suspect's statement "do you think
I need a lawyer" was ambiguous within the meaning of Davis); Burket v.
Angelone, 208 F.3d 172, 198 (4th Cir. 2000) ("I think I need a lawyer" does
not constitute an unequivocal request for counsel).
d.

4.

The Fifth Amendment right to counsel belongs to the suspect. It may not be
asserted on the suspects behalf by another. An officer engaged in a noncustodial interview with a suspect or in a post-Miranda waiver interview with
a suspect has no obligation to terminate the interview solely because an
attorney who purports to represent the suspect appears at the station house
and asks to speak with his or her client. See Moran v. Burbine, 475 U.S. 412,
106 S. Ct. 1135, 89 L. Ed. 2d 410 (1986); State v. Earls, 116 Wn.2d 364, 805
P.2d 211 (1991).

Once a suspect expresses a desire to remain silent, the police must scrupulously
honor the request and cease questioning. Police may, however, after the passage of
a significant period of time and the provision of a fresh set of Miranda warnings,
reapproach the defendant and resume questioning. See, e.g., Michigan v. Mosley, 423
U.S. 96, 96 S. Ct. 321, 46 L. Ed. 2d 313 (1975). A shorter break may be sufficient
if, after fresh Miranda warnings, officers limit their questioning to a different crime
than the one at issue when the suspect initially expressed a desire to remain silent.
State v. Brown, 158 Wn. App. 49, 240 P.3d 1175 (2010), review denied, 171 Wn.2d
1006 (2011) (two hour break).
a.

Suspect's invocation of the right to remain silent must be unequivocal.

United States v. Burns, 276 F.3d 439, 441-42 (8th Cir. 2002); Simmons v.
Bowersox, 235 F.3d 1124, 1131 (8th Cir. 2001), cert. denied, 122 S. Ct. 280
(2001); cf. Davis v. United States, 512 U.S. 452, 458-59, 129 L. Ed. 2d 362,
114 S. Ct. 2350 (1994) (right to counsel).
A significant body of federal law indicates that an officer who is confronted
with an equivocal or ambiguous request to remain silent may simply proceed
with questioning. See, e.g.,Simmons v. Bowersox, 235 F.3d 1124, 1131 (8th
Cir. 2001), cert. denied, 122 S. Ct. 280 (2001); Bui v. DiPaolo, 170 F.3d 232,
239 (1st Cir. 1999), cert. denied, 529 U.S. 1086 (2000); United States v.
31

Mills, 122 F.3d 346, 350-51 (7th Cir.) (citing United States v. Banks, 78 F.3d
1190, 1196-97 (7th Cir. 1996)), cert. denied, 118 S. Ct. 637 (1997); Medina
v. Singletary, 59 F.3d 1095, 1100-01 (11th Cir. 1995), cert. denied, 517 U.S.
1247 (1996).
Mere silence in the face of questioning does not constitute an unambiguous
invocation of the right to remain silent. In such cases, an officer may
continue to question the suspect until he or she invokes. See Berghuis v.
Thompkins, ___ U.S. ___, 130 S. Ct. 2250, 176 L. Ed. 2d 1098
(2010)(suspect, who after receiving Miranda warnings, never stated that he
wanted to remain silent or that he did not want to talk with the police, and
who was largely silent during the 3-hour interrogation, but near the end,
answered "yes" when asked if he prayed to God to forgive him for the
shooting, had not invoked his Fifth Amendment rights; statement is
admissible).
Case law has held that the following are examples of equivocal assertions of
the right to remain silent:

A suspect's reply of "Nope" to the investigating officer's inquiry about

making a formal statement was not an unequivocal assertion of the
suspect's right to remain silent which required an end to further
questioning. James v. Marshall, 322 F.3d 103 (1st Cir. 2003).

A suspect's refusal to answer a question after agreeing to answer

certain specific questions was not a clear and unequivocal assertion
of his right to remain silent to subsequent questions. United States v.
Hurst, 228 F.3d 751 (6th Cir. 2000).

"I just don't think that I should say anything" and "I need somebody
that I can talk to" do not constitute an unequivocal request to remain
silent. Burket v. Angelone, 208 F.3d 172 (4th Cir.), cert. denied, 530
U.S. 1283 (2000).

Silence in response to certain question not an unequivocal assertion

of right to remain silent. United States v. Mikell, 102 F.3d 470, 47677 (11th Cir.1996); State v. Hodges, 118 Wn. App. 668, 77 P.3d 375
(2003).

"I refuse to sign that [the waiver of rights form] but I'm willing to talk
to you" not an unequivocal assertion of the right to remain silent.
State v. Parra, 96 Wn. App. 95, 99-100, 977 P.2d 1272, review
denied, 139 Wn.2d 1010 (1999); accord State v. Manchester, 57 Wn.
App. 765, 771, 790 P.2d 217, review denied, 115 Wn.2d 1019 (1990).

32

I don't want to talk about it" and "I'd rather not talk about it" are not
unequivocal invocations of right to silence. Owen v. State, 862 So.
2d 687, 696-98 (Fla. 2003), cert. denied, 543 U.S. 986(2004).

"Just take me to jail" is not unequivocal invocation of right to silence.

Ford v. State, 801 So. 2d 318, 319-20 (Fla. 1st DCA 2001), review
denied, 821 So. 2d 295 (Fla. 2002), cert. denied, 537 U.S. 1010
(2002).

Act of tearing up waiver form is not unequivocal invocation of right

to silence. Sotolongo v. State, 787 So. 2d 915 (Fla. 3d DCA 2001),
review denied, 816 So. 2d 129 (Fla. 2002).

"I can't say more than that. I need to rest." was not an unambiguous
invocation of the right to remain silent. Dowthitt v. Texas, 931
S.W.2d 244, 257 (Tex. Crim. App. 1996)

Case law establishes that the following are examples of unequivocal

assertions of the right to remain silent:

Sixteen year old suspect's statement "I don't want to talk about it. I
don't want to remember it . . . ." was an unequivocal assertion of her
right to remain silent. McGraw v. Holland, 257 F.3d 513 (6th Cir.
2001).

An arrested individuals statement to a police officer that I plead the

Fifth was an unequivocal invocation of the right to remain silent.
Anderson v. Terhune, 516 F.3d 781 (9th Cir. 2008).

A suspects statement that I have nothing else to say or I have

nothing further to add was a sufficiently clear invocation of his right
to remain silent. United States v. Reid, 211 F. Supp. 2d 366, 372 (D.
Mass. 2002); "); People v. Douglas, 8 A.D.3d 980, 778 N.Y.S.2d 622,
623 (N.Y. App. Div. 2004)), appeal denied, 818 N.E.2d 675, 3
N.Y.3d 705, 785 N.Y.S.2d 33 (N.Y. 2004).

"I don't want to talk to you m----- - f------" is a sufficiently clear

invocation of the suspects right to remain silent. United States v.
Stewart, 51 F. Supp. 2d 1136, 1142-45 (D. Kan. 1999), reconsidered
in part, 51 F. Supp. 2d 1147, 1162 (D. Kan. 1999), affirmed, 215 F.3d
1338 (10th Cir. 2000) (unpublished opinion)

Suspects statement, "I don't want to tell you guys anything to say
about me in court," is an unambiguous and unequivocal invocation of
right to remain silent. State v. Day, 619 N.W.2d 745, 750 (Minn.
33

2000).
5.

F.

The Ninth Circuit held that a suspect can partially invoke his right to remain silent
by refusing to talk on tape. In Arnold v. Runnels, 421 F.3d 859 (9th Cir. 2005), the
defendant orally waived his Miranda rights, but stated that he did not wish to talk on
tape. Once the tape-recorder was turned on, the defendants only response to
questions was no comment. The defendants actions were held to be an
unequivocal assertion of his right not to speak on tape. The tape recording was,
therefore, suppressed.

Public Safety Exception to Miranda

In New York v. Quarles, 467 U.S. 649, 656, 104 S. Ct. 2626, 81 L. Ed. 2d 550 (1984), the
Supreme Court, in response to concerns for police and public safety, created a "public safety
exception" to the Miranda requirement. In Quarles, the Court concluded "that the need for
answers to questions in a situation posing a threat to the public safety outweighs the need for
the prophylactic rule protecting the Fifth Amendment's privilege against self-incrimination."
In adopting the rule, the Court indicated that it
declined to place officers . . . in the untenable position of having to consider,
often in a matter of seconds, whether it best serves society for them to ask the
necessary questions without the Miranda warnings and render whatever
probative evidence they uncover inadmissible, or for them to give the
warnings in order to preserve the admissibility of evidence they might
uncover but possibly damage or destroy their ability to . . . neutralize the
volatile situation confronting them.
Qualres. At 657-58.
To determine whether the public safety exception applies, the court asks whether there was
"an objectively reasonable need to protect the police or the public from any immediate
danger . . . ." Quarles, 467 U.S. at 659.
Case law provides the following examples of when the public safety exception was
appropriately invoked:

Police properly questioned a defendant who was arrested in supermarket about the
location of a loaded firearm that the police believed the defendant had discarded
where a third party could gain access. New York v. Quarles, 467 U.S. 649, 656, 104
S. Ct. 2626, 81 L. Ed. 2d 550 (1984).

SWAT negotiators properly dispensed with Miranda warnings while attempting to

convince a barricaded individual who had shot and killed two people, one of whom
was a police officer, to voluntarily surrender. State v. Finch, 137 Wn.2d 792, 830,
975 P.2d 967, cert. denied, 528 U.S. 922 (1999).
34

Officer responding to a report of a stabbing, who heard a scream inside the house
prior to making an emergency entry, properly asked where the stabbing victim was
located prior to administering Miranda warnings. State v. Richmond, 65 Wn. App.
541, 545-46, 828 P.2d 1180 (1992).

Police officers pre -Miranda question to arrested person regarding whether there is
anything else in his car that might hurt the officer, that was asked after the officer
discovered an unloaded .38 caliber revolver under the front seat. United States v.
Liddell, 517 F.3d 1007 (8th Cir. 2008).
Other Eighth Circuit cases recognize that the risk of police officers being injured by
the mishandling of unknown firearms or drug paraphernalia provides a sufficient
public safety basis to ask a suspect who has been arrested and secured whether there
are weapons or contraband in a car or apartment that the police are about to search.
See United States v. Luker, 395 F.3d 830, 832 (8th Cir.), cert. denied, 546 U.S. 831
(2005) (public safety exception applied to post-arrest question whether there was
anything in intoxicated driver's car the police should know about); United States v.
Williams, 181 F.3d 945, 953-54 (8th Cir. 1999) (public safety exception applied to
post-arrest question, "is there anything we need to be aware of" in the suspect's
apartment, because the police "could not have known whether other hazardous
weapons were present . . . that could cause them harm if they happened upon them
unexpectedly or mishandled them in some way").
The Eighth Circuits position is consistent with that of most other federal circuits.
See United States v. Shea, 150 F.3d 44, 48 (1st Cir. 1998) (pre-Miranda question
asking arrested defendant whether he had any weapons fell within the public-safety
exception); United States v. Webster, 162 F.3d 308, 332 (5th Cir. 1998) ("The police
acted constitutionally when they asked [the defendant] whether he had any needles
in his pockets that could injure them during their pat down; such questioning, needed
to protect the officers, does not constitute interrogation under Miranda.");United
States v. Edwards, 885 F.2d 377, 384 (7th Cir. 1989) (public-safety exception applied
to pre-Miranda question asking arrested defendant whether he had a gun); United
States v. Carrillo, 16 F.3d 1046, 1049-50 (9th Cir. 1994) (pre-Miranda question
asking arrested defendant whether he had any needles on him was within the publicsafety exception); United States v. Lackey, 334 F.3d 1224, 1227-28 (10th Cir.), cert.
denied, 540 U.S. 997 (2003) (public safety exception applied to post-arrest, presearch question of Do you have any guns or sharp objects on you?" ).
Not every circuit, however, agrees that such questions fall within the public-safety
exception. See, e.g., United States v. Williams, 483 F.3d 425, 428 (6th Cir. 2007).

35

II.

Sixth Amendment Right to Counsel

A.

When Right Attaches

1.

The Sixth Amendment provides that "in all criminal prosecutions, the accused shall
enjoy the right . . . to have the Assistance of Counsel for his defence."
a.

2.

State constitution, Const. art. I, 22, is co-extensive with the Sixth

Amendment. See generally State v. Medlock, 86 Wn. App. 89, 97-935 P.2d
693, review denied, 133 Wn.2d 1012 (1997).

The Sixth Amendment right to counsel does not attach until a prosecution is
commenced, that is, at or after the initiation of adversary judicial criminal
proceedings, whether by way of formal charge, preliminary hearing, indictment,
information, or arraignment. McNeil v. Wisconsin, 501 U.S. 171, 175, 115 L. Ed.
2d 158, 111 S. Ct. 2204 (1991).
a.

A defendants custodial status is irrelevant to the determination of whether

the Sixth Amendment right to counsel has attached.

3.

Once the Sixth Amendment right to counsel attaches, police may not interrogate the
suspect regarding the pending charges without a waiver of Miranda. Patterson v.
Illinois, 487 U.S. 285, 108 S. Ct. 2389, 101 L. Ed. 2d 261 (1988).

4.

Once the Sixth Amendment right to counsel attaches, police may not deliberately
elicit statements from the accused in the absence of counsel. Fellers v. United States,
540 U.S. 519, 124 S. Ct. 1019, 157 L. Ed. 2d 1016 (2004).
a.

Deliberate-elicitation standard is not the same as the Fifth Amendment

custodial interrogation standard. Fellers, 124 S. Ct. at 1023.

b.

Deliberate-elicitation will not be found if the government agent made no

effort to stimulate conversations about the crime charged. Kuhlmann v.
Wilson, 477 U.S. 436, 442, 106 S. Ct. 2616, 91 L. Ed. 2d 364 (1986) (quoting
United States v. Henry, 447 U.S. 264, 271 n.9, 100 S. Ct. 2183, 65 L. Ed. 2d
115 (1980)).
Case law indicates that statements were deliberately elicited in the following
circumstances:

Officers went to defendant house, knocked on door, identified

themselves when defendant answered the door and asked if they
could enter the house. Defendant allowed them in. Officers then told
defendant they had come to discuss his involvement in
methamphetamine distribution and that a grand jury had indicted the
36

defendant for conspiracy to distribute methamphetamine. Officers

telling the defendant the names of the other individuals named in the
indictment was held to have been designed to elicit an
acknowledgement from defendant that he knew the other individuals.
Fellers v. United States, 540 U.S. 519, 124 S. Ct. 1019, 157 L. Ed. 2d
1016 (2004).

5.

At least one court has held that officers do not deliberately elicit
statements when the officers merely tell the defendant that they are
there to serve an indictment and to take him into custody. The
officers in this case did not indicate to the defendant that they were
there to "discuss" anything with him, and when the defendant started
to speak, the officers told him to be quiet while they read him his
Miranda warnings. The officers also advised the defendant not to
speak to them and reminded him that he had an attorney. See
Commonwealth v. Torres, 442 Mass. 554, 813 N.E.2d 1261, 1277-78
(2004). See also Torres v. Dennehy, 615 F.3d 1 (1st Cir. 2010), cert.
denied, 131 S. Ct. 1038 (2011) (the troopers did not "deliberately
elicit" information from him when visiting him in jail to read him the
indictment).

Placement of an undercover informant, who was paid on a

contingency fee basis and to whom the defendant's name was
mentioned by the government, in the same cell block as the indicted
defendant constitutes the type of affirmative steps that violate the
deliberate-elicitation test. United States v. Henry, 447 U.S. 264, 100
S. Ct. 2183, 65 L. Ed. 2d 115 (1980).

A probation officers request that the defendant tell her his version of
the offense during a presentence investigation interview constituted
deliberate eliciation. State v. Everybodytalksabout, 161 Wn.2d
702, 166 P.3d 693 (2007).

Tour of area of crime scene with defendant after he had invoked his
Sixth Amendment right to counsel was attempt to deliberately elicit
an incriminating statement. Commonwealth v. Cornelius, 2004 PA
Super 255, 856 A.2d 62 (Pa. Super. 2004).

Incriminating statements obtained by "luck or happenstance" after the right to counsel

has attached do not violate the Sixth Amendment. Maine v. Moulton, 474 U.S. 159,
176, 106 S. Ct. 477, 88 L. Ed. 2d 481 (1985).

Recording telephone conversations the detained defendant made to

his parents and the use of those recordings at trial, did not violate the
defendants Sixth Amendment right to counsel as neither parent
37

agreed to work with the government to elicit information and the

defendant was clearly informed that his conversations could be
recorded. State v. Haq, 166 Wn. App. 221, 268 P.3d 997 (2012).
6.

B.

The Sixth Amendment right to counsel generally ends with the dismissal of charges.
An exception may apply if the dismissal of the original charges was a deliberate
effort by government representatives to circumvent the Sixth Amendment rights of
the accused. See, e.g., United States v. Montgomery, 262 F.3d 233, 246-47 (4th Cir.
2001), cert. denied, 534 U.S. 1034, 122 S. Ct. 576, 151 L. Ed. 2d 448 (2001) ("most
courts to consider the question have refused to hold that 'once a defendant has been
charged,' even after those charges are dismissed, the police and their agents are barred
from questioning him "about the subject matter of those charges unless his counsel
is present."); State ex rel. Sims v. Perry, 204 W. Va. 625, 515 S.E.2d 582, 584 (W.
Va. 1999); Lindsey v. United States, 911 A.2d 824 (D.C. App. 2006).

Charge Specific Right

1.

The Sixth Amendment right to counsel is offense specific. It cannot be invoked once
for all future prosecutions. McNeil v. Wisconsin, 501 U.S. 171, 175, 115 L. Ed. 2d
158, 111 S. Ct. 2204 (1991); State v. Stewart, 113 Wn.2d 462, 780 P.2d 844 (1989),
cert. denied, 494 U.S. 1020 (1990).
a.

Thus an individual who has been charged with robbery, may be contacted by
police and interrogated about unrelated burglaries. State v. Stewart, supra.

b.

Unrelated crimes in the context of the Sixth Amendment means those

crimes that do not satisfy the Blockburger double jeopardy test. Texas v.
Cobb, 121 S. Ct. at 1343.
i.

2.

Two statutes satisfy the Blockburger test if proof that the defendant
violated one statute would establish a violation of the other statute.
Blockburger v. United States, 284 U.S. 299, 52 S. Ct. 180, 76 L. Ed.
306 (1932).

A defendant's statements regarding offenses for which he had not been charged are
admissible notwithstanding the attachment of his Sixth Amendment right to counsel
on other charged offenses.
a.

Even though the right to counsel under the Sixth Amendment does not attach
to uncharged offenses, suspects retain the ability, under Miranda v. Arizona,
384 U.S. 436, 86 S. Ct. 1602, 16 L. Ed. 2d 694 (1966), to refuse any police
questioning concerning uncharged offenses.

38

C.

Waiver of Right
1.

The Sixth Amendment right to counsel is no greater than the Fifth Amendment right
to counsel that existed before charges are formally filed. State v. Visitacion, 55 Wn.
App. 166, 170, 776 P.2d 986 (1989) (citing Patterson v. Illinois, 487 U.S. 285, 101
L. Ed. 2d 261, 108 S. Ct. 2389, 2397 (1988)).

2.

The Sixth Amendment right to counsel can be waived by a defendant if he so

chooses, and the waiver will be upheld if the State can show that the defendant
knowingly, voluntarily, and intelligently waived his right to counsel. Visitacion, 55
Wn. App. at 170 (citing Brewer v. Williams, 430 U.S. 387, 404, 51 L. Ed. 2d 424, 97
S. Ct. 1232 (1977); Johnson v. Zerbst, 304 U.S. 458, 464, 82 L. Ed. 1461, 58 S. Ct.
1019, 146 A.L.R. 357 (1938).
a.

3.

i.

If both parents are present, get a waiver from both parents.

ii.

If the parents waive the child's Sixth Amendment rights, but the child
does not wish to speak to the officer, any confession will probably be
ruled inadmissible.

iii.

For older children, the presence of the child's parents and whether the
child's parents concurred in the waiver of the Sixth Amendment right
to counsel are factors to be considered in the "totality of the
circumstances." Dutil v. State, 93 Wn.2d 84, 93, 606 P.2d 269
(1980).

Miranda warnings are adequate to advise an individual of his or her post-indictment

Sixth Amendment right to counsel. Patterson v. Illinois, 487 U.S. 285, 101 L. Ed.
2d 261, 108 S. Ct. 2389, 2398 (1988); Visitacion, 55 Wn. App. at 170-71.
a.

4.

A child younger than 12 years of age cannot waive his or her Sixth
Amendment rights. See RCW 13.40.140(10). The child's parent, guardian,
or custodian must waive the child's Sixth Amendment rights in order for a
confession to be admissible.

Because it is very easy for an officer to say something that a court may later
determine was designed to deliberately elicit an incriminating statement,
officers are encouraged to read Miranda warnings to anyone who is arrested
pursuant to a warrant as early into the contact as possible, regardless of
whether the officer intends to interrogate the suspect.

The Sixth Amendment right to counsel in a criminal case belongs to the defendant,
not to the attorney. Therefore, a defendants attorney cannot prohibit law
enforcement from responding to a defendants request for contact. See, e.g., State v.
Petitclerc, 53 Wn. App. 419, 425, 768 P.2d 516 (1989) (defense attorneys notice of
39

appearance which contained a request that no law enforcement officials question the
defendant without his attorney being present did not make it inappropriate for law
enforcement officials to contact the defendant, or preclude the defendant from
choosing to ignore his attorney's advice and choose to talk to law enforcement
officials). When a defendant initiates contact with the police, the responding officer
should administer Miranda warnings prior to speaking with the defendant.
a.

While police officers may speak with a represented defendant if the defendant
initiates contact, prosecutors may not. See RPC 4.2;, United States v. Jamil,
546 F. Supp. 646, 652 (E.D. Ny. 1982), revd on other grounds, 707 F.2d 638
(2nd Cir. 1983) ([t]here is unanimous and fully documented authority for the
proposition that prosecutors are no less subject to the prohibition against
communication with a represented person than are members of the private
bar.); State v. Morgan, 231 Kan. 472, 646 P.2d 1064, 1070 (1982) (The
prosecutor is a lawyer first; a law enforcement officer second. The provisions
of the Code of Professional Responsibility are as applicable to him as they are
to all lawyers.); but see State v. Nicholson, 77 Wn.2d 415, 463 P.2d 633
(1969) (former ethics Cannon 9 only applies to civil cases and does not apply
to prosecutors).
The focus of RPC 4.2 is on the obligation of attorneys to respect the
relationship of the adverse party and the partys attorney. See United States
v. Lopez, 4 F.3d 1455, 1462 (9th Cir. 1993). The right belongs to the partys
attorney, not the party, and the party cannot waive the application of the nocontact rule only the partys attorney can waive the attorneys right to be
present during a communication between the attorneys client and opposing
counsel. Id.; State v. Miller, 600 N.W.2d 457, 464 (Minn. 1999). The fact
that a defendant initiated contact does not excuse a prosecutor from
adherence to RPC 4.2. See State v. Ford, 793 P.2d 397, 400 (Utah App.
1990); People v. Green, 405 Mich. 273, 274 N.W.2d 448, 453 (1979).
A prosecutor may not order a police officer to do what the prosecutor may not
do. See RPC 5.3(c)(1); State v. Miller, 600 N.W.2d 457, 464 (1999)
(prosecutors will be responsible for a police officers contact with a
represented individual if the prosecutor orders or, with knowledge of the
specific conduct, ratifies the conduct involved.).
i.

A violation of RPC 4.2 may subject a prosecuting attorney to

discipline by the bar. See, e.g., People v. Green, 405 Mich. 273, 274
N.W.2d 448, 454-455 (1979).

ii.

Statements obtained in violation of RPC 4.2 may be suppressed. See,

e.g., United States v. Hammad, 858 F.2d 834, 840-41 (2nd Cir. 1988);
State v. Miller, 600 N.W.2d 457, 467-68 (Minn. 1999); contra State
v. Nicholson, 77 Wn.2d 415, 419, 463 P.2d 633 (1969); State v.
40

Morgan, 231 Kan. 472, 646 P.2d 1064, 1070 (1982) (suppression is
never a remedy for a violation of RPC 4.2); People v. Green, 405
Mich. 273, 274 N.W.2d 448, 454-455 (1979) (suppression is never a
remedy for a violation of RPC 4.2).
5.

The appointment of an attorney at first appearance or arraignment does not bar an

officer from contacting a defendant for an interview. The officer must, however,
immediately tender Miranda warnings and must obtain a voluntary waiver of the
defendants right to remain silent and right to have an attorney present for the
interview. Montejo v. Louisiana, ___ U.S. ___, 129 S. Ct. 2079, 173 L. Ed. 2d 955
(2009).

III.

Court Rule Right to Counsel

A.

CrR 3.1(c)(1) and CrRLJ 3.1(c)(1)

1.

An arrested person must be notified as soon as practicable after arrest of his/her court
rule right to an attorney. See CrR 3.1(c)(1) and CrRLJ 3.1(c)(1).
a.

2.

B.

Court rule right is not the same as an arrested person's Miranda rights.
i.

The Miranda warnings contained on some departmental issued cards

will not adequately advise a suspect of his or her court rule rights to
counsel.

ii.

The court rule right to counsel may appear on the departmental issued
card as a separate warning.

A person who is unable to pay a lawyer is entitled to have one provided without
charge." [CrR 3.1(c)(1)]

Practical Aspects of the Court Rule Right to Counsel

1.

The arrested person must be given access to a telephone and the telephone number
of the public defender.

In most cases, police are not required to postpone routine prebooking

procedures or the execution of a search warrant when an arrestee expresses
the desire to consult an attorney.

In DUI cases, police must facilitate a telephone call prior to administering the
alcohol test. See State v. Fitzsimmons, 93 Wn.2d 436, 610 P.2d 893, vacated
and remanded, 449 U.S. 977, 101 S. Ct. 390, 66 L. Ed. 2d 240, aff'd on
remand, 94 Wn.2d 858, 620 P.2d 999 (1980), overruled on other grounds by
41

City of Spokane v. Kruger, 116 Wn.2d 135, 803 P.2d 305 (1991). An
extended delay is not required. If an accused has been allowed reasonable
access and has made no contact with counsel, but the test can no longer be
delayed, the driver must decide on his own whether he will submit to the test.
State v. Staeheli, 102 Wn.2d 305, 310, 685 P.2d 591 (1984); Seattle v. Koch,
53 Wn. App. 352, 357, 767 P.2d 143, review denied, 112 Wn.2d 1022 (1989).

There may be other situations in which the booking process should be

interrupted. An example would be if the booking process is unduly
protracted.

State v. Mullins, 158 Wn. App. 360, 366, 241 P.3d 456 (2010), review denied, 171
Wn.2d 1006 (2011).
2.

Actual contact with an attorney is not required. Bellevue v. Ohlson, 60 Wn. App.
485, 803 P.2d 1346 (1991). The rules require an opportunity, rather than actual
communication with an attorney. Thus reasonable, albeit, unsuccessful attempts to
contact counsel will satisfy the rule. Airway Heights v. Dilley, 45 Wn. App. 87, 94,
724 P.2d 407 (1986).

Failure of police to allow defendant to make an additional call after receiving

no answer from a 10 p.m. call to the attorney's office violated this court rule.
Tacoma v. Myhre, 32 Wn. App. 661, 648 P.2d 912 (1982).

Rule satisfied where defendant phoned his personal attorney and three public
defenders, but was unable to actually reach an attorney to advise him.
Bellevue v. Ohlson, 60 Wn. App. 485, 803 P.2d 1346 (1991).

Rule satisfied when the defendant was provided with the phone number of the
regularly appointed public defender for the city, as well as another attorney.
When attempts to call these attorneys failed, the defendant did not request
any further attempts when the officer asked him if there was anyone else
whom the defendant wished to have called. Airway Heights v. Dilley, 45
Wn. App. 87, 94, 724 P.2d 407 (1986).

3.

Choice of Attorney. The arrested person must be provided with any other means to
place him/her in communication with a lawyer." CrR 3.1 (c)(2). This does not mean
the arrested person must be placed in contact with his or her personal attorney.
Seattle v. Sandholm, 65 Wn. App. 747, 829 P.2d 747 (1992).

4.

The arrested person must be given reasonable privacy during the phone call. Seattle
v. Koch, 53 Wn. App. 352, 767 P.2d 143, review denied, 112 Wn.2d 1022 (1989).
This does not mean that in every case where an arrestee requests additional privacy,
the police must grant the request. Whether the request should be granted will depend
on a number of factors such as the unique security and safety problems presented by
42

a particularly uncooperative, intoxicated defendant. Koch, 53 Wn. App. at 358 n. 7.

If an arrested person requests additional privacy, the reasonableness of the privacy
provided will depend upon the demeanor of the defendant, the physical set up of the
room, whether physical restraints were necessary, and numerous other factors.
Officers should explain what efforts they made to preserve privacy, whether the
arrested person requested even greater privacy, what action the officer took in
response to the request for privacy, and what factors were considered in formulating
the response to the request for privacy.
Washingtons appellate courts have not explained further the rule announced in
Koch. Other states, however, have issued cases related to their court rule or statutory
right to counsel.2 These cases provide the following guidance:

An arrestee's right to confer with counsel is not violated merely because the
arresting officer maintains physical proximity to the arrestee.

The arrestees right of privacy was not violated when the officer stood
within 1 1/2 feet of arrestee because the handcuffed arrestee could not
keep the phones handset by his ear without assistance, there were
valid reasons for not removing the handcuffs, and using the phones
speaker option would have allowed the call to be heard throughout
the substation; officer could hear arrestees side of the conversation
but not the attorneys responses. Alexander v. Municipality of
Anchorage, 15 P.3d 269 (Alas. App. 2000).

The arrestee's right of privacy was not violated when the officer stood
ten to fifteen feet away during the arrestee's conversation with the
attorney. Mangiapane v. Anchorage, 974 P.2d 427 (Alaska App.
1999).

Once defendant began talking to counsel, he had a right to confidentiality so

long as it did not impair the investigation or the accuracy of a subsequent
breath test. State v. Holland, 147 Ariz. 453, 711 P.2d 592, 595 (1985).

One caveat regarding reliance on out-of-state cases. Oregon has the most restrictive rule in the country. In
Oregon, the fact that an observation period required by rule or statute would have to be terminated is insufficient,
standing alone, to justify an officers proximity during an arrestees consultation with his or her lawyer. This rule is
based upon the Oregon Constitution rather than on a statutory right. The Oregon Constitution, unlike W ashingtons
Constitution, confers a Sixth Amendment-like right of attorney before the filing of charges. State v. Durbin, 335 Ore.
183, 63 P.3d 576 (2003). Even the Oregon rule has some limits. See, e.g., State v. Matviyenko, 212 Ore. App. 125, 130,
157 P.3d 268 (2007) ("[W ]e acknowledge that an officer may be justified in remaining in the room until contact with
an attorney is made in order to ensure that the suspect actually calls an attorney rather than using the telephone for some
inappropriate purpose.").

43

5.

A mere desire to finish an already begun 15 minute mouth check will

probably be an insufficient basis to hover over an arrestee, unless the
arrival at the breath test machine has been significantly delayed due to traffic,
the need to make arrangements for the disposition of the defendants vehicle,
or other similar event, such that any additional delay in administering the test
could compromise the validity of any result.

Length of Contact. Once contact is made with an attorney, reasonable limitations

may be placed upon the length of the consultation. In DUI cases, Oregon courts have
held that a
15-minute opportunity to call [an attorney] may satisfy the liberty
interest in communication. Cf. State v. Durbin, 335 Ore. 183, 193, 63
P3d 576 (2003) (in the DUII context, where an arrested driver has an
Article I, section 11, "right to a reasonable opportunity to consult
privately with counsel," a 15-minute opportunity "normally will be
sufficient for a person to contact and consult with a lawyer after that
person invokes the right to counsel").
Staglin v. Driver & Motor Vehicle Servs. Div. (DMV), 227 Ore. App. 240, 205 P.3d
90 (2009). See also State v. Tyon, 226 Ore. App. 428, 204 P.3d 106 (2009).

6.

C.

Physical presence of attorney. Need not delay alcohol or FST testing to wait for
attorney. State v. Staeheli, 102 Wn.2d 305, 309, 685 P.2d 591 (1984). But, "[i]f the
defendant requests the assistance of counsel, access to counsel must be provided
before administering the test." State ex rel. Juckett v. Evergreen Dist. Court, 100
Wn.2d 824, 831, 675 P.2d 599 (1984).
a.

If the attorney that the client called actually gets to the station house, police
may not mislead the attorney about his clients whereabouts. Seattle v. Box,
29 Wn. App. 109, 627 P.2d 584 (1981).

b.

If an attorney arrives at the station house on his or her own, without being
called by the arrestee, an officer is not required to delay the administration of
the test until after the unretained attorney has contact with the arrestee. Cf.
Moran v. Burbine, 475 U.S. 412, 106 S. Ct. 1135, 89 L. Ed. 2d 410 (1986)
(Fifth Amendment); State v. Earls, 116 Wn.2d 364, 372-805 P.2d 211 (1991)
(Fifth Amendment and Const. art. I, 9).

Waiver
A suspect may waive his rights under CrR 3.1 and/or CrRLJ 3.1 by voluntarily initiating
communication with the police. State v. Mullins, 158 Wn. App. 360, 366, 241 P.3d 456
(2010), review denied, 171 Wn.2d 1006 (2011).

44

D.

Violations
1.

Not a constitutional error so the admission of evidence obtained in violation of the

court rule right is tested under the constitutional harmless error standard. State v.
Templeton, 148 Wn.2d 193, 220, 59 P.3d 632 (2002).

2.

Evidence obtained in violation of the court rule right will only be suppressed if the
defendant can demonstrate prejudice arising from the violation.

IV.

Consular Notification

A.

Treaty Obligations in Criminal Cases

1.

2.

In 1963, Vienna Convention on Consular Relations (Vienna Convention), 21 U.S.T.

77, 596 U.N.T.S. 261, T.I.A.S. No. 6820 (April 24, 1963), was completed and
countries throughout the world began ratifying it. The Vienna Convention entered
into full force with respect to the United States of America on December 24, 1972.
a.

To facilitate the foreign governments ability to protect its nationals, Article

36(1)(b) of the Vienna Convention provides that any person who is arrested
or committed to prison or to custody pending trial or is detained in any other
manner must be informed that consular officials of his or her country may
be notified about the detention. If the detainee so requests, the consular
officials must be notified of the detention without delay. Vienna
Convention, art. 36(1)(b), 21 U.S.T., at 101.

b.

Other specifically enumerated functions include helping and assisting

nationals . . . of the sending State, safeguarding the interests of nationals
. . . of the sending State in cases of succession mortis causa in the territory
of the receiving State . . . ., and safe-guarding the interests of minors and
other persons lacking full capacity who are nationals of the sending State,
particularly where any guardianship or trusteeship is required with respect to
such persons. Vienna Convention, art. 5(e), (g) and (h), 21 U.S.T., at 83.

In addition to the Vienna Convention, the United States has entered into numerous
treaties with specific countries (bilateral agreements) to address the conduct of
consular relations. Some of the bilateral consular agreements require that consular
officials be notified of the arrest and/or detention of one of their nationals regardless
of their nationals request. These bilateral agreements are commonly called
mandatory notification agreements and the countries to which they pertain are
called mandatory notification countries. These countries are listed in the table that
may be found in the appendix to these materials.

45

3.

The obligations of consular notification and access contained in the Vienna

Convention and relevant bilateral agreements are binding on states and local
governments as well as the federal government, primarily by virtue of the Supremacy
Clause in Article VI of the United States Constitution, which provides that
all Treaties made, or which shall be made, under the Authority of the
United States shall be the supreme Law of the Land; and the Judges
in every State shall be bound thereby, any Thing in the Constitution
or Laws of any State to the Contrary notwithstanding.
U.S. Const. Art. II, cl. 2.
a.

A violation of the duties imposed by the Vienna Convention and the various
bilateral agreements are not constitutional violations. Remedies for
violations of the Vienna Convention, therefore, does not include the
suppression of evidence obtained following the violation.
i.

The United States has been condemned by the International Court of

Justice in the Hague for not fulfilling its obligations under the Vienna
Convention. The International Court of Justice's decision in Mexico
v. United States, issued March 31, 2004,3 requires the United States
to review all violations and to fashion a remedy.

ii.

The International Courts decision in the Case Concerning Avena and

Other Mexican Nationals (Mex. v. U.S.), 2004 I.C.J. 12 is not directly
enforceable in state courts. Medellin v. Texas, 552 U.S. 491, 128 S.
Ct. 1346, 170 L. Ed. 2d 190 (2008).

iii.

The federal circuit courts have split with respect to an aliens right to
maintain an action for money damages under 42 U.S.C. 1983,
against a police officer who failed to advise the alien of the right to
have their consular official notified that the alien has been detained.
Compare Gandara v. Bennett, 528 F.3d 823 (11th Cir. 2008); De Los
Santos Mora v. New York, 524 F.3d 183 (2nd Cir. 2008), and Cornejo
v. County of San Diego, 504 F.3d 853 (9th Cir. 2007) (may not
maintain a 1983 action), with Jogi v. Voges, 480 F.3d 822 (7th Cir.
2007) (may maintain a 1983 action). The United States Medellin
decision does not resolve this split as the Court found it unnecessary
to resolve whether the Vienna Convention . . . . grants Medellin
individually enforceable rights.

The International Court of Justice's opinion in Mexico v. United States may be found at
http://212.153.43.18/icjwww/idocket/imus/imusframe.htm.

46

B.

Summary of Obligations in Criminal Cases

1.

When foreign nationals are arrested or detained, they must be advised of the right to
have their consular officials notified.
a.

For the purposes of consular notification, a "foreign national" is any person

who is not a U.S. citizen. The term "foreign national" may be used
interchangeably with the word "alien". A person with a U.S. "green card" is
considered a "foreign national" for purposes of consular notification.

b.

Federal law requires that most foreign nationals carry immigration

documents with them at all times while in the United States. See 8 U.S.C.
1304(e). However, arresting officers will frequently come across aliens
without documentation identifying their country of nationality. It is the
arresting officer's responsibility to inquire about a person's nationality if there
is any reason to believe that he or she is not a U.S. citizen. In all cases where
an arrestee claims to be a non-U.S. citizen, arresting officers should follow
the appropriate consular notification procedures, even if the arrestee's claim
cannot be verified by documentation. Consular Notification and Access,
at 13 (3rd ed. July 2010).

2.

In some cases, the nearest consular officials must be notified of the arrest or detention
of a foreign national, regardless of the national's wishes.

3.

Consular officials are entitled to access to their nationals in detention, and are entitled
to provide consular assistance.

4.

C.

When a government official becomes aware of the death of a foreign national,

consular officials must be notified.

Procedure to Follow When a Foreign National is Arrested or Detained

1.

Prior to any station house interrogation or, if no interrogation is being undertaken

prior to booking, at booking, determine the foreign nationals country. In the absence
of other information, assume this is the country on whose passport or other travel
document the foreign national travels.
a.

After consultation with various minority communities, the decision was made
by some local police agencies to not have officers ask individuals upon initial
contact if they are a foreign national. In light of the International Court of
Justice's opinion in Mexico v. United States, it is strongly suggested that prior
to any station house interrogation, after giving a suspect Miranda warnings,
the officer should ask if the suspect is a United States citizen. If the answer
is no, the officer should ask, What is your citizenship?". The answers to both
questions should be documented in the police report.
47

i.

If the citizenship question is not routinely incorporated into station

house interrogations, officers must consider their obligations under
the Vienna Convention whenever a language barrier exists, if the
suspect produces a foreign passport or similar document as
identification.
The State Department advises the following:
If you do not routinely ask each person you arrest
whether he or she is a U.S. citizen, you will need to
develop other procedures for determining whether you
have arrested or detained a foreign national and for
complying with consular notification requirements. A
drivers license issued in the United States will not
normally provide information sufficient to indicate
whether the license holder is a U.S. citizen. Nor does
the fact that a person has a social security number
indicate that the person is necessarily a U.S. citizen. A
foreign national may present as identification a
foreign passport or consular identity card issued by his
government or an alien registration document issued
by the U.S. Government. If the person presents a
document that indicates birth outside the United
States, or claims to have been born outside the United
States, he or she may be a foreign national. (Most, but
not all, persons born in the United States are U.S.
citizens; most, but not all, persons born outside the
United States are not U.S. citizens, but a person born
outside the United States whose mother or father is a
U.S. citizen may be a U.S. citizen, as will a person
born outside the United States who has become
naturalized as a U.S. citizen.) Unfamiliarity with
English may also indicate foreign nationality, though
some U.S. citizens do not speak English. Such
indicators could be a basis for asking the person
whether he or she is a foreign national. You should
keep copies of any identification presented and note in
the file the basis on which you concluded the person
was or was not a foreign national.
Consular Notification and Access, at 13 (3rd ed. July 2010).

ii.

If an arrested person claims to be a foreign national but has no

proof, the State Department recommends that the individual be
advised of the persons right to have the consulate officer of the
48

persons country notified of the persons detention.

b.

2.

A question regarding citizenship should be added to all jail booking forms.

If a detainee refuses to answer the citizenship question or if a detainee claims
to be a United States citizen, a note must be made of the answer and no
further action needs to be taken unless the detainee is in possession of a
passport issued by a mandatory notification country.

Provide the correct notice to the foreign national without delay.

a.

The International Court of Justice indicates that "without delay" means that
the detainee is advised of his or her right to consular notification as soon as
there are grounds for the officer to think that the detainee is probably a
foreign national. Mexico v. United States, at 88.

b.

If the foreign nationals country is not on the mandatory notification list the
interrogating officer or jail booking officer must offer, without delay, to
notify the foreign nationals consular officials of the arrest/detention. The
language suggested by the State Department for the notice is as follows4:
As a non-U.S. citizen who is being arrested or detained, you
are entitled to have us notify your countrys consular
representatives here in the United States. A consular official
from your country may be able to help you obtain legal
counsel, and may contact your family and visit you in
detention, among other things. If you want us to notify your
countrys consular officials, you can request this notification
now, or at any time in the future. After your consular officials
are notified, they may call or visit you. Do you want us to
notify your countrys consular officials?

c.

If the foreign nationals country is on the list of mandatory notification

countries the officer should tell the foreign national that the officer will be
notifying the consular official of the individual's detention. The language
suggested by the State Department for the notice5 is as follows:
Because of your nationality, we are required to notify
your countrys consular representatives here in the United
States that you have been arrested or detained. After your

The State Department has translations of the advisements in Arabic, Cambodian, Chinese, Creole, Farsi,
French, German, Greek, Hindi, Italian, Japanese, Korean, Polish, Portuguese, Russian, Spanish, Tagalog, Thai, and
Vietnamese on the internet at http://travel.state.gov/law/consular/consular_753.html
5

See fn. 7.

49

consular officials are notified, they may call or visit you. You
are not required to accept their assistance, but they may be
able to help you obtain legal counsel and may contact your
family and visit you in detention, among other things. We
will be notifying your countrys consular officials as soon as
possible.
3.

Notify the nearest consular official of the foreign national's country without delay if
the detainee is from a mandatory notification country or if the detainee requests that
notice be given.
a.

4.

D.

Easiest manner of notification is sending a fax message to the consular

official's office.
i.

Fax notifications can be sent 24 hours a day.

ii.

Fax machines produce a receipt that notice was provided.

iii.

Current fax numbers may be obtained on the State Department's web

site: http://travel.state.gov/law/consular/consular_745.html

iv.

Suggested fax form available on the State Department's web site

http://travel.state.gov/law/consular/consular_753.html

A written record should be made of the date and time that the foreign national was
informed of the option of consular notification, whether the foreign national
requested that consular officials be notified, the date and time notification was sent
to the consular officer of the detention or arrest, any confirmation of receipt of
notification received from the consular officer, and a record of any actual contact
between the foreign national and a consular officer.

Answers to Frequently Asked Questions

The following is a list of questions that are likely to occur to officers and prosecutors. Few
of these questions have been addressed yet by the courts. The answers, therefore,
occasionally represent the authors best guess in light of the intended purpose of consular
notification and the Department of States guidance.
1.

If law enforcement officials of the foreign nationals government are helping with the
investigation, should I still go through the process of notifying consular officers?
Yes. It is important to distinguish between a governments consular officers and other
officials, such as law enforcement officers, who have different functions and
responsibilities. Even if law enforcement officials of the foreign nationals country
are aware of the detention and are helping to investigate the crime in which the
50

foreign national allegedly was involved, it is still important to ensure that consular
officers are made aware of the arrest or detention when required.
2.

If an arrested foreign national asks to have his or her consul notified of the detention
during an interrogation what should the officer do?
Arrested foreign nationals who are interrogated at the police station prior to booking
should generally be advised of their right to consular access at the same time they are
advised of their Miranda warnings. See Cardona v. State, 973 S.W.2d 412, 417-18
(Tex. App. 1998); Mexico v. United States. If possible, a fax should be sent to the
closest consulate or embassy immediately if the foreign national requests that
notification be made. The foreign national should be informed once notification is
sent.
There is no legal requirement that interrogation be suspended following the sending
of the fax and/or the placing of a phone call6, but as a matter of courtesy and to avoid
misunderstandings it may be appropriate to suspend interrogation if the foreign
national indicates that s/he desires to cease answering questions until s/he hears from
a consular official. If interrogation is suspended at the request of a foreign national
pending contact with a consular official, the appropriate consular official should be
contacted and his or her intentions with respect to visiting or calling the detainee
should be ascertained, if possible, and relayed to the foreign national. The foreign
national may then be asked whether he/she is prepared for interrogation to resume.
If the consular official cannot be reached, further interrogation should only occur if
the foreign national initiates contact.

3.

If I have a foreign national who is hospitalized or quarantined, do I have to provide

consular notification?
Usually. If the foreign national is hospitalized or quarantined pursuant to
governmental authority (law enforcement, judicial, or administrative) and is not free
to leave, under the Vienna Convention on Consular Relations and most bilateral
agreements he or she must be treated like a foreign national in detention, and
appropriate notification must be provided. Consular officers must be notified of the
detention (regardless of the foreign nationals wishes) if the detention occurs in
circumstances indicating that the appointment of a guardian for the foreign national
is required (e.g., if the detention is the result of an involuntary commitment due to
mental illness).

4.

Should I notify the consulate any time I detain a foreign national who is a minor?
What if the minor is unaccompanied and I am unable to locate the parent or
guardian?

See, e.g., United States v. Ortiz, 315 F.3d 873, 887 (8th Cir. 2002), cert. denied sub nom Tello v. United States,
123 S. Ct. 2095 (2003);United States v. Alvarado-Torres, 45 F. Supp.2d 986, 991 (S.D. Cal. 1999).

51

You must notify the nearest consulate, without delay, if the minor is a national of a
mandatory notification (list) country. If the minor is not a national of a list
country, you should attempt to locate the minors parent or guardian and ask whether
he or she wants you to notify the consulate of the minors detention. If you are unable
to locate the legal guardian within 24 to 72 hours, or you believe the minor to be a
victim of abuse or trafficking and that contacting the parent or guardian would place
the minor in danger, you should notify the consulate unless, under the circumstances,
there is reason to believe notification could be detrimental to the minor (e.g., if the
minor is seeking asylum in the United States). In such cases, you should ask a court
or other competent authority to determine whether notification would be in the best
interests of the minor. Consular notification is required in any case if the court or
other appropriate authority initiates proceedings to appoint a guardian or trustee for
the detained minor.
i.

5.

In Washington, the parents of a child under 12 years of age should also be

advised of the availability of consular notification, and a request by the parent
or the child that notice be sent to the consular official should be honored. Cf.
RCW 13.40.140(10).

When I notify the consular officers, should I tell them the reasons for the detention?
A. A handful of bilateral consular agreements require you to give the foreign consular
officer the reasons why the foreign national was detained:
Algeria: Only one bilateral agreement, the agreement with Algeria, requires
you to inform the foreign consular officer of the reasonsin the words of the
agreement, the motivating circumstancesbehind the detention, whether
or not the consular officer expressly asks you for the reasons.
Bulgaria, China (including Hong Kong and Macao), Czech Republic,
Mongolia, Poland, and Slovakia: Bilateral agreements with these other six
countries require you to inform the foreign consular officer of the reasons
behind the detention only if the consular officer asks for the reasons.
Similarly, if the foreign national is ultimately charged with a crime and his
or her consular officers ask to know the charges, bilateral agreements with
Bulgaria, China (including Hong Kong and Macao), the Czech Republic,
Mongolia, Poland, and Slovakia require you to tell them the charges. The
agreement with Tunisia also requires you to tell the consular officers the
charges, unless the detained Tunisian national expressly asks you not to do
so.
For all other countries, you do not have to inform the consular officer of the reasons
why the foreign national was detained, as no such obligation exists under the Vienna
Convention on Consular Relations or relevant bilateral agreements with other
countries. Nevertheless, the Department of State recommends that, if the consular
52

officers ask you the reasons, you provide them as a courtesy, if possible. Mexico, for
example, has informed the Department that it would like to be advised of the reasons
for the arrest of its nationals so that it can focus its consular resources on death
penalty and other serious cases. The Department asks that, where possible, you
comply with this request.
Generally you may use your discretion in deciding how much information to provide,
consistent with privacy considerations and the applicable international agreements,
in the initial notification of an arrest or detention. In doing so, you may wish to
balance the privacy interests of the detainee with the interests of the foreign
government in allocating its resources to respond first to the most serious cases. If a
consular official insists that he or she is entitled to information about a foreign
national that the foreign national does not want disclosed, the Department of State
can provide guidance.
In some cases, federal or state law may prohibit you from providing detailed
information concerning the reasons for the detention. For example, certain laws may
prohibit you from giving information to third parties concerning the medical
condition of persons confined to a medical institution. Where you have detained a
foreign national for medical reasons and the foreign consular officer asks to know the
reasons for the detentionespecially where the detainees nationality is Algerian,
Bulgarian, Chinese, Czech, Mongolian, Slovakian, or Tunisiancontact the
Department of State for guidance.
6.

What can I expect a consular officer to do once notification of an arrest or detention

has been made?
A consular officer may do a variety of things to assist a detained foreign national.
The consular officer may ask to speak with the foreign national over the phone, may
write to him or her, or may arrange one or more consular visits to meet with the
detainee to discuss his or her situation and needs. A consular officer may assist in
arranging legal representation, monitor the progress of the case, and seek to ensure
that the foreign national receives a fair trial (e.g., by working with the foreign
nationals lawyer, communicating with prosecutors, or observing the trial). The
consular officer may speak with prison authorities about the foreign nationals
conditions of confinement, and may bring the detainee reading material, food,
medicine, or other necessities, if permitted by prison regulations. A consular officer
will often get in touch with the foreign nationals family members, particularly if they
are in the country of origin, to advise them of his or her situation, morale, and other
relevant information.
The consular officer may also deliver correspondence addressed to the foreign
national, subject to applicable regulations of the prison facility. These may include
letters from the nationals family members or government, including correspondence
from courts of the home country or the nationals lawyer in the home country on legal
53

matters concerning the national. It is also within the scope of the consular officers
duties to assist the foreign national in transmitting correspondence to these outside
entities, as long as any assistance provided is in accordance with applicable rules and
regulations of the prison facility.
As the purpose of the consular visit is to allow the consular officer the opportunity
to provide consular services to the foreign national with a view to safeguarding the
nationals own personal interests, the consular officer may not engage in law
enforcement activities, such as taking or recording a statement from the national for
use in a lawsuit or prosecution in the home country.
The actual services provided by a consular officer will vary in light of numerous
factors, including the foreign countrys level of representation in the United States
and available resources. For example, some countries only have an embassy in
Washington, D.C., and will rarely be able to visit their nationals imprisoned in
locations elsewhere in the United States. Other countries have consulates located in
many major U.S. cities and may regularly perform prison visits throughout the United
States. Each country has discretion in deciding what level of consular services it will
actually provide.
i.

A consular officer may not act as legal counsel for a detained foreign
national. United States v. Alvarado-Torres, 45 F. Supp.2d 986, 993 (S.D.
Cal. 1999). See also; RCW 2.48.180 (making it a crime for an individual
who is not admitted to practice law in Washington to represent someone in
court). A detained foreign national who is indigent and eligible for courtappointed counsel must be provided with a lawyer in accordance with a
jurisdictions local practice.

ii.

A consular officer may address the court on issues of release to the same
extent that a detainees family members or friend may be heard.

iii.

A consular officer is entitled to visit with and to communicate with their

detained nationals. While the visits may be subject to the normal visitation
rules applicable to a particular detention facility, the visits, like those of an
attorney, should normally be permitted to occur in private. Application of a
facilities legal mail, attorney phone call rules, and attorney visitation rules
to consular officers is probably the safest course to pursue.

V.

Procedure for Establishing the Admissibility of Statements

A.

Admissibility Hearings
1.

Before introducing evidence of any custodial statement, or any statement made to a

state actor, the court must hold a hearing to determine if the statement was freely
given. Jackson v. Denno, 378 U.S. 368, 12 L. Ed. 2d 908, 84 S. Ct. 1774, 1 A.L.R.3d
54

1205 (1964).
a.

2.

Voluntariness hearings not required when statements are made to private

citizens. State v. McFarland, 15 Wn. App. 220, 548 P.2d 569 (1976), review
denied, 87 Wn.2d 1006 (1976).

Procedural rule for the voluntariness hearings is CrR 3.5 in the superior court and
CrRLJ 3.5 in the district court.
a.

Hearing may be conducted prior to trial, or mid-trial. State v. Thompson, 73

Wn. App. 122, 867 P.2d 691 (1994); State v. Sharp, 15 Wn. App. 585, 550
P.2d 705 (1976).

b.

Separate hearing need not be held when the case is being tried to the bench.
State v. Wolfer, 39 Wn. App. 287, 291-92, 693 P.2d 154 (1984), review
denied, 103 Wn.2d 1028 (1985).

3.

A defendant may waive the voluntariness hearing.

4.

The failure to hold a voluntariness hearing will not render a statement inadmissible
when a review of the record discloses that there is no issue concerning its
voluntariness. State v. Falk, 17 Wn. App. 905, 908, 567 P.2d 235 (1977); State v.
Harris, 14 Wn. App. 414, 422, 542 P.2d 122 (1975).

5.

The burden is upon the State to prove the voluntariness of a statement. It need only
do so, however, by a preponderance of the evidence. State v. Braun, 82 Wn.2d 157,
162, 509 P.2d 742 (1973); State v. Davis, 34 Wn. App. 546, 550, 662 P.2d 78 (1983).
a.

If multiple police officers are present when a defendant waives his Miranda
warnings, the State need not call each and every officer at the admissibility
hearing. State v. Abdulle, No. 84660-0, ___ Wn.2d ___, ___ P.3d ___ (May
3, 2012), overruling State v. Davis, 73 Wn.2d 271, 438 P.2d 185 (1968). The
trial court, however, remains free to draw adverse inferences if (1) the
defendant raises the issue that another officer was present, and (2) the
prosecutor neither calls that officer nor provides any explanation for the
officers absence. Abdulle, at 17.
There is no requirement, moreover, that before police interrogate a suspect
at least two officers must be present so that one can corroborate the other in
the event of a suppression hearing. Neither do the cases require police to
obtain a written acknowledgment and written waiver of rights. State v.
Haack, 88 Wn. App. 423, 434, 958 P.2d 423 (1997).

6.

The burden is upon the defendant to prove he or she was in custody for purposes
of Miranda, United States v. Bassignani, 560 F.3d 989, 993 (9th Cir. 2009).
55

B.

7.

Written findings of fact and conclusions of law must be entered at the conclusion of
a CrR 3.5 hearing. The failure to enter findings will not preclude the admission of
an otherwise voluntary statement, but the lack of findings can impede the appeal.

8.

The trial court's finding of voluntariness is binding on appeal where the record
contains substantial evidence supporting that conclusion. State v. Ng, 110 Wn.2d 32,
38, 750 P.2d 632 (1988); State v. Wolfer, 39 Wn. App. 287, 290, 693 P.2d 154
(1984), review denied, 103 Wn.2d 1028 (1985); State v. Vannoy, 25 Wn. App. 464,
467, 610 P.2d 380 (1980). Substantial evidence is evidence that is sufficient to
persuade a fair-minded person. State v. Cyrus, 66 Wn. App. 502, 506 n. 4, 832 P.2d
142 (1992), review denied, 120 Wn.2d 1031 (1993).

Establishing a Valid Miranda Waiver

1.

Statements are only admissible at trial in the prosecution's case in chief if the
prosecution can prove a voluntary waiver of Miranda Rights. See, e.g., State v.
Ellison, 36 Wn. App. 564 (1984).

2.

Any waiver of a suspects Miranda rights must be knowingly, voluntarily, and

intelligently made.
a.

The State need not prove that the suspect's confession was made when he was
totally rational and for the proper motives. Coercive police activity is the
necessary predicate to finding that a confession or the waiver of a right is not
"voluntary" within the meaning of the Fourteenth Amendment. See, e.g.,
Colorado v. Connelly, 479 U.S. 157, 93 L. Ed. 2d 473, 107 S. Ct. 515, 52021 (1986); State v. Braun, 82 Wn.2d 157, 509 P.2d 742 (1973).

b.

The defendant need not understand the legal consequences of giving an

incriminating statement, possible defenses available, or the risks involved in
speaking to the police without counsel present. See State v. McDonald, 89
Wn.2d 256, 264, 571 P.2d 930 (1977), overruled in part by State v.
Sommerville, 111 Wn.2d 524, 531, 760 P.2d 932 (1988).

3.

A defendants ignorance of the full consequences of his decision does

not vitiate the voluntariness of custodial statements. Thus, the
detectives accurate statement that the statute of limitations for
rendering criminal assistance had run, did not override the
defendants independent decision-making process or coerce her into
giving a statement that was ultimately used in her murder
prosecution. State v. Curtiss, 161 Wn. App. 673, 250 P.3d 496,
review denied, 172 Wn.2d 1012 (2011).

The test for the waiver is the "totality of the circumstances." See, e.g., Dutil v. State,
93 Wn.2d 84, 606 P.2d 269 (1980).
56

a.

4.

The court must look to the totality of the circumstances, including the setting
in which the statements were obtained, the details of the interrogation, and
the background, experience, and conduct of the accused. United States v.
Carroll, 710 F.2d 164 (4th Cir.), cert. denied, 464 U.S. 1008 (1983) (citing
Schenckloth v. Bustamonte, 412 U.S. 218, 226, 36 L. Ed. 2d 854, 93 S. Ct.
2041, 2047 (1973)); State v. Robtoy, 98 Wn.2d 30, 36, 652 P.2d 284 (1982).

Children
A child younger than 12 years of age cannot waive his or her Miranda Rights. See
RCW 13.40.140(10). The child's parent, guardian, or custodian must waive the
child's Miranda Rights in order for a confession to be admissible.
a.

If both parents are present, get a waiver from both parents.

b.

If the parents waive the child's Miranda Rights, but the child does not wish
to speak to the officer, any confession will probably be ruled inadmissible.

c.

For older children, the presence of the child's parents and whether the child's
parents concurred in the waiver of the child's Miranda Rights are factors to
be considered in the "totality of the circumstances." Dutil v. State, 93 Wn.2d
84, 93, 606 P.2d 269 (1980).

5.

Waiver may be in writing or oral. State v. Rupe, 101 Wn.2d 664, 678, 683 P.2d 571
(1984) (validity of waiver is not dependent upon signed written waiver form).

6.

Statements obtained in violation of Miranda may still be used to impeach a defendant

if the statement was voluntarily given. Oregon v. Hass, 420 U.S. 714, 43 L. Ed. 2d
570, 95 S. Ct. 1215 (1975); State v. Hubbard, 103 Wn.2d 570, 575, 693 P.2d 718
(1985).
a.

Statements obtained pursuant to a purposeful violation of Miranda may not

be utilized for any purpose. See Missouri v. Seibert, 124 S. Ct. 2601, 159 L.
Ed. 2d 643 (2004) (question-first interrogation tactic where Miranda
warnings are inserted in the midst of coordinated and continuing interrogation
are likely to mislead and deprive a defendant of knowledge essential to his
ability to understand the nature of his rights and the consequences of
abandoning them resulting in the suppression of both pre- and post-Miranda
statements).
i.

In situations where the two-step process was not deliberately

employed by police, the post-warning statement may be admitted at
trial. Oregon v. Elstad, 470 U.S. 298, 105 S. Ct. 1285, 84 L. Ed.
2d 222 (1985). Elstad held that absent deliberately coercive or
improper tactics in obtaining the initial statement, the mere fact that
57

a suspect has made an unwarned admission does not warrant a

presumption of compulsion" with respect to the postwarning
confession. 470 U.S. at 314. Rather, "once warned, the suspect is
free to exercise his own volition in deciding whether or not to make
a statement to the authorities." Id. at 308. The Court thus held that a
"suspect who has once responded to unwarned yet uncoercive
questioning is not thereby disabled from waiving his rights and
confessing after he has been given the requisite Miranda warnings."
Id at 318. Accord State v. Allenby, 68 Wn. App. 657, 847 P.2d 1
(1992), review denied, 121 Wn.2d 1033 (1933) (rejecting the cat out
of the bag doctrine and holding that defendant's prior unwarned and
unexpected statement in which the defendant confessed to a crime of
which the trooper was unaware did not render invalid a subsequnet
statement made after the troopers careful reading of the Miranda
warnings); State v. Ustimenko, 137 Wn. App. 109, 151 P.3d 256
(2007) (a defendants post-warning statements are not inadmissible
simply because the defendant may have let the cat out of the bag
prior to receiving Miranda warnings).
ii.

A trial court must suppress post-warning confessions obtained during

a deliberate two-step interrogation. In determining whether the
interrogator deliberately withheld the Miranda warnings, trial courts
will consider whether objective evidence and any available subjective
evidence, such as an officers testimony, support an inference that the
two-step interrogation procedure was used to undermine the Miranda
warning. See United States v. Williams, 435 F.3d 1148 (9th Cir.
2006). Objective evidence includes the timing, setting and
completeness of the pre-warning interrogation, the continuity of
police personnel and the overlapping content of the pre- and postwarning statements. United States v. Narvaez-Gomez, 489 F.3d 970,
974 (9th Cir. 2007). Suppression is required even if the officer did
not have a subjective intent of trying to avoid Mirandas
requirements. State v. Hickman, 157 Wn. App. 767, 238 P.3d 1240
(2010).

The two-step cases ONLY apply when the initial questioning

was in violation of Miranda-- that is when the suspect was in
custody when he was interrogated. Custody is not established
by the initial community caretaking/investigative contact your
officer made. See, e.g. State v. Heritage, 152 Wn.2d 210, 95
P.3d 345 (2004). See also Bobby v. Dixon, ___ U.S. ___, 132
S. Ct. 26, 29, 181 L. Ed. 2d 328 (2011) (a person's refusal to
answer questions without a lawyer present during a
non-custodial interview, does not prevent an officer from
conducting a custodial interrogation four days later; "And this
58

Court has "never held that a person can invoke his Miranda
rights anticipatorily, in a context other than "custodial
interrogation.' McNeil v. Wisconsin, 501 U.S. 171, 182, n. 3,
111 S. Ct. 2204, 115 L. Ed. 2d 158 (1991); see also Montejo
v. Louisiana, 556 U.S. 778, ___, 129 S. Ct. 2079, 173 L. Ed.
2d 955 (2009) ("If the defendant is not in custody then
[Miranda and its progeny] do not apply").").
iii.

c.

Physical evidence discovered due to statements given by an arrestee who has

not been given his Miranda warnings does not violate the Miranda rule or the
Self-Incrimination Clause of the constitution. United States v. Patane, 124
S. Ct. 2620, 159 L. Ed. 2d 667 (2003).
i.

C.

Some courts have indicated that voluntary statements obtained in

violation of a defendants Sixth Amendment right to counsel may be
used to impeach a defendant, but this view is not unanimously shared.
United States v. Ortega, 203 F.3d 675 (9th Cir. 2000) (statements
may be used to impeach); United States v. Brown, 699 F.2d 585 (2d
Cir. 1983) (statements may not be used to impeach); People v. Brown
(1996) 42 Cal.App.4th 461, 49 Cal. Rptr. 2d 652 (1996) (statements
may be used to impeach); People v. Harper, 228 Cal. App. 3d 843,
279 Cal. Rptr. 204 (1991) (statements may not be used to impeach);
United States v. McManaman, 606 F. 2d 919, 925 (10th Cir. 1979)
(voluntary statements obtained in violation of Sixth Amendment may
be used to impeach); Martinez v. United States, 566 A.2d 1049
(D.C.1989) (allowing impeachment use of voluntary statement
despite failure to observe invoked right to counsel), cert. denied, 498
U.S. 1030, 111 S. Ct. 685, 112 L.Ed.2d 677 (1991); State v. Swallow,
405 N.W.2d 29 (S.D.1987) (allowing impeachment use of voluntary
statement despite failure to observe invoked Sixth Amendment right
to counsel); New York v. Ricco, 56 N.Y. 2d 320, 437 N.E. 2d 1097
(1982) (admissible for impeachment). See also Lucas v. New York,
474 U.S. 911, 106 S. Ct. 281, 88 L. Ed. 2d 246 (1985) (J. White,
dissenting from the denial of certiorari).

Physical evidence discovered due to statements given in violation of

the Sixth Amendment right to counsel may be suppressed. Fellers v.
United States, 540 U.S. 519, 124 S. Ct. 1019, 157 L. Ed. 2d 1016
(2004) (applying the fruits of the poisonous tree to statements
obtained in violation of the defendant's).

Establishing a Voluntary Statement

1.

A statement that was obtained in compliance with Miranda may still be excluded
from evidence if the confession was not voluntarily given.
59

2.

D.

The test in determining whether a confession is voluntary is whether the behavior of

the state's law enforcement officials was such as to overbear the defendant's will to
resist and bring about confessions not freely self-determined. State v. Tucker, 32 Wn.
App. 83, 85, 645 P.2d 711 (1982); State v. Forrester, 21 Wn. App. 855, 863, 587
P.2d 179 (1978); State v. DeCuir, 19 Wn. App. at 133-34; State v. Riley, 19 Wn.
App. 289, 298, 576 P.2d 1311 (1978); State v. Ficher, 13 Wn. App. 665, 667, 537
P.2d 1074 (1975).

Specific Issues that May Impact a Finding of Voluntariness

1.

Physical abuse
In looking at interrogative tactics that were found to violate a defendant's
constitutional rights, the historical prohibition has been against extracting
confessions by physical abuse.
C

2.

Confession found to be involuntary where police officers held gun to the head
of wounded confessant to extract confession. Beecher v. Alabama, 389 U.S.
35, 19 L. Ed. 2d 35, 88 S. Ct. 189 (1967).

Isolation
C

Confession obtained after 16 days of incommunicado interrogation in closed

cell without windows, limited food, and coercive tactics was inadmissible.
Davis v. North Carolina, 384 U.S. 737, 16 L. Ed. 2d 895, 86 S. Ct. 1761
(1966).

Confession from defendant who was held for five days of repeated
questioning during which police employed coercive tactics was inadmissible.
Culombe v. Connecticut, 367 U.S. 568, 6 L. Ed. 2d 1037, 81 S. Ct. 1860
(1961).

Refusing to allow the suspect to call his spouse until after the suspect signed
a confession rendered the confession involuntary. Haynes v. State, 373 U.S.
503, 83 S. Ct. 1336, 10 L. Ed. 2d 513 (1963).

Confession obtained from defendant after an attorney hired by the

defendants wife arrived at police station and was told by the police that he
could not speak to the defendant unless the defendant asked for an attorney
was voluntary despite failure of the police to inform defendant that an
attorney had been retained for him. State v. Bradford, 95 Wn. App. 935, 978
P.2d 534 (1999).

60

3.

4.

Confession obtained from a 17-year-old arrestee after nearly thirteen hours

of questioning by a tag team of detectives, without the presence of an attorney
or contact with any non-police, and without the protections of proper Miranda
warnings required the suppression of his confession. Doody v. Ryan, 649 F.3d
986 (9th Cir.), cert. denied, 132 S. Ct. 414 (2011).

Withholding of sleep, food, beverages, medical care and/or bathroom privileges

C

Defendant, on medication, interrogated for over 18 hours without food or

sleep. Greenwald v. Wisconsin, 390 U.S. 519, 20 L. Ed. 2d 77, 88 S. Ct. 1152
(1968).

Defendant held four days with inadequate food and medical attention until
confession obtained. Reck v. Pate, 367 U.S. 433, 6 L. Ed. 2d 948, 81 S. Ct.
1541 (1961).

Defendant questioned by relays of officers for thirty-six hours without an

opportunity for sleep. Ashcraft v. Tennessee, 322 U.S. 143, 88 L. Ed. 1192,
64 S. Ct. 921 (1944).

Confession obtained during 7 1/2-hour police interrogation which ended at

3:30 a.m., was held to be voluntary where suspect told police he had 11
hours sleep the night before and the suspect was permitted to drink coffee
and smoke during the interview. State v. Acheson, 48 Wn. App. 630, 634,
740 P.2d 346 (1987), review denied, 110 Wn.2d 004 (1988).

Intoxicated or medicated individuals

Intoxication alone does not, as a matter of law, render a defendants custodial
statements involuntary and thus inadmissible. State v. Turner, 31 Wn. App. 843845-46, 644 P.2d 1224, review denied, 97 Wn.2d 1029 (1982). Intoxication renders
a statement involuntary only if it rises to the level of mania. State v. Cuzzetto, 76
Wn. App. 378, 383, 457 P.2d 204 (1969). In this context, mania means that the
defendant was unable to comprehend what he was doing and saying. Id., at 386.
C

Confession of a defendant, who was subjected to 4-hour interrogation while

incapacitated and sedated in intensive-care unit, held to be involuntary.
Mincey v. Arizona, 437 U.S. 385, 57 L. Ed. 2d 290, 98 S. Ct. 2408 (1978).

Confession admissible, notwithstanding the defendants drug withdrawal

symptoms, where the defendant was coherent and oriented throughout the
interrogation. United States v. Kelley, 953 F.2d 562, 565 (9th Cir. 1992).

Confession admissible, notwithstanding the defendants claim that he was

undergoing heroin withdrawal when questioned, where the (1) defendant was
61

repeatedly advised of his Miranda rights; (2) he indicated he wanted to waive

them; (3) he appeared rational at all times; and (4) the jail physician saw no
necessity for medical treatment. State v. Turner, 31 Wn. App. 843, 847, 644
P.2d 1224, review denied, 97 Wn.2d 1029 (1982).
C

5.

Statements were voluntary despite the hospitalized suspects consumption

of pain medication, as the suspects nurse indicated that the suspect was well
enough to speak to the officer and the officer stopped the interview when the
suspect became tired. State v. Butler, 165 Wn. App. 820, 269 P.3d 315
(2012).

Promises or threats
A promise of leniency standing alone, does not automatically invalidate a confession;
rather, the totality of the circumstances must be closely examined to determine its
impact. Brady v. United States, 397 U.S. 742, 25 L. Ed. 2d 747, 90 S. Ct. 1463
(1970); Haynes v. Washington, 373 U.S. 503, 10 L. Ed. 2d 513, 83 S. Ct. 1336
(1963); State v. Unga, 165 Wn.2d 95, 196 P.3d 645 (2008). In order to result in a
suppression of a confession, the promise must be sufficiently compelling to overbear
the suspects will in light of all attendant circumstances. State v. Unga, 165 Wn.2d
95, 196 P.3d 645 (2008).

A bare offer by the police to reduce one count of murder from first degree to
second degree did not render the defendants confession involuntary where
the defendant did not identify this promise as one of the reasons for his
confession at the time he made the confession or when he testified at the CrR
3.5 hearing. State v. Riley, 19 Wn. App. 289, 576 P.2d 289, review denied,
90 Wn.2d 1013 (1978).

Statement from a juvenile offender who was told by the officer that the
officer would make a juvenile referral, without physical arrest, if he told the
officer about the burglary, was admissible and voluntary. State v. Riley, 17
Wn. App. 732, 736, 565 P.2d 105 (1977), review denied, 89 Wn.2d 1014
(1978).

Statement by defendant inadmissible where officers coerced defendant to

confess by promising him they would get his wife released from jail and
confronting him with illegally seized drugs. State v. Gonzales, 46 Wn. App.
388, 401, 731 P.2d 1101 (1986).

Defendant's confession not voluntary where induced by the statement that if

the defendant confessed he would not be prosecuted under the habitual
criminal statute. State v. Setzer, 20 Wn. App. 46, 51, 579 P.2d 957 (1978).

Confessions voluntary even though officer told the suspect that it was in his
62

favor to tell the truth. See, e.g., State v. Rook, 304 N.C. 201, 283 S.E.2d 732,
744 (1981), cert. denied, 455 U.S. 1038 (1982); People v. Dozier, 67
Ill.App.3d 611, 385 N.E.2d 155, 158, 24 Ill.Dec. 388 (1979).

6.

Confession voluntary even though police told suspect that they would
recommend "reasonable bail terms" if he cooperated. United States v. Reed,
572 F.2d 412, 426 (2nd Cir.), cert. denied, 439 U.S. 913 (1978).

Confession voluntary even though the detective promised the 16-year-old

suspect taht he would not be charged with a crime for the graffitti on the
interior of the stolen vehicle. State v. Unga, 165 Wn.2d 95, 196 P.3d 645
(2008).

Confession voluntary even though the polygrapher, who adopted an

empathetic and parental or maternal demeanor, told the 18-year-old defendant
that if he was telling the truth, and if he was in fact innocent, she could help
him get cleared. Ortiz v. Uribe, 671 F.3d 864 (9th Cir. 2011), cert. denied,
___ S. Ct. ___ (Mar. 26, 2012).

Youthful (18-year-old) defendants confession was not rendered involuntary

by the polygraphers statements that reminded the defendant of his obligation
to his family to tell the truth and that his children were counting on him to do
the right thing. . Ortiz v. Uribe, 671 F.3d 864 (9th Cir. 2011), cert. denied,
___ S. Ct. ___ (Mar. 26, 2012).

Mental illness or low intelligence

A criminal defendants mental illness or low intelligence will not necessarily render
a defendants confession involuntary, but it is a factor to be considered in
determining voluntariness.
C

Defendant's confession to murder was admissible under Miranda and the

Due Process Clause where police did not coerce the confession despite
defendant's claim that his mental illness compelled his waiver of his Miranda
rights. Colorado v. Connelly, 479 U.S. 157, 107 S. Ct. 515, 93 L. Ed. 2d 473
(1986).

Confession by defendant, who was hospitalized at Western State after being

found incompetent to stand trial, and who was administered strong antipsychotic drugs and was exhibiting symptoms of schizophrenia when
confession was made, was not voluntary. State v. Sergent, 27 Wn. App. 947,
(1980), review denied, 95 Wn.2d 1010 (1981).

63

7.

Language barriers
a.

8.

Confession from a defendant who had the mental age of a 9.9-year old, a
borderline I.Q. of 77, and was considered a slow learner found to be
voluntary. State v. Massey, 60 Wn. App. 131, 803 P.2d 340 (1990), review
denied, 115 Wn.2d 1021 (1991).

Warnings must be administered to a suspect in a language that the suspect

understands.
i.

Using a co-defendant as interpreter for advising defendant of his

Miranda rights will lead to the suppression of any confession. State
v. Cervantes, 62 Wn. App. 695, 814 P.2d 1232 (1991).

ii.

Do not use victims of crimes or witnesses to crimes as interpreters.

iii.

The use of an uncertified interpreter during a police interrogation may

render any statements made by the defendant inadmissible for any
purpose, including impeachment. See State v. Gonzalez-Hernandez,
122 Wn. App. 53, 92 P.3d 789 (2004).

iv.

When warnings are read to a suspect by an interpreter, the State must

demonstrate that the interpreter actually read the warnings correctly.
This requirement can be met by the testimony of the interpreter, the
testimony of a witness who also understands the language the
interpreter spoke, or by a tape recording of the interaction coupled
with the in court testimony of a competent interpreter. Cf. State v.
Morales, 173 Wn.2d 560, 269 P.3d 263 (2012) (stating rule
applicable to the statutorily required implied consent warnings).

Prior experience with the criminal justice system

Substantial experience with the criminal justice system will support the conclusion
that the defendant appreciates the gravity of the Miranda warnings. See, e.g. State
v. Hutchinson, 85 Wn. App. 726, 938 P.2d 336 (1997) (in 12 preceding years,
defendant had been Mirandized on at least five separate occasions, and on each
occasion had acknowledged those rights, waived them, and answered questions).

9.

Deception
Some deception will be allowed on the part of the officer. The critical question is
whether deception on the part of the police officer overcame the suspects will to
resist.
C

A confession has been held to be voluntary even though police concealed the
64

fact that the victim had died. People v. Smith, 108 Ill. App. 2d 172, 246
N.E.2d 689 (1969), cert. denied, 397 U.S. 1001 (1970).

Statement found to be voluntarily given where police wrongly told codefendant that his confession could be used against suspect, police then let
co-defendant and suspect confer. During conference, co-defendant told
suspect his confession would be used against suspect. See, e.g., State v.
Braun, 82 Wn.2d 157, 509 P.2d 742 (1973).
C

10.

A confession has been held to be voluntary even though the suspect

was falsely told his polygraph examination showed gross deceptive
patterns. State v. Keiper, 8 Ore. App. 354, 493 P.2d 750 (1972).

A confession has been held to be voluntary even though the suspect was
falsely told, or that a co-suspect had named him as the triggerman.
Commonwealth v. Baity, 428 Pa. 306, 237 A.2d 172 (1968).

A confession was held to be admissible even though the police falsely told
the defendant that they had obtained a victims hair sample in vehicle driven
by defendant. State v. Burkins, 94 Wn. App. 677, 973 P.2d 15 (1999).

Sympathy, Empathy, or Paternal Manner

A polygraphers empathetic and parental or maternal questioning style did not

render the 18-year-old defendants confession involuntary. . Ortiz v. Uribe,
671 F.3d 864 (9th Cir. 2011), cert. denied, ___ S. Ct. ___ (Mar. 26, 2012).

"'[A] raised voice, deception, or a sympathetic attitude on the part of the

interrogator will not render a confession involuntary unless the overall impact
of the interrogation caused the defendant's will to be overborne.'"United
States v. Astello, 241 F.3d 965, 967 (8th Cir. 2001), (quoting Jenner v. Smith,
982 F.2d 329, 334 (8th Cir. 1993)).

Placing a defendant in a relaxed and comfortable mood by the use of

empathetic conversation for three or four minutes does not rise to a level of
psychological manipulation that will render a confession involuntary. Sotelo
v. Indiana State Prison, 850 F.2d 1244, 1249 (7th Cir. 1988),

A sympathetic attitude on the part of an interrogator is not in itself enough to

render a confession involuntary. See, e.g., Beckwith v. United States, 425 U.S.
341, 343, 348, 96 S. Ct. 1612, 1614, 1617, 48 L. Ed. 2d 1 (1976),
(interrogator adopted sympathetic attitude but resulting confession was
voluntary). Even where a friendly interrogator's questioning involved
misrepresentation of facts the Supreme Court has held that there was no error
in the admission of a defendant's confession. Frazier v. Cupp, 394 U.S. 731,
65

737-40, 89 S. Ct. 1420, 1424-25, 22 L. Ed. 2d 684 (1969). Accord Miller v.

Fenton, 796 F.2d 598, 607 (3d Cir.), cert. denied, 479 U.S. 989 (1986).

"Excessive friendliness on the part of an interrogator can be deceptive. In

some instances, in combination with other tactics, it might create an
atmosphere in which a suspect forgets that his questioner is in an adversarial
role, and thereby prompt admissions that the suspect would ordinarily only
make to a friend, not to the police." Miller v. Fenton, 796 F.2d at 604 (3d Cir.
1986), cert. denied, 479 U.S. 989, 107 S. Ct. 585, 93 L. Ed. 2d 587 (1986).
"Nevertheless, the 'good guy' approach is recognized as a permissible
interrogation tactic." Id. (holding confession admissible despite interrogating
officer's "supportive, encouraging manner . . . aimed at winning [appellant's]
trust and making him feel comfortable about confessing."). See also Beckwith
v. United States, 425 U.S. 341, 343, 96 S. Ct. 1612, 48 L. Ed. 2d 1 (1976)
(interrogator had sympathetic attitude but confession voluntary); Frazier v.
Cupp, 394 U.S. 731, 737-38, 89 S. Ct. 1420, 22 L. Ed. 2d 684 (1969)
(confession voluntary when petitioner began confessing after the officer
"sympathetically suggested that the victim had started a fight.").

66

CONFESSION AND INTERROGATION

(Seth Fines Summary of the Rules)
1.

Suspect out of custody and not formally charged

Police may initiate interrogation about any crime, so long as officers do not compel an unwilling
suspect to talk to them. No Miranda warnings need be given. These rules are not affected by
suspects previous attempts to assert rights.

2.

Suspect out of custody but formally charged

Police may initiate interrogation about the crime that has been charged only if Miranda warnings
are given. Police may initiate interrogation about any other crime without giving Miranda warnings,
so long as officers do not compel an unwilling suspect to talk to them. These rules are not affected
by suspects previous attempts to assert rights.

3.

Suspect in custody (no previous assertion of rights)

Police may initiate interrogation about any crime. Miranda warnings must be given.

4.

Suspect in custody (previous assertion of right to remain silent)

Police may initiate interrogation only if the suspects right to silence is scrupulously honored.
Factors that may justify initiation of interrogation include (a) lapse of time, (b) change in
circumstances (e.g., discovery of significant new evidence), and (c) interrogation about different
crime. Miranda warnings must be given.
Note: Assertion of right to remain silent is only valid if made during custodial interrogation.
Assertion remains effective so long as suspect is in continuous custody. If assertion was made
outside of custodial interrogation, or if suspect has been released and re-arrested, situation is the
same as (2) above.

5.

Suspect in custody (previous assertion of right to counsel)

Police may not initiate interrogation about any crime.
Note: Assertion of right to counsel is only valid if made during custodial interrogation. Assertion
remains effective until suspect is released from custody for at least 14 days. If assertion was made
outside of custodial interrogation, or if suspect has been released for more than 14 days and then
re-arrested, situation is the same as (3) above.

6.

Suspect initiates contact with police

Notwithstanding the limitations described above, police may interrogate suspect on the subjects as
to which he initiated contact. Miranda warnings must be given if suspect is in custody or has been
formally charged. It is advisable to obtain written statement from suspect confirming that he
initiated contact.

67

Search, Seizure and Arrest

I.

Introduction
Law enforcement officers are sworn to uphold the Constitution of the United States and the
Constitution of the State of Washington. The federal constitution protects the right of people
from unreasonable searches and seizures.
FOURTH AMENDMENT-U.S. CONSTITUTION
The right of the people to be secure in their persons, houses, papers,
and effects, against unreasonable searches and seizures, shall not be violated,
and no Warrants shall issue, but upon probable cause, supported by Oath or
affirmation, and particularly describing the place to be searched, and the
persons or things to be seized.
The federal constitution and the cases interpreting the Fourth Amendment establish the
floor or minimum amount of protection that the federal government and every state
government must extend to individuals. States, however, are free to provide individuals
located within their borders with greater protection from search and seizure than that
guaranteed by the Fourth Amendment.
It is by now commonplace to observe Const. art. 1, 7 provides protections for the citizens
of Washington which are qualitatively different from, and in some cases broader than, those
provided by the Fourth Amendment. City of Seattle v. McCready, 123 Wn.2d 260, 267, 868
P.2d 134 (1994). This observation rests, in large part, upon the clear variance in the wording
of the two provisions.
ARTICLE I, SECTION 7-WASHINGTON CONSTITUTION
No person shall be disturbed in his private affairs, or his home
invaded, without authority of law.
A determination of whether Const. art. I, 7 provides broader protection than the Fourth
Amendment in a particular case requires consideration of the six nonexclusive factors first
articulated by the Washington Supreme Court in State v. Gunwall, 106 Wn.2d 54, 720 P.2d
808 (1986). Four of the six factors7 require a review of the language and structure of the
constitution from the viewpoint of the ratifying citizenry: The remaining two factors look
to post-adoption events, but always with an eye to maintaining the rights as originally
established against changed expectations. See, e.g., State v. Sieyes, 168 Wn.2d 276, 225

The factors are: (1) the textual language; (2) textual differences; (3) constitutional and common law history;
(4) preexisting state law; (5) structural differences; and (6) matters of particular state or federal concern. Gunwall, 106
W n.2d at 61-62. determine in any given case whether the state constitution provides different and broader protection
than the federal constitution. State v. Gunwall, 106 W n.2d 54, 61-62, 720 P.2d 808 (1986).

68

P.3d 995 (2010) (constitutional rights are enshrined with the scope they were understood to
have when the people adopted them, whether or not future generations think the scope too
broad or too narrow); State v. Eisfeldt, 163 Wn.2d 628, 637, 185 P.3d 580 (2008) (article I,
section 7 protections are not confined to the subjective privacy expectations of modern
citizens); State v. Jorden, 160 Wn.2d 121, 137, 156 P.3d 893 (2007) (Madsen, J.,
dissenting) ("To decide if an interest is one that citizens of the State have held,' we look to
the protection historically accorded the interest.").
The size of the gulf created by the difference in the actual words depends upon the meaning
the ordinary citizen would give to the phrase private affairs in 1889. See generally State
ex rel. State Capitol Commission v. Lister, 91 Wash. 9, 14, 156 P. 858 (1916). When Const.
art. I, 7 was adopted in 1889, the phrase private affairs was understood to mean a
persons papers and business affairs.8 In other words, this language merely restated the
protections afforded by the Fourth Amendment. This conclusion is supported by early
Washington cases which resolved questions under Const. art. I, 7 by relying upon decisions
issued by states whose constitutional language bore a greater resemblance to the Fourth
Amendment than to Const. art. I, 7. See, e.g., State v. Royce, 38 Wash. 111, 80 P. 268
(1905) (citing cases from Illinois, Georgia, Missouri, Alabama, South Carolina, and New
Hampshire). This tacit understanding was explicitly acknowledged by this Court in later
years.9 See, e.g, State v. Smith, 88 Wn.2d 127, 133, 559 P.2d 970 (1977) ("It is apparent that
8

See, e.g., ICC v. Brimson, 154 U.S. 447, 478 (1894) (the principles that embody the essence of constitutional
liberty and security forbid all invasions on the part of the government and its employees of the sanctity of a man's home,
and the privacies of his life. As said by Mr. Justice Field in In re Pacific Railway Commission, 32 Fed. Rep. 241, 250,
of all the rights of the citizen, few are of greater importance or more essential to his peace and happiness than the right
of personal security, and that involves, not merely protection of his person from assault, but exemption of his private
affairs, books, and papers from the inspection and scrutiny of others. W ithout the enjoyment of this right, all others would
lose half their value.); United States v. Boyd, 46 U.S. 29, 50 (1846) ("The public moneys in his hands constitute a
fund, which it is his duty to keep, and which the law presumes is kept, distinct and separate from his own private affairs.
It is only upon this view, that he can be allowed to purchase the public lands at all, consistently with the provisions of
the act of Congress."); Hunter v. United States, 30 U.S. 173, 187 (1831) ("It might be dangerous to give the same effect
to a voluntary payment, by an agent of the government, as if made by an individual in his own right. The concerns of the
government are so complicated and extensive, that no head of any branch of it can have the same personal knowledge
of the details of business, which may be presumed in private affairs."); United States v. Duane, 25 F. Cas. 920, 921
(1801) ("Jurors are not volunteers; they are called here by compulsion of law, and generally give their attendance to the
great detriment of their private affairs.").
9

Some of the W ashington Supreme Courts recent opinions substitute the phrase right to privacy for Const.
art. I, 7's actual private affairs language. See, e.g., State v. Schultz, 170 W n.2d 746, 758, 248 P.3d 484 (2011). This
rephrasing is less awkward to modern ears then the original historical language. This rephrasing, however, creates a risk
that Const. art. I, 7 decisions will become unmoored from its historical underpinnings.
The phrase right to privacy has a popular and emotionally charged meaning that was unknown to the drafters
of our Constitution. The delegates to the constitutional convention, however, lived in a world that did not recognize a
right to privacy that could be vindicated in courts. The concept of a tort right of privacy was pioneered in a law
review article published one year after the W ashington Constitution was ratified. See S. W arren and L. Brandeis, The
Right of Privacy, 4 Harv. L. Rev. 193 (1890).
The first discussion of a right of privacy in a W ashington case was in Hillman v. Star Publishing Co., 64
W ash. 691, 117 P. 594 (1911). In that case, a newspaper published an article describing the filing of criminal charges

69

the fourth amendment to the United States Constitution and article 1, section 7 of the
Washington State Constitution are comparable and are to be given comparable constitutional
interpretation and effect."); State v. Miles, 29 Wn.2d 921, 926, 190 P.2d 740 (1948) ("It will
be observed that the fourth amendment to the constitution of the United States, and Art. 1,
7, or our state constitution, although they vary slightly in language, are identical in purpose
and substance.").
While the text of the Washington Constitution does not support significant deviations from
the protections provided by the Fourth Amendment, the structure of the Washington
Constitution does support modest departures from Fourth Amendment rules. The simple fact
that the Declaration of Rights is the first section of the States Constitution supports the
proposition that protection of individual rights against government intrusion was a significant
concern of the drafters. State v. Schelin, 147 Wn.2d 562, 593-94, 54 P.3d 632 (2002)
(Sanders, J., dissenting). The state constitution limits powers of state government, while the
federal constitution grants power to the federal government. State v. Russell, 125 Wn.2d 24,
61, 882 P.2d 747 (1994) (citing Gunwall, 106 Wn.2d at 66).
This structural difference did not historically result in article 1, section 7 rulings that were
significantly different than opinions that relied upon the Fourth Amendment. Prior to 1961
all Washington search cases were based solely on article 1, section 7, as the Fourth
Amendment had not yet been applied to the states. Once the United States Supreme Court
held Mapp v. Ohio, 367 U.S. 643, 655, 81 S. Ct. 1684, 6 L. Ed. 2d 1081 (1961), that the
Fourteenth Amendment applies the Fourth Amendment to the states, Washingtons appellate
courts initially relied upon federal court search cases because the protections afforded under
the Fourth Amendment in those cases was frequently greater than that afforded in the pre1961 Washington jurisprudence. See, e.g., State v. Michaels, 60 Wn.2d 638, 374 P.2d 989
(1962) (disapproving of prior Washington car search cases as inconsistent with opinions of
the United States Supreme Court and the Ninth Circuit). Whether citing federal cases or only
state cases, the courts determined the legality of the search and seizure under article I, section
7. See State v. Smith, 9 Wn. App. 309, 311, 511 P.2d 1390 (1973) (The legality of a search
and seizure must be determined under state law initially, but the constitutional protection
given to citizens from unreasonable searches and seizures must be no less than that given
under the standards set forth by the federal courts.).

against a man. The article included a photograph of his daughter. The daughter sued, claiming that this publication
violated her right of privacy. This Court held that there was no such right: "Not so much because a primary right may
not exist, but because, in the absence of a statute, no fixed line between public and private character can be drawn." The
opinion closed with a call for legislative action on this subject. As late as 1950, this Court continued to question the very
existence of a right to privacy. See, e.g., Lewis v. Physician's & Dentists Credit Bureau, Inc., 27 W n.2d 267, 177 P.2d
896 (1947) (tracing the origin of the phrase right of privacy to the 1890 law review article and noting that in a
majority of the states even the existence of the right is still an open question.); State ex rel. Hodde v. Superior Court,
40 W n.2d 502, 244 P.2d 668 (1952) (rejecting claims that the activities of the legislative investigative committees
violated a right of privacy); State v. James, 36 W n.2d 882, 221 P.2d 482 (1950) (same).

70

Beginning in the 1980's, the Washington Supreme Court expressly identified some opinions
as applying the Fourth Amendment and some opinions as applying Const. art. I, section 7.
When an opinion does not expressly state which constitution is being applied, the default rule
is that the state constitution was applied. See State v. Patton, 167 Wn.2d 379, 385, 219 P.3d
651 (2009) (When a party claims both state and federal constitutional violations, we turn
first to our state constitution.).
In April of 2012, the Washington Supreme Court highlighted the differences between the
Fourth Amendment and article I, section 7, stating that [t]he protections guaranteed by
article I, section 7 are qualitatively different from those under the Fourth Amendment. State
v. Snapp, 174 Wn.2d 177, 187 at 23, ___ P.3d ___ (2012). [A]rticle I, section 7 is not
grounded in notions of reasonableness. Rather, it prohibits any disturbance of an individual's
private affairs without authority of law. Id., at 39. The authority of law to search under
article I, section 7 is not simply a matter of pragmatism and convenience. Id., at 43.
Because Const. art. I, 7 is frequently interpreted as providing broader protection than the
Fourth Amendment, most materials on search and seizure prepared for a national audience
will not accurately set forth Washington law. Specific instances where article 1, section 7
goes further than the Fourth Amendment are listed in the table at the end of these materials.
It is important that every police officer and prosecutor understand the rights guaranteed by
both the Fourth Amendment and article I, section 7. Failure to honor an individuals right
to be free from unreasonable search and seizure under the Fourth Amendment can result in
civil liability, criminal liability, and/or the suppression of evidence. Failure to honor an
individuals right to be free from unreasonable search and seizure under article I, section 7
can result in criminal liability and/or the suppression of evidence.10
II.

Definitions

A.

Search
1.

Fourth Amendment. For constitutional purposes, under the fourth amendment, a

search occurs when the state intrudes upon an area where a person has a legitimate
reasonable expectation of privacy.

2.

Const. art. I, 7. Violation of a right of privacy under Article 1, section 7 turns on

whether the State has unreasonably intruded into a person's "private affairs". State
v. Young,135 Wn.2d 498, 957 P.2d 681 (1998); State v Rose, 128 Wn.2d 388, 909
P.2d 280 (1996); State v. Goucher, 124 Wn.2d 778, 881 P.2d 210 (1994).

10

W ashington Constitution art. I, 7 will not support a private cause of action for damages. See Reid v. Pierce
County, 136 W n.2d 195, 961 P.2d 333, 342 (1998) (stating that Washington courts do not recognize a private cause of
action for State constitutional violations); Spurrell v. Block, 40 W n. App. 854, 701 P.2d 529, 534-35 (1985) (same); Sys.
Amusement, Inc. v. State, 7 W n. App. 516, 500 P.2d 1253, 1254-55 (1972) (same).

71

3.

Difference Between the Constitutional Definitions. The difference between Const.

art. 1, 7 and the Fourth Amendment has been explained as follows:
Const. art. 1, 7 analysis encompasses those legitimate privacy
expectations protected by the Fourth Amendment, but is not confined
to the subjective privacy expectations of modern citizens who, due to
well publicized advances in surveillance technology, are learning to
expect diminished privacy in many aspects of their lives. Rather, it
focuses on those privacy interests which citizens of this state have
held, and should be entitled to hold, safe from governmental trespass
absent a warrant.
State v. Boland, 115 Wn.2d 571, 800 P.2d 1112 (1990).
[T]he test for a disturbance of a disturbance of a persons private
affairs under article 1, section 7 is a purely objective one, looking to
the actions of the law enforcement officer, thus rejecting the test for
a seizure under the Fourth Amendment
State v. Young, 135 Wn.2d 498, 501, 957 P.2d 681 (1998).
Under the Fourth Amendment a
seizure is a mixed
objective/subjective test. A seizure occurs when the officer, by
means of physical force or a show of authority, has in some way
restrained the liberty of the citizen.
California v. Hodari D., 499 U.S. 621, 626, 111 S. Ct. 1547, 113 L. Ed.2d 690
(1991).

B.

Seizure
1.

Property.
For constitutional purposes, a seizure occurs when there is some
meaningful interference with an individual's possessory interest in property and a
government official exercises dominion and control over the property or the person.
No seizure occurs when an individual voluntarily relinquishes a piece of property.
State v. Wethered, 110 Wn.2d 466, 755 P.2d 797 (1988) (hashish voluntarily
retrieved by the defendant from the defendants vehicle was admissible); State v.
Freeman, 17 Wn. App. 377, 381, 563 P.2d 1283, review denied, 89 Wn.2d 1007
(1977) ("consensual relinquishment of an item cannot fairly be construed as a
seizure;" defendant removed an incriminating sweatshirt and handed it to the
investigating officer).

72

2.

Person. A "seizure" occurs when the circumstances surrounding the encounter

demonstrate that a reasonable person would not feel free to disregard the officer and
go about his business. California v. Hodari D., 111 S. Ct. 1547, 1551, 113 L. Ed. 2d
690.
A person is seized within the meaning of the Fourth
Amendment of the United States Constitution only when restrained
by means of physical force or a show of authority. A police officer
does not necessarily seize a person by striking up a conversation or
asking questions....The relevant inquiry for the court in deciding
whether a person has been seized is whether a reasonable person
would have felt free to leave or otherwise decline the officers request
and terminate the encounter. The court must look to the totality of
circumstances to determine whether a seizure has occurred.
State v. Thorn, 129 Wn.2d 347, 352, 917 P.2d 108 (1996).
With respect to pedestrians, the Court has stated that:
In our judgment, a police officers conduct in engaging a defendant
in conversation in a public place and asking for identification does
not, alone, raise the encounter to an investigative detention.
State v. Armenta, 134 Wn.2d 1, 11, 948 P.2d 1280(1997). This same rule applies
to individuals who are in parked vehicles. See State v. Afana, 147 Wn. App. 843,
196 P.3d 770 (2008), review granted, 166 Wn.2d 1001 (2009); State v. Mote, 129
Wn. App. 276, 120 P.3d 596 (2005).
The rule is different with respect to passengers in a moving car. For a passenger in
a moving car, an officer seizes the person by asking for identification or name and
birth date. An officer may only request identification if the officer has reasonable
suspicion to believe the passenger has committed a traffic infraction or a crime, or
if the passenger needs to be identified as a witness to any crime. State v. Rankin, 151
Wn.2d 689, 92 P.3d 202 (2004); State v. Brown, 154 Wn.2d 787, 117 P.3d 336
(2005). An officer may not request that the driver identify the passengers in the
vehicle unless the officer has reasonable suspicion to believe the passengers have
committed a traffic infraction or a crime, or if the passenger needs to be identified as
a witness to any crime, or if the passenger needs to be identified as part of the
investigation into the actions of the driver (i.e. to determine whether the driver is
violating a restricted license by carrying non-family members as passengers). State
v. Allen, 138 Wn. App. 463, 157 P.3d 893 (2007). When the identification is made
to determine whether the passenger and the driver are barred from contact by a court
order, the officer must have a specific basis to believe that the passenger is either the
protected or restrained person. Compare State v. Pettit, 160 Wn. App. 716, 251 P.3d
896 (2011) (officer properly asked the passenger her name when the officer knew that
73

the protected person was a 16-year-old female and the passenger appeared to be a 16year-old female), with State v. Allen, 138 Wn. App. 463, 469, 157 P.3d 893 (2007)
(officer improperly asked the passenger his name when he did not know the sex of
the person who was restrained from contact with the driver).
Whether a seizure occurs does not turn upon an officer's suspicions. Whether a
person has been restrained by a police officer must be determined based upon the
interaction between the person and the officer. Not only is the nature of the officer's
subjective suspicion generally irrelevant to the question whether a seizure has
occurred under Terry there are sound reasons why it should be irrelevant to that
question. See State v. ONeill, 148 Wn.2d 564, 62 P.3d 489, 495-96 (2003). In other
words, the standard is a purely objective one, looking to the actions of the law
enforcement officer. The relevant question is whether a reasonable person in the
individual's position would feel he or she was being detained. State v. Harrington,
167 Wn.2d 656, 222 P.3d 92 (2009).
a.

Specific Examples
C

The shining of a flashlight on a person in a public place is not a

seizure. State v. Young, 135 Wn.2d 498, 957 P.2d 681 (1998).

Article 1, section 7 does not forbid social contacts between police and
citizens.

No seizure occurred when an officer asked someone who exited a

vehicle and who was walking away for identification so the officer
could verify that the individual was not another person who was
suspected of committing a crime. State v. Vanderpool, 145 Wn. App.
81, 184 P.3d 1282 (2008).

A seizure for constitutional purposes occurs when an officer retains

a suspects ID or drivers license and takes it with him to conduct a
warrants check. State v. Thomas, 91 Wn. App.195, 955 P.2d 420,
review denied, 136 Wn.2d 1030 (1998); State v. Dudas, 52 Wn. App.
822, 834, 764 P.2d 1012, review denied 112 Wn.2d 1011 (1989). So
long as the officer does not remove the ID or license from the
individuals presence and the ID or license is returned to the
individual while waiting for a warrants check to be performed, a
seizure does not occur by a police officers retention of the
identification or drivers license for the few minutes required to
record the individuals name and birth date. See State v. Hansen, 99
Wn. App. 575, 994 P.2d 855 (2000).

74

A seizure occurs if an officer demands, versus requests, identification.

See State v. Rankin, 108 Wn. App. 948, 33 P.3d 1090 (2001),
reversed on other grounds, 151 Wn.2d 689, 92 P.3d 202 (2004).. In
reference to whether a seizure has occurred, the determination of
whether an officer has required identification is a question of fact.
The words used by the officer are relevant, but not dispositive, in
determining whether the officer has required or merely requested
identification. Other factors include but are not limited to the officer's
tone of voice and manner, the officer's position at the vehicle, and
whether the officer has made a show of force. The fact that a
uniformed police officer has effected a traffic stop on the vehicle may
be taken into consideration, but this factor alone does not transform
a permissible request for identification into an impermissible demand.

Examples of circumstance that might indicate a seizure, even where

the person did not attempt to leave, would be the threatening presence
of several officers, the display of a weapon by an officer, some
physical touching of the person of the citizen, or the use of language
or tone of voice indicating that compliance with the officer's request
might be compelled. In the absence of some such evidence, otherwise
inoffensive contact between a member of the public and the police
cannot, as a matter of law, amount to a seizure of that person. State
v. Young, 135 Wn.2d 498, 512, 957 P.2d 681 (1998), quoting United
States v. Mendenhall, 446 U.S. 544, 554-55, 100 S. Ct. 1870, 1877,
64 L. Ed.2d 497 (1980).

A seizure occurred when an officer flagged a person down as that

person was getting into his car to leave a parking lot, indicating that
he wanted to talk to the person by yelling at the person "to hold on a
minute. State v. Dorey, 145 Wn. App. 423, 186 P.3d 363 (2008).

A seizure does not occur when a police officer approaches an

individual who is sitting in a parked vehicle and asks, but does not
demand, the individual's identification. See, e.g., State v. O'Neill, 148
Wn.2d 564, 62 P.3d 489 (2003) (officer did not seize occupant of
parked car by approaching vehicle, shining a flashlight into the car,
and asking the occupant to roll down the window); State v. Mote, 129
Wn. App. 276, 120 P.3d 596 (2005) (a person seated in a parked car
is comparable to a pedestrian and Const. art. I, 7, does not prohibit
an officer from asking for identification from such a person); State v.
Cerrillo, 122 Wn. App. 341, 93 P.3d 960 (2004) (men sleeping in
parked truck were not seized when police officers woke the men up,
asked to see the driver's identification, and then advised the driver
not to move the vehicle until he sobered up); State v. Knox, 86 Wn.
App. 831, 833, 939 P.2d 710 (1997), overruled on other grounds by
75

State v. O'Neill, 148 Wn.2d 564, 62 P.3d 489 (2003) (no seizure took
place when an officer approached a vehicle parked on a ferry and
asked the sleeping driver repeatedly to roll down the window).

C.

A seizure does not occur when a law enforcement officer knocks on

a door and announces who he or she is. In doing so, the officer does
no more than any private citizen might do. And whether the person
who knocks on the door and requests the opportunity to speak is a
police officer or a private citizen, the occupant has no obligation to
open the door or to speak. . . And even if an occupant chooses to
open the door and speak with the officers, the occupant need not
allow the officers to enter the premises and may refuse to answer any
questions at any time. Kentucky v. King, ___ U.S. ___, 131 S. Ct.
1849, 179 L. Ed. 2d 865 (2011).

A seizure does not occur when an officer who lacks a reasonable

suspicion questions an individual about his or her immigration status.
Muehler v. Mena, 544 U.S. 93, 125 S. Ct. 1465, 1471-72, 161 L. Ed.
2d 299 (2005). Be aware that some jurisdictions have local
ordinances precluding officers from asking such questions except
where the questioning is mandated by a specific law.

An officer seizes a vehicle by pulling behind the vehicle and

activating a patrol cars emergency lights. State v. Gantt, 163 Wn.
App. 133 (2011), review denied, 173 Wn.2d 1011 (2012). This rule
may only apply when officers use lights that are not on a typical
vehicle. The use of yellow blinkers, similar to the emergency lights
on private automobiles, to alert traffic to the officers presence, may
not constitute a seizure. The use of blue or red lights that are visible
from the front of the patrol car will be deemed a show of authority.
Questions should be asked to clarify which lights or combinations of
lights the officer used. Officers should specify which lights were used
in their police reports.

Probable Cause
1.

Generally. The probable cause test requires the same amount of evidence for both
arrests and searches. Probable cause requires:
C

Sufficient facts to lead a reasonable person to conclude that there is a

probability that the defendant is involved in criminal activity. State v.
Gentry, 125 Wn.2d 570, 607, 888 P.2d 1105, cert. denied, 516 U.S. 843
(1995).

76

2.

There must be "reasonable grounds for suspicion supported by circumstances

sufficiently strong to warrant a man of ordinary caution to believe" the
suspect is involved in criminal activity. Probable cause is a quantum of
evidence less than would justify a conviction, but more than bare suspicion.
Brinegar v. United States, 338 U.S. 160, 175, 93 L. Ed. 1879, 69 S. Ct. 1302
(1949); State v. Cord, 103 Wn.2d 361, 365, 693 P.2d 81 (1985); State v.
Conner, 58 Wn. App. 90, 97, 791 P.2d 261 (1990).

For Arrest
a.

Generally. To make an arrest, the officer need not have facts sufficient to
establish guilt beyond a reasonable doubt but only reasonable grounds for
suspicion coupled with evidence of circumstances sufficiently strong in
themselves to warrant a cautious and disinterested person in believing that the
suspect is guilty." State v. Bellows, 72 Wn.2d 264, 266, 432 P.2d 654 (1967).
Probable cause to arrest exists when officers have knowledge or reasonably
trustworthy information sufficient to lead a person of reasonable caution to
believe that an offense has been or is being committed by the person being
arrested. For information to amount to probable cause, it does not have to be
conclusive of guilt, and it does not have to exclude the possibility of
innocence. . . police are not required "to believe to an absolute certainty, or
by clear and convincing evidence, or even by a preponderance of the
available evidence" that a suspect has committed a crime. All that is required
is a "fair probability," given the totality of the evidence, that such is the case.
Garcia v. County of Merced, 639 F.3d 1206 (9th Cir. 2011).

b.

Objective. Probable cause is generally an objective standard. It is

determined with reference to a reasonable person with the expertise and
experience of the officer in question. The expertise of an officer is critical.
What constitutes probable cause is viewed from the vantage point of a
reasonably prudent and cautious police officer. State v. Remboldt, 64 Wn.
App. 510, 827 P.2d 505, review denied, 119 Wn.2d 1005 (1992).
i.

Pre-Text Stops/Arrests Prohibited. While the United States

Supreme Court has indicated that an officers subjective reasons for
a stop or arrest are irrelevant under the constitution, the Washington
Supreme Court held otherwise in State v. Ladson, 138 Wn.2d 343,
979 P.2d 833 (1999):
[T]he problem with a pretextual traffic stop is that it
is a search or seizure which cannot be constitutionally
justified for its true reason (i.e., speculative criminal
investigation), but only for some other reason (i.e., to
enforce traffic code) which is at once lawfully
77

sufficient but not the real reason. Pretext is therefore

a triumph of form over substance; a triumph of
expediency at the expense of reason. But it is against
the standard of reasonableness which our constitution
measures exceptions to the general rule, which forbids
search or seizure absent a warrant. Pretext is result
without reason.
....
Article I, section 7, forbids use of pretext as a
justification for a warrantless search or seizure
because our constitution requires we look beyond the
formal justification for the stop to the actual one. In
the case of pretext, the actual reason for the stop is
inherently unreasonable, otherwise the use of pretext
would be unnecessary.
....
When determining whether a given stop is
pretextual, the court should consider the totality of the
circumstances, including both the subjective intent of
the officer as well as the objective reasonableness of
the officer's behavior. Cf. State v. Angelos, 86 Wn.
App. 253, 256, 936 P.2d 52 (1997) ("When the use of
the emergency exception is challenged on appeal, the
reviewing court must satisfy itself that the claimed
emergency was not simply a pretext for conducting an
evidentiary search. To satisfy the exception, the State
must show that the officer, both subjectively and
objectively, 'is actually motivated by a perceived need
to render aid or assistance.' ") (citations omitted)
(quoting State v. Loewen, 97 Wn.2d 562, 568, 647
P.2d 489 (1982)). We recognize the Court of Appeals
has held that the test for pretext is objective only. See
State v. Chapin, 75 Wn. App. 460, 464, 879 P.2d 300
(1994). But an objective test may not fully answer the
critical inquiry: Was the officer conducting a
pretextual traffic stop or not?
Ladson, 138 Wn.2d at 838-43.
The full parameters of the Ladson holding are still being litigated.
More suppression motions can be expected as a result of the Ladson
decision over the next few years. Information that should be included
in reports to assist the prosecutor and the defense attorney in
evaluating a Ladson challenge includes:

78

Assigned duties for that day. Whether an officer is on routine

patrol is not, however, dispositive of the pretext issue. See
State v. Montes-Malindas, 144 Wn. App. 254, 182 P.3d 999
(2008).

Whether the officer recognized the defendant prior to

initiating the stop.

Whether the officer was intentionally following the

defendants vehicle prior to the stop. See State v. Gibson, 152
Wn. App. 945, 219 P.3d 964 (2009).

Why this car was chosen for equipment enforcement or for

enforcement of infraction law.

The most recent pretext stop cases have clarified some things.
Specifically:
C

Ladson does not apply to searches based upon a validly issued

warrant. See State v. Landsen, 144 Wn.2d 654, 662, 30 P.3d
483 (2001).

Patrol officers whose suspicions have been aroused may still

enforce the traffic code, so long as enforcement of the traffic
code is the actual reason for the stop. State v. Hoang, 101 Wn.
App.732, 6 P.3d 602 (2000).

If enforcement of the traffic code is only one basis for the

stop, the stop may be found to be unconstitutional. See See
State v. Arreola, 163 Wn. App. 787; 260 P.3d 985 (2011),
review granted, 173 Wn.2d 1013 (2012) (pretext stop found
where officer testified that the defective muffler would have
caused him to stop the defendants vehicle even if he had not
been following the defendants vehicle in response to a citizen
report of a possible drunk driver ).

An officer with suspicions, who stops a vehicle to enforce the

traffic code, should limit himself/herself to the questions that
would be asked on a routine traffic stop: Do you have a
driver's license? May I see the vehicle registration? May I see
the certificate of
insurance? State v. Hoang, 101 Wn.
App.732, 6 P.3d 602 (2000)

An officer whose assigned duties include enforcement of

traffic laws may be found to have made a pre-text stop if the
79

officer has begun an investigation into criminal behavior prior

to stopping the vehicle for a moving violation. See State v.
Myers, 117 Wn. App. 93, 69 P.3d 367 (2003), review denied,
150 Wn.2d 1027 (2004) (officer who recognized driver as a
person whose license was suspended one year earlier and who
called DOL for license check and who stopped the driver
prior to DOL's response based upon the driver failing to signal
while changing lanes was found to have made a pretextual
stop).

Police need not issue every conceivable citation as a hedge

against an eventual challenge to the constitutionality of a
traffic stop allegedly based on pretext. State v. Hoang, 101
Wn. App.732, 6 P.3d 602 (2000).

Ladson does not prevent a police officer who subjectively

suspects the possibility of criminal activity, but who does not
have a suspicion rising to the level to justify a Terry stop from
approaching an individual in public and requesting that the
individual speak with the officer. State v. ONeill, 148 Wn.2d
564, 62 P.3d 489, 496 n.1 (2003).

Ladson does not require an officer to ignore a traffic violation

simply because the officers suspicions that the driver is
trying to avoid the officer are aroused at the same time the
officer observes the traffic violation. State v. Nichols, 161
Wn.2d 41, 162 P.3d 1122 (2007) (crossing double yellow
line); contra State v. Montes-Malindas, 144 Wn. App. 254,
182 P.3d 999 (2008) (stop for failure to turn on headlights
was a pretext where the officer was already watching the
vehicle because the occupants acted nervously when they
noticed the officer speaking to another person in the parking
lot).

The fact that, unless he is responding to a call, a particular

police officer stops the majority of the drivers he sees
committing a particular traffic infraction is not sufficient to
defeat a Ladson challenge. State v. Montes-Malindas, 144
Wn. App. 254, 182 P.3d 999 (2008).

A trial courts determination that the officers subjective

intent in stopping a vehicle was solely to enforce the traffic
laws does not prevent suppression under Ladson if the court
finds that the stop was not objectively reasonable. State v.
Montes-Malindas, 144 Wn. App. 254, 182 P.3d 999 (2008)
80

(officers stopping of van for driving without its headlights on

was objectively unreasonable when the stop occurred after the
driver turned his headlights on and there was no evidence to
indicate the presence of other traffic on the roadway or the
existence of endangerment to pedestrians or property resulting
from the drivers brief roadway travel without his headlights
on.).

An officers decision to proceed with caution in approaching

a stopped vehicle and/or the officers calling for back up
suggests to a court that the officer is preparing for
something other than a traffic stop. State v. MontesMalindas, 144 Wn. App. 254, 182 P.3d 999 (2008).

An officers decision to approach a stopped vehicle on the

passenger side and to speak to the passengers before the
driver is a factor that might suggest the stop was for reasons
other than to enforce the traffic laws. State v. MontesMalindas, 144 Wn. App. 254, 182 P.3d 999 (2008) (officer
testified that approaching a van from the passenger side
provided greater protection from travel, was unexpected by
the vehicles occupants, and provides better visibility of the
passenger compartment).

An officers decision to stop a vehicle that he observes

committing a traffic violation will generally not be found to
be an unlawful pretext stop when the officer was not
following the vehicle when the officer observed the violation.
State v. Gibson, 152 Wn. App. 945, 219 P.3d 964 (2009).

An officers decision to stop a vehicle for an equipment

violation may be ruled an unlawful pretext stop if the officer
was following the vehicle pursuant to a citizen report of a
possible drunk driver and the officer observed no signs of
impaired driving over a 1/2 mile distance. See State v.
Arreola, 163 Wn. App. 787; 260 P.3d 985 (2011), review
granted, 173 Wn.2d 1013 (2012).

An officers decision to stop a vehicle after a check of the

license plate indicates that the registered owners license is
suspended is not a pretextual stop. State v. Johnson, 155 Wn.
App. 270, 229 P.3d 824, review denied, 170 Wn.2d 1006
(2010).

The fact that a patrol officer is always on the lookout for

81

lawbreaking, including people driving while under the

influence, does not mean that a stop for speeding and failing
to stop at a cross-walk is a pretext stop. Under petitioner's
theory, any officer who came upon a car weaving all over the
road would be making a pretext stop simply because the
officer expected to find an impaired driver behind the wheel.
That theory turns training and experience into a basis for not
enforcing the law. State v. Weber, 159 Wn. App. 779, 79091, 247 P.3d 782 (2011).

c.

An officer, who has probable cause to arrest the driver based

upon the drivers participation in a prior controlled drug sales,
may make an investigatory stop of the drivers vehicle for the
purpose of obtaining the drivers name. Probable cause for
the greater intrusion of an arrest encompasses legal
justification for the lesser intrusion of a mere stop. State v.
Quezadas-Gomez, 165 Wn. App. 593, 267 P.3d 1036 (2011),
review denied, 173 Wn.2d 1034 (2012).

Suspect Specific. Each individual possesses the right to privacy, meaning

that person has the right to be left alone by police unless there is probable
cause based on objective facts that the person is committing a crime. Where
officers do not have anything to independently connect an individual to
illegal activity, no probable cause exists and an arrest or search of that person
is invalid under article I, section 7. State v. Grande, 164 Wn.2d 135, 187
P.3d 248 (2008).
Individualized probable cause sufficient for a warrantless arrest requires more
than presence, with others, in a vehicle from which the odor of burning
marijuana is detected. Individualized probable cause for arrest will require
additional evidence, such as ashes on the arrestees clothing, an admission
from the arrestee, and/or statements from others stating that the marijuana
belongs to the arrestee. State v. Grande, 164 Wn.2d 135, 187 P.3d 248
(2008).

While the odor of burnt marijuana and/or the presence of marijuana

in a vehicle that contains multiple occupants may not provide
probable cause to make a warrantless arrest of any of the occupants,
this evidence will support the issuance of a search warrant for the
vehicle.

While the odor of burnt marijuana and/or the presence of marijuana

in a vehicle that contains multiple occupants may not provide
probable cause to make a warrantless arrest, the driver of the vehicle
may be successfully prosecuted for possession under a constructive
82

possession theory. The same may be true of one or more of the

passengers.
d.

e.

Erroneous Belief. Because probable cause is generally an objective

standard, an officers erroneous identification of the crime for which the
arrest is being made will not invalidate the arrest if probable cause exists to
arrest for a different criminal law violation. Devenpeck v. Alford, 543 U.S.
146, 125 S. Ct. 588, 160 L. Ed. 2d 537 (2004); State v. Louthan, 158 Wn.
App. 732, 740, 242 P.3d 954 (2010); Fondren v. Klickitat County, 79 Wn.
App. 850, 862, 905 P.2d 928 (1995); State v. Huff, 64 Wn. App. 641, 646,
826 P.2d 698, review denied, 119 Wn.2d 1007 (1992); Seattle v. Cadigan,
55 Wn. App. 30, 36, 776 P.2d 727, review denied, 113 Wn.2d 1025 (1989).
i.

An erroneous belief that a statute prohibits the objective facts

observed by the officer will invalidate an arrest or detention. See
United States v. King, 244 F.3d 736 (9th Cir. 2001) (stop ruled
invalid where officer mistakenly believed that tag hanging from rear
view mirror violated local ordinance prohibiting placement of any
sign upon the front windshield); United States v. Twilley, 222 F.3d
1092 (9th Cir. 2000) (stop ruled invalid where officer stopped an
out-of-state car in which defendant was a passenger because the car
lacked a front license plate when the state that issued the plates only
issues a rear license plate); United States v. Lopez-Soto, 205 F.3d
1101 (9th Cir. 2000) (stop ruled invalid where officer mistakenly
believed that Baja California required motorists to affix a registration
sticker on the car so that it would be visible from the rear of the
vehicle).

ii.

If the crime for which probable cause exists is one that must occur in
the presence of the officer, the fruits of any search incident to the
arrest would be properly suppressed if the crime did not occur in the
presence of an officer.

Possible Defense. Officer's do not have a duty to evaluate the arrestees

self-defense claim or other affirmative defense to determine whether it
vitiated the existence of probable cause. McBride v. Walla Walla County,
95 Wn. App. 33, 975 P.2d 1029 (1999).
The mere production of a document purporting to be a marijuana
authorization does not negate probable cause. State v. Fry, 168 Wn.2d 1, 228
P.3d 1 (2010).

Laws of 2011, ch. 181, 401 amends RCW 69.51A.040 to prohibit

arrest in certain circumstances:

83

The medical use of cannabis in accordance with the

terms and conditions of this chapter does not
constitute a crime and a qualifying patient or
designated provider in compliance with the terms
and conditions of this chapter may not be arrested,
prosecuted, or subject to other criminal sanctions or
civil consequences, for possession, manufacture, or
delivery of, or for possession with intent to
manufacture or deliver, cannabis under state law, or
have real or personal property seized or forfeited for
possession, manufacture, or delivery of, or for
possession with intent to manufacture or deliver,
cannabis under state law, and investigating peace
officers and law enforcement agencies maynot be held
civilly liable for failure to seize cannabis in this
circumstance, if:
(1)(a) The qualifying patient or designated
provider possesses no more than fifteen cannabis
plants and:
(i) No more than twenty-four ounces of
useable cannabis;
(ii) No more cannabis product than what could
reasonably be produced with no more than
twenty-four ounces of useable cannabis; or
(iii) A combination of useable cannabis and
cannabis product that does not exceed a combined
total representing possession and processing of no
more than twenty-four ounces of useable cannabis.
(b) If a person is both a qualifying patient and
a designated provider for another qualifying patient,
the person may possess no more than twice the
amounts described in (a) of this subsection, whether
the plants, useable cannabis, and cannabis product are
possessed individually or in combination between the
qualifying patient and his or her designated provider;
(2) The qualifying patient or designated
provider presents his or her proof of registration with
the department of health, to any peace officer who
questions the patient or provider regarding his or her
84

medical use of cannabis;

(3) The qualifying patient or designated
provider keeps a copy of his or her proof of
registration with the registry established in section
901 of this act and the qualifying patient or designated
provider's contact information posted prominently
next to any cannabis plants, cannabis products, or
useable cannabis located at his or her residence;
(4) The investigating peace officer does not
possess evidence that:
(a) The designated provider has converted
cannabis produced or obtained for the qualifying
patient for his or her own personal use or benefit; or
(b) The qualifying patient has converted
cannabis produced or obtained for his or her own
medical use to the qualifying patient's personal,
nonmedical use or benefit;
(5) The investigating peace officer does not
possess evidence that the designated provider has
served as a designated provider to more than one
qualifying patient within a fifteen-day period; and
(6) The investigating peace officer has not
observed evidence of any of the circumstances
identified in section 901(4) of this act.
No medical cannabis users will be able to satisfy all of the above
conditions as the section 901 of the act that created a registry was
vetoed. Nonetheless, the Legislatures intent to limit custodial arrest
when a person is otherwise in compliance with the medical cannabis
law should generally be honored by a police officer.
Probable cause for arrest for theft is not negated by the suspects innocent
explanation that the suspect though the stolen property had been abandoned
if the property is of a type that is not generally abandoned and the property
was left unattended for only a brief period of time. State v. Wagner, 148
Wn. App. 538, 200 P.3d 739 (2009) (casino ticket).

85

f.

Presence of Potentially Exculpatory Facts. The fact that a suspect

performs well on one or more field sobriety tests will not vitiate the existence
of probable cause to arrest for DUI based upon other factors or observations.
City of College Place v. Staudenmaier, 110 Wn. App. 841, 43 P.3d 43,
review denied, 147 Wn.2d 1024 (2002).
Probable cause to arrest exists when officers have knowledge or reasonably
trustworthy information sufficient to lead a person of reasonable caution to
believe that an offense has been or is being committed by the person being
arrested. For information to amount to probable cause, it does not have to be
conclusive of guilt, and it does not have to exclude the possibility of
innocence. . . police are not required "to believe to an absolute certainty, or
by clear and convincing evidence, or even by a preponderance of the
available evidence" that a suspect has committed a crime. All that is required
is a "fair probability," given the totality of the evidence, that such is the case.
Garcia v. County of Merced, 639 F.3d 1206 (9th Cir. 2011).

g.

Child Abuse Cases. While law enforcement officers may obviously rely on
statements made by the victims of a crime to identify potential suspects, the
Ninth Circuit rejects warrantless arrests based upon statements from very
young victims. The Ninth Circuit cautions that such statements are not
reasonably trustworthy or reliable to support a warrantless arrest. Before an
officer can make an arrest upon such a statement, the officer must conduct
further investigation and obtain corroboration of the statements. Stoot v. City
of Everett, 582 F.3d 910 (9th Cir. 2009), cert. denied, 176 L. Ed. 2d 577
(2010).
Nonetheless, a defendant may be convicted of rape or other sexual offense
involving a child, based solely on the childs testimony. See RCW
9A.44.020(1) (In order to convict a person of any crime defined in this
chapter it shall not be necessary that the testimony of the alleged victim be
corroborated.)

3.

For Searches
a.

Generally. For a search, the officer must have probable cause to believe that
the items sought are connected with criminal activity and will be found in the
place to be searched. Johnson, 28 Seattle Univ. L. R. 467, Survey of
Washington Search and Seizure Law: 2005 Update (2005); Johnson, 22
Seattle Univ. L. Rev 337, Survey of Washington Search and Seizure Law:
1998 Update (1998); Utter, 3 University of Puget Sound Law Review 450,
Survey of Washington Search and Seizure Law: 1988 Update (1988).

86

b.

Distinguished from Probable Cause for Arrest. "Probable cause to arrest

concerns the guilt of the arrestee, whereas probable cause to search an item
concerns the connection of the items sought with the crime and the present
location of the items." United States v. O'Connor, 658 F.2d 688, 693 n.7 (9th
Cir. 1981). Accord Zurcher v. Stanford Daily, 436 U.S. 547, 556, 98 S. Ct.
1970; 56 L. Ed. 2d 525 (1978) ("The critical element in a reasonable search
is not that the owner of the property is suspected of crime but that there is
reasonable cause to believe that the specific things' to be searched for and
seized are located on the property to which entry is sought.").

III.

Types of Intrusions

A.

Social Contacts
1.

Definition. Not every encounter between a citizen and a police officer rises to the
stature of a seizure. A police officer does not seize a person by simply striking up a
conversation or asking questions. Florida v. Bostick, 501 U.S. 429, 115 L. Ed.2d
389, 111 S. Ct. 2382, 2386 (1991); State v. Mennegar, 114 Wn.2d 304, 310, 787 P.2d
1347 (1990). Nor is there a seizure where the conversation between citizen and
officer is freely and voluntarily conducted. Mennegar, supra.
An encounter between a citizen and the police is consensual or
permissive if a reasonable person under the totality of the
circumstances would feel free to walk away. United States v.
Mendenhall, 446 U.S. 544, 554, 100 S. Ct. 1870, 64 L. Ed.2d 497
(1980); State v. Mennegar, 114 Wn.2d 304, 310, 787 P.2d 1347
(1990).
When a citizen freely converses with a police officer, the encounter
is permissive. It is not a seizure; and therefore the Fourth
Amendment is not implicated. Id. If a person does freely consent to
stop and talk, the officer's merely asking questions or requesting
identification does not necessarily elevate a consensual encounter into
a seizure. Id.
State v. Barnes, 96 Wn. App. 217, 222, 978 P.2d 1131 (1999).
Thus, police do not necessarily effect the seizure of a person because they engage the
person in conversation, Mennegar, supra; Florida v. Royer, 460 U.S. 491, 75 L.
Ed.2d 229, 103 S. Ct. 1319 (1983); United States v. Mendenhall, supra, or because
they identify themselves as officers. Royer, 460 U.S. at 498. Nor do police effect
a seizure of a person merely by knocking on a door and requesting an opportunity to
speak with the occupant. Kentucky v. King, ___ U.S. ___, 131 S. Ct. 1849, 179 L.
Ed. 2d 865 (2011).

87

Washington courts have not set in stone a definition for so-called social contact. It
occupies an amorphous area in our jurisprudence, resting someplace between an
officer's saying "hello" to a stranger on the street and, at the other end of the
spectrum, an investigative detention (i.e., Terry stop). While the term social
contact" suggests idle conversation about, presumably, the weather or last night's ball
game -- trivial niceties that have no likelihood of triggering an officer's suspicion of
criminality social contacts in the field may include an investigative component.
State v. Harrington, 167 Wn.2d 656, 222 P.3d 92 (2009).
An officer may make a social contact even after having probable cause to make an
arrest. There is no requirement that an officer make an arrest as soon as probable
cause is present so that constitutional protections are triggered at the earliest possible
moment. Hoffa v. United States, 385 U.S. 293, 310, 87 S. Ct. 408, 17 L. Ed. 2d 374
(1966); United States v. Wynne, 993 F.2d 760 (10th Cir. 1993) (same).
2.

Restrictions. The following conduct is beyond the scope of a social contact or

consensual encounter:
C

The use of language or tone of voice indicating that compliance with the
officer's request might be compelled. State v. Young, 135 Wn.2d 498, 512,
957 P.2d 681 (1998).

The use of coercive language to initiate a contact. "Gentlemen, I'd like to

speak with you, could you come to my car?" or "Can I talk to you guys for
a minute?" is permissive. "Wait right here" is coercive and constitutes a
seizure. State v. Barnes, 96 Wn. App. 217, 223, 978 P.2d 1131 (1999)

Insisting upon responses. State v. Young, 135 Wn.2d 498, 512, 957 P.2d 681
(1998). An individuals refusal to provide identification or a birth date
during a social contact will not provide reasonable suspicion for a Terry stop.
See generally State v. Young, COA No. 41185-7-II, ___ Wn. App. ___, ___
P.3d ___ (May 1, 2012).

Not allowing an individual to leave presence who does not desire to continue
conversation. See State v. Beito, 147 Wn. App. 504, 195 P.3d 1023 (2008)
(Police unlawfully seized a passenger in a parked car when, during a social
contact, they refused to let him leave when he requested to do so); State v.
Coyne, 99 Wn. App. 566, 570, 995 P.2d 78 (2000) (directing defendants to
sit on the hood of the patrol car); State v. Ellwood, 52 Wn. App. 70, 73, 757
P.2d 547 (1988) (officer telling the citizen towait right here) .

Retaining control of identification while verifying information that was

given. See, e.g., State v. Thomas, 91 Wn. App. 195, 201, 955 P.2d 420,
review denied, 136 Wn.2d 1030 (1998) (officer, while retaining the
defendant's identification, took three steps back to conduct a warrants check
88

on his hand-held radio); State v. Dudas, 52 Wn. App. 832, 834, 764 P.2d
1012 (1988), review denied, 112 Wn.2d 1011 (1989) (deputy took the
defendant's identification card and returned to the patrol car).

3.

Placing any of the individuals possessions in a patrol car, or out of the

individuals reach. State v. Armenta, 134 Wn.2d 1, 12, 948 P.2d 1280
(1997); State v. O'Day, 91 Wn. App. 244, 252, 955 P.2d 860 (1998).

Asking the passenger in a stopped car for identification or the passenger's

name and date of birth. State v. Rankin, 151 Wn.2d 689, 92 P.3d 202
(2004); State v. Brown, 154 Wn.2d 787, 117 P.3d 336 (2005).

Requesting permission to frisk or search. State v. Harrington, 167 Wn.2d

656, 222 P.3d 92 (2009); State v. O'Day, 91 Wn. App. 244, 252, 955 P.2d
860 (1998).

Requesting that an individual seated in a parked car exit the vehicle. State v.
Johnson, 156 Wn.2d 82, 231 P.3d 225 (2010).

Activating patrol car lights and/or parking the patrol car very close to the
parked car containing the citizens to whom the officer is speaking. State v.
Johnson, 156 Wn.2d 82, 231 P.3d 225 (2010).

Officer safety.
C

Requesting that an individual remove his hands from his pockets during a
contact is acceptable, but only if the officer uses a tone of voice customary
in social interactions. State v. Harrington, 167 Wn.2d 656, 222 P.3d 92 (
2009). Accord State v. Barnes, 96 Wn. App. 217, 222, 978 P.2d 1131
(1999); State v. Nettles, 70 Wn. App. 706, 710 n. 6, 855 P.2d 699 (1993);
Duhart v. United States, 589 A.2d 895, 898 (D.C. 1991) (in which officer
approached defendant on street, asked him to take his hand out of his pocket,
and, when defendant reluctantly complied, officer grabbed his hand; held: no
seizure occurred until officer grabbed defendant's wrist; request that
defendant remove hand from pocket constituted "merely a pre-seizure
consensual encounter"); United States v. Barnes, 496 A.2d 1040, 1044-45
(D.C. 1985) (no seizure where officer asked defendant to remove hands from
pockets and then asked him two questions, because this was no more
intrusive than asking for identification).

If a citizen, during a social contact, keeps placing his or her hands into an
object-laden pocket after being requested not to, or engages in other activities
that makes an officer feel uncomfortable, the officer should terminate the
encounter and return to his or her patrol car. State v. Harrington, 167 Wn.2d
656, 222 P.3d 92 (2009).
89

4.

Conversion into a Seizure

Washington courts will review a social contact for evidence that progressive
intrusions have converted the contact into a seizure. A contact that a reasonable
person may feel free to discontinue at its inception, may mature into a contact that a
reasonable person would not feel free to leave. State v. Harrington, 167 Wn.2d 656,
222 P.3d 92 (2009), presents an example of a progressive intrusion that culminated
in a seizure in violation of Const. art. I, 7. The social contact in Harrington began
with an officer pulling his patrol car into a driveway in a manner that did not block
the sidewalk. The officer exited the patrol car, whose lights had not been activated,
and moved to the grassy area that was adjacent to the sidewalk, so as to not block the
path of anyone who was walking on the sidewalk. The officer then asked an
approaching pedestrian "Hey, can I talk to you" or "Mind if I talk to you for a
minute?" Upon the pedestrians affirmative response, the officer, standing five feet
from the pedestrian began a conversation that included a question about where the
pedestrian was coming from.
The subsequent events that converted this lawful social contact into a seizure
included:

The officer asking the pedestrian if he would remove his hands from
his the pedestrians pockets.

The coincidental appearance of a state trooper, who made a u-turn,

upon noticing an officer speaking alone with an individual. The state
trooper parked his patrol car in the northbound lane of travel, 10 to 30
feet, from the on-going social contact. The trooper exited his marked
patrol car, and stood, silently, 7 to 8 feet from the pedestrian.

The officer, upon the arrival of the trooper, asked if he could pat the
pedestrian down for officer safety. The officer, at the time of making
this request, told the pedestrian that he was not under arrest.

Some non-exhaustive factors that courts will consider in determining whether

officers have escalated a consensual encounter into a seizure include:

the number of officers

whether weapons were displayed

whether the encounter occurred in a public or non-public setting

whether the officers tone or manner was authoritative, so as to imply

that compliance would be compelled

90

whether the officers informed the person of his right to terminate the
encounter.

whether the officer physically touched the citizen

whether the officer asked the citizen perform an act such as removing
hands from pockets

whether a patrol cars overhead lights or sirens are activated

United States v. Washington, 490 F.3d 765, 771-72 (9th Cir. 2007); State v.
Harrington, 167 Wn.2d 656, 222 P.3d 92 (2009); State v. Beito, 147 Wn.
App. 504, 195 P.3d State v. Mote, 129 Wn. App. 276, 120 P.3d 596 (2005).
Post Harrington, the following encounters were deemed to be lawful social contacts:

Officer asking a citizen that the officer encountered in a public place

whether the citizen, who was on foot, if the citizen had a minute.
Once the citizen indicated that he did, the officer asked the citizen
where he was going and what he was up to, and was the citizen
willing to show the officer his identification. The officer did not use
his spotlight, siren, or emergency lights, and his initial question,
rather then being a command, was at a volume too low for the citizen
to hear. State v. Bailey, 154 Wn. App. 295, 224 P.3d 852 (2010).

An officers request for identification from a passenger in a vehicle

that was parked in a handicapped spot, without displaying a
handicapped permit, was a social contact., where the officer parked
his patrol car 10 to 15 feet away from the parked vehicle, did not
activate the patrol cars lights, and did not ask the passenger to exit
the parked vehicle until after the officer confirmed the existence of an
arrest warrant. State v. Johnson, 156 Wn. App. 82, 231 P.3d 225
(2010).

Post Harrington, the following encounters were deemed to be unlawful seizures:

Two officers cornering a woman against a wall and demanding the

last four numbers of her social security number after the woman
declined to provide her identification or birth date during an initial
suspicion less social contact. State v. Young, COA No. 41185-7-II,
___ Wn. App. ___, ___ P.3d ___ (May 1, 2012).

An officer pulling behind a van, which was stopped in front of a

driveway, and activating the patrol cars emergency lights. The
activation of the lights constituted a display of authority. State v.
91

Gantt, 136 Wn. App. 133, 257 P.3d 682 (2011), review denied, 173
Wn.2d 1011 (2012). Note: Patrol cars typically have several
combinations of lights that can be displayed. The use of yellow wigwag or hazard lights to alert traffic to the officers presence
might not constitute a seizure as such lights are standard equipment
on passenger vehicles. The use of blue or red lights that are visible
from the front of the patrol car will be deemed a show of authority.
An officer should specify which lights were used in their police
reports.
B.

Community Caretaking
1.

Definition. Police officers serve numerous functions in society, some of which

are totally divorced from the investigation of crimes. The non-crime related duties
are termed "community caretaking functions." Cady v. Dombroski, 413 U.S. 433, 93
S. Ct. 2523, 37 L. Ed.2d 706 (1973).

2.

Citizen-Initiated Contacts. Individuals who flag officers down for assistance are
not considered seized for purposes of the Fourth Amendment. See, e.g., Florida v.
Bostick, 501 U.S. 429, 434, 115 L. Ed. 2d 389, 111 S. Ct. 2382, 2386 (1991); State
v. Mennegar, 114 Wn.2d 304, 787 P.2d 1347 (1996). Contacts with citizens pursuant
to the community caretaking function will only constitute a seizure if a persons
movement is restrained by means of physical force or show of authority. State v.
Thorn, 129 Wn.2d 347, 351-522, 917 P.2d 108 (1996); State v. Stroud, 30 Wn. App.
392, 394-95, 634 P.2d 316 (1981), review denied, 96 Wn.2d 1025 (1982), citing
United States v. Mendenhall, 446 U.S. 544, 64 L. Ed. 2d 497, 100 S. Ct. 1870
(1980)).

3.

Officer-Initiated Contacts. Various statutes require officers to assist certain

vulnerable adults. See, e.g., RCW 46.61.266 (A law enforcement officer may offer
to transport a pedestrian who appears to be under the influence of alcohol or any drug
and who is walking or moving along or within the right of way of a public roadway,
unless the pedestrian is to be taken into protective custody under RCW
70.96A.120); RCW 13.32A.050 ((1) A law enforcement officer shall take a child
into custody: (b) If a law enforcement officer reasonably believes, considering the
child's age, the location, and the time of day, that a child is in circumstances which
constitute a danger to the child's safety or that a child is violating a local curfew
ordinance); RCW 71.05.150 (A peace officer may ... take or cause such person to
be taken into custody and immediately delivered to an evaluation and treatment
facility or the emergency department of a local hospital: ... (b) When he or she has
reasonable cause to believe that such person is suffering from a mental disorder and
presents an imminent likelihood of serious harm or is in imminent danger because
of being gravely disabled.).

92

An officer does not commit a "seizure" by merely contacting a person to inquire

about his or her welfare. On the other hand, any action that interferes with a person's
freedom of movement is a "seizure," even if carried out pursuant to one of these
statutes. The Washington Supreme Court recently placed limits on "seizures" that
are carried out pursuant to a community caretaking function. Whether the actions
taken during a routine check on safety are reasonable depends on a balancing of the
individual's interest in freedom from police interference against the public's interest
in having the police perform a community caretaking function. Police officers may
approach citizens and permissively inquire as to whether they will answer questions
and whether they need aid.
If police officers make a seizure for community caretaking reasons, they must limit
their post-seizure questioning to that strictly relevant to the performance of the
community caretaking function. The seizure must end when the reasons for initiating
the routine check on safety are fully dispelled, unless the officer has a reasonable
articulable suspicion of criminal activity. A citizens statement that he or she does
not require aid from the police will serve to terminate the seizure unless objective
evidence exists that contradicts the statement. Compare State v. Kinzy, 141 Wn.2d
373, 5 P.3d 668 (2000), cert. denied, 121 S. Ct. 843 (2001) (police exceeded the
scope of community caretaking when they detained a minor who was standing on a
public sidewalk in a high narcotics trafficking area on a school night with several
others, including an older person believed by the officers to be associated with
narcotics, after the minor demonstrated an unwillingness to speak with the police and
there was no evidence of any drug activity at the time the police approached the
minor); with State v. Hutchison, 56 Wn. App. 863, 867, 785 P.2d 1154 (1990) (police
properly searched for the identification of a man they found passed out in a parking
lot); Gallegos v. City of Colorado Springs, 114 F.3d 1024, 1029 n.4 (10th Cir. 1997)
(police properly stopped a distraught man who was crying, smelled of alcohol, and
had his hands over his face as he walked down a street late at night ).
4.

Officer Safety. During the course of a community caretaking contact, law

enforcement may, without turning the contact into a seizure, take reasonable steps to
ensure the safety and comfort of the participants.
a.

Visibility of hands. An office may request that the citizen take his hands out
of his pockets and that the citizen keep his hands visible without converting
the contact into a seizure or arrest. State v. Nettles, 70 Wn. App. 706, 712,
855 P.2d 699 (1993), review denied, 123 Wn.2d 1010, 869 P.2d 1085 (1994).

b.

Weapon frisk. If during a consensual or community caretaking contact, a

citizen behaves in a manner that causes the officer a legitimate concern for
his or her safety, that officer is entitled to take immediate protective
measures. Seattle v. Hall, 60 Wn. App. 645, 652-53, 806 P.2d 1246 (1991)
(officer permitted to frisk citizen who exhibited hostile and nervous behavior
and kept his hand in his pockets after voluntarily approaching officer).
93

Washington case law firmly establishes that an officer has a right to perform
a pat down search of an individual prior to transporting that individual in his
or her patrol car. State v. Wheeler, 108 Wn.2d 230, 235-36, 737 P.2d 1005
(1987). Other states are in accord. See, e.g., State v. Smith, 112 Ariz. 531,
533-34, 544 P.2d 213 (1975) (pat-down search of citizen, prior to
transporting citizen in police vehicle in non-arrest situation is reasonable,
proper, and lawful for protection of officer); Williams v. State, 403 So.2d
453, 456 (Fla. App. 1981), review denied, 412 So.2d 471 (Fla. 1982) (officer
transporting a citizen in a patrol car to a police station for a consensual
interview is entitled to pat the citizen down prior to placing the citizen in the
patrol car); People v. Hannaford, 167 Mich. App. 147, 421 N.W.2d 608, 61011 (1988), cert. denied, 489 U.S. 1029 (1989) (an officer who provides
transportation in his patrol car to the passengers of a vehicle whose driver is
arrested for DUI is entitled to pat the passengers down for weapons prior to
their entering the patrol car even though none of the passengers appeared
armed or dangerous); People v. Otto, 284 N.W.2d 273, 276 (Mich. App.
1979) (permissible to frisk one hitchhiking illegally before transporting him
to site where he could legally hitchhike, despite the lack of particularized
concern about the officer's safety because "it is obvious that an officer whose
hands are on the wheel of his own vehicle is an easy victim of an armed
passenger sitting behind him"); Commonwealth v. Rehmeyer, 349 Pa. Super.
176, 502 A.2d 1332, 1336-39 (1985), appeal denied, 516 Pa. 613, 531 A.2d
780 (1987) (a police officer who, in a non-arrest situation, properly proposes
to take a citizen home in his patrol car may subject that citizen to a pat-down
search for weapons despite the fact the officer has no reason to believe the
citizen is armed).
5.

Admissibility of Evidence. In citizen-police encounters initiated for "noncriminal

noninvestigatory purposes", the question of admissibility of evidence gained thereby
is determined by "balancing of the individual's interest in freedom from police
interference against the public's interest in having the police perform a 'community
caretaking function.'" State v. Mennegar, 114 Wn.2d 304, 313, 787 P.2d 1347
(1990); State v. Lynch, 84 Wn. App. 467, 477, 929 P.2d 460 (1996). The
reasonableness of the officer's conduct must be analyzed in light of the particular
circumstances facing the officer. State v. Lesnick, 84 Wn.2d 940, 944, 530 P.2d 243,
cert. denied, 423 U.S. 891 (1975); State v. Markgraf, 59 Wn. App. 509, 513, 798
P.2d 1180 (1990). A police officer's actions are not rendered "unreasonable" simply
because a defendant, with the luxury of hindsight, can identify other, less-intrusive
means of accomplishing the same community caretaking function. Lynch, 84 Wn.
App. at 478; accord State v. Franklin, 41 Wn. App. 409, 415, 704 P.2d 666 (1985)
("judicial review of swift decisions made by officers in the field should not come
down to splitting constitutional hairs over alternative courses of action. Rather, the
focus should always be on the reasonableness of the action actually taken.").

94

Case law has found all of the following actions to be lawful pursuant to an officer's
community caretaking function:
C

Stopping a vehicle to advise a driver that items in the bed of the truck are at
risk of blowing away, State v. Chisholm, 39 Wn. App. 864, 696 P.2d 21
(1985).

Searching the purse of a mentally unstable individual who has threatened

suicide, State v. Lowrimore, 67 Wn. App. 949, 841 P.2d 779 (1992).

Asking a passenger if the passenger would drive the vehicle away from the
scene of a DWI arrest and, if the passenger consents, requesting to see the
passenger's driver's license and to the running of a computer check to
determine its validity, State v. Mennegar, 114 Wn.2d 304, 787 P.2d 1347
(1990).

Assisting motorists who have been locked out of their vehicles. Hudson v.
City of Wenatchee, 94 Wn. App. 990, 995-96, 974 P.2d 342 (1999)

Entering a defendant's bathroom without a warrant to search for drugs that

might present a safety hazard to children. See State v. Angelos, 86 Wn. App.
253, 936 P.2d 52 (1997), review denied, 133 Wn.2d 1034 (1998).

Impounding of a vehicle that is threatened by theft when neither the vehicle's

owner or the owner's acquaintances are available to move the vehicle, State
v. Sweet, 44 Wn. App. 226, 236, 721 P.2d 560, review denied, 107 Wn.2d
1001 (1986).

Entering, without a warrant, those areas of a parked or stopped car that

appears to have been burgled or tampered with in order to identify the owner
to determine whether the owner wishes to have the police secure the vehicle,
State v. Lynch, 84 Wn. App. 467, 929 P.2d 460 (1996).

Searching a semi-conscious, intoxicated individual's pockets, clothing, and

wallet in order to identify the man and to locate any information regarding his
health condition, State v. Hutchison, 56 Wn. App. 863, 865-66, 785 P.2d
1154 (1990).

Searching an individual who is being civilly committed on an emergency

basis for weapons, drugs, or other harmful items. State v. Dempsey, 88 Wn.
App. 918, 947 P.2d 265 (1997).

Searching a purse or lost property for a clue as to the true owner. See, e.g.,
State v. Kealey, 80 Wn. App. 162, 175, 907 P.2d 319 (1995), review denied,
129 Wn.2d 1021 (1996); RCW 63.21.020; 3 W. LaFave, Search and Seizure:
95

A Treatise on the Fourth Amendment 5.5(d) (3d ed. 1996).

Brief detention of juvenile, who was out after midnight on a weeknight

without adult supervision, for the purpose of telephoning his mother. State
v. Acrey, 148 Wn.2d 738, 64 P.3d 594 (2003).

Checking upon the welfare of an individual who is seated in the drivers seat
of a vehicle and who appears to be asleep or unconscious. See State v. Knox,
86 Wn. App. 831, 840 n. 1, 939 P.2d 710 (1997); State v. Zubizareta, 122
Idaho 823, 839 P.2d 1237 (1992) (no seizure where officer approached
parked vehicle and requested motorist to roll down window and turn off
engine); In re Matter of Clayton, 113 Idaho 817, 748 P.2d 401 (1988)
(officer's actions to determine whether driver slumped forward in slumber in
vehicle with its motor running and lights on was prudent and within officer's
caretaking function); People v. Murray, 137 Ill.2d 382, 148 Ill.Dec. 7,
11-12, 560 N.E.2d 309, 313-14 (1990) (no seizure where officer approached
a car in which an individual was sleeping and tapped on window or asked the
individual to roll down window; request that driver who just woke up
provide identification or step out of car for purpose of determining ability to
drive is proper); State v. Kersh, 313 N.W.2d 566, 568 (Iowa 1981) (survey
of cases from other jurisdictions regarding the propriety of police opening a
vehicle to determine whether an unconscious or disoriented person is in
distress); Commonwealth v. Leonard, 422 Mass. 504, 663 N.E.2d 828, cert.
denied, 117 S. Ct. 199 (1996) (no seizure where officer opened unlocked
door of car parked in breakdown area adjacent to highway after driver failed
to respond to attempts to get his attention).

Entering a residence without a warrant when the premises contain persons in

imminent danger of death or harm; objects likely to burn, explode or
otherwise cause harm; or information that will disclose the location of a
threatened victim or the existence of such a threat. See, e.g. State v. Loewen,
97 Wn.2d 562, 568, 647 P.2d 489 (1982) (medical emergency); State v.
Cahoon, 59 Wn. App. 606, 608-09, 799 P.2d 1191 (1990), review denied,
116 Wn.2d 1014 (1991) (medical emergency); State v. Barboza, 57 Wn. App.
822, 790 P.2d 647, review denied, 115 Wn.2d 1014 (1990) (report of possible
kidnapping); State v. Downey, 53 Wn. App. 543, 544-45, 768 P.2d 502
(1989) (overpowering ether odor); State v. Bakke, 44 Wn. App. 830, 833-34,
837-38, 723 P.2d 534 (1986), review denied, 107 Wn.2d 1033 (1987)
(burglary in progress); State v. McAlpin, 36 Wn. App. 707, 716, 677 P.2d
185, review denied, 102 Wn.2d 1011 (1984) (search for missing gun); State
v. Nichols, 20 Wn. App. 462, 465-66, 581 P.2d 1371, review denied, 91
Wn.2d 1004 (1978) (fight in progress reported); State v. Sanders, 8 Wn. App.
306, 310-11, 506 P.2d 892, review denied, 82 Wn.2d 1002 (1973) (entry in
response to emergency call and officer's observation of suspicious activity).

96

C.

Stopping a care that is registered to a person who has been reported missing
by his relatives, and asking all of the occupants of the vehicle for
identification where the officer did not have a description of the
missing/endangered person. State v. Moore, 129 Wn. App. 870, 120 P.3d
635 (2005).

Entering a residence, without a warrant, to check on an apparently nonresponsive person, in order to determine whether the person was breathing
and whether the person needed medical assistance. State v. Hos, 154 Wn.
App. 238, 225 P.3d 389 (2010).

Protective Custody
1.

Person incapacitated by alcohol or drugs.

a.

Protective custody for detoxification. RCW 70.96A.120 provides that:

"a person who appears to be incapacitated or gravely disabled by
alcohol or other drugs and who is in a public place or who has
threatened, attempted, or inflicted physical harm on himself, herself,
or another, shall be taken into protective custody by a peace officer
or staff designated by the county and as soon as practicable, but in no
event beyond eight hours brought to an approved treatment program
for treatment. If no approved treatment program is readily available
he or she shall be taken to an emergency medical service customarily
used for incapacitated persons. The peace officer or staff designated
by the county, in detaining the person and in taking him or her to an
approved treatment program, is taking him or her into protective
custody and shall make every reasonable effort to protect his or her
health and safety. In taking the person into protective custody, the
detaining peace officer or staff designated by the county may take
reasonable steps including reasonable force if necessary to protect
himself or herself or effect the custody. A taking into protective
custody under this section is not an arrest. No entry or other record
shall be made to indicate that the person has been arrested or charged
with a crime."

b.

Intoxicated pedestrians. RCW 46.61.266 provides for something less than

protective custody:
A law enforcement officer may offer to transport a
pedestrian who appears to be under the influence of alcohol
or any drug and who is walking or moving along or within the
right of way of a public roadway, unless the pedestrian is to
be taken into protective custody under RCW 70.96A.120.
97

The law enforcement officer offering to transport an

intoxicated pedestrian under this section shall:
(1) Transport the intoxicated pedestrian to a safe
place; or
(2) Release the intoxicated pedestrian to a competent
person.
The law enforcement officer shall take no action if the
pedestrian refuses this assistance. No suit or action may be
commenced or prosecuted against the law enforcement
officer, law enforcement agency, the state of Washington, or
any political subdivision of the state for any act resulting from
the refusal of the pedestrian to accept this assistance.
An officer does not incur liability by advising an intoxicated, but not gravely
disabled person, to not walk in the street or to at least walk facing traffic.
Weaver v. Spokane County, COA No. 29878-7-III, ___ Wn. App. ___, ___
P.3d ___ (May 8, 2012).
c.

Intoxicated cyclists. RCW 46.61.790 provides for something less than

protective custody:
(1) A law enforcement officer may offer to transport
a bicycle rider who appears to be under the influence of
alcohol or any drug and who is walking or moving along or
within the right of way of a public roadway, unless the bicycle
rider is to be taken into protective custody under RCW
70.96A.120. The law enforcement officer offering to transport
an intoxicated bicycle rider under this section shall:
(a) Transport the intoxicated bicycle rider to a safe
place; or
(b) Release the intoxicated bicycle rider to a
competent person.
(2) The law enforcement officer shall not provide the
assistance offered if the bicycle rider refuses to accept it. No
suit or action may be commenced or prosecuted against the
law enforcement officer, law enforcement agency, the state of
Washington, or any political subdivision of the state for any
act resulting from the refusal of the bicycle rider to accept this
assistance.
98

(3) The law enforcement officer may impound the

bicycle operated by an intoxicated bicycle rider if the officer
determines that impoundment is necessary to reduce a threat
to public safety, and there are no reasonable alternatives to
impoundment. The bicyclist will be given a written notice of
when and where the impounded bicycle may be reclaimed.
The bicycle may be reclaimed by the bicycle rider when the
bicycle rider no longer appears to be intoxicated, or by an
individual who can establish ownership of the bicycle. The
bicycle must be returned without payment of a fee. If the
bicycle is not reclaimed within thirty days, it will be subject
to sale or disposal consistent with agency procedures.
2.

Child
a.

An officer shall take a child into protective custody when:

i.

a law enforcement agency has been contacted by the parent of the

child that the child is absent from parental custody without consent;

ii.

a law enforcement officer reasonably believes, considering the child's

age, the location, and the time of day, that a child is in circumstances
which constitute a danger to the child's safety or that a child is
violating a local curfew ordinance;
A.

An older childs statement that she is okay and does not

need assistance, may preclude further interference by the
police. See State v. Kinzy, 141 Wn.2d 373, 5 P.3d 668
(2000), cert. denied, 121 S. Ct. 843 (2001) (police exceeded
the scope of community caretaking when they detained a 16year-old minor who was standing on a public sidewalk in a
high narcotics trafficking area on a school night with several
others, including an older person believed by the officers to
be associated with narcotics, after the minor demonstrated an
unwillingness to speak with the police and there was no
evidence of any drug activity at the time the police
approached the minor)

iii.

a law enforcement agency is notified by an agency legally charged

with the supervision of a child, that the child has run away from
placement;

iv.

a law enforcement agency has been notified by the juvenile court that
the court finds probable cause exists to believe that the child has
violated a court placement order issued under the Family
99

Reconciliation Act (at-risk youth), chapter 13.32A or the Juvenile

Court Act (dependency and termination of parental rights), chapter
13.34 RCW or that the court has issued an order for law enforcement
pick-up of the child under chapter 13.32A or chapter 13.34 RCW.
RCW 13.32A.050.
b.

An officer who takes a child into protective custody must:

i.

Advise the child of the reason for the protective custody.

ii.

Not extend the protective custody beyond the amount of time

reasonably necessary to transport the child to a destination authorized
by law and to place the child at that destination.
A.

3.

A detention may be conducted at the scene. See State v.

Acrey, 148 Wn.2d 738, 64 P.3d 594 (2003) (brief detention of
12-year-old minor, who was out after midnight on a
weeknight without adult supervision, for the purpose of
telephoning his mother was a reasonable exercise of the
community caretaker function)

iii.

Provide a written report, within 24 hours of delivering a child to a

crisis residential center, that states the reasons the officer took the
child into custody.

iv.

Immediately make a report to CPS if the officer has reasonable cause

to believe that the child is absent from home because he or she is
abused or neglected.

Person disabled by a mental illness.

a.

A peace officer may take into custody a person whom a designated mental
health professional believes, as the result of a mental disorder, presents an
imminent likelihood of serious harm, or is in imminent danger because of
being gravely disabled, for an emergency evaluation. RCW 71.05.150(4);
RCW 71.05.153(2)(a).

b.

A peace officer may take a person into custody for immediate deliverance to
an evaluation and treatment facility or the emergency department of a local
hospital, if the officer has reasonable cause to believe that such person is
suffering from a mental disorder and presents an imminent likelihood of
serious harm or is in imminent danger because of being gravely disabled.
RCW 71.05.153(2).

100

i.

"Gravely disabled" means a condition in which a person, as a result

of a mental disorder: (a) Is in danger of serious physical harm
resulting from a failure to provide for his or her essential human
needs of health or safety; or (b) manifests severe deterioration in
routine functioning evidenced by repeated and escalating loss of
cognitive or volitional control over his or her actions and is not
receiving such care as is essential for his or her health or safety.
RCW 71.05.020(17).

ii.

"Likelihood of serious harm" means:

(a) A substantial risk that: (i) Physical harm will be
inflicted by an individual upon his or her own person, as
evidenced by threats or attempts to commit suicide or inflict
physical harm on oneself; (ii) physical harm will be inflicted
by an individual upon another, as evidenced by behavior
which has caused such harm or which places another person
or persons in reasonable fear of sustaining such harm; or (iii)
physical harm will be inflicted by an individual upon the
property of others, as evidenced by behavior which has caused
substantial loss or damage to the property of others; or
(b) The individual has threatened the physical safety
of another and has a history of one or more violent acts;
RCW 71.05.020(25).

c.

iii.

"Mental disorder" means any organic, mental, or emotional

impairment which has substantial adverse effects on an individual's
cognitive or volitional functions. RCW 71.05.020(26).

iv.

Imminent is the state or condition of being likely to occur at any

moment or near at hand, rather than distant or remote. RCW
71.05.020(20).

Detentions pursuant to chapter 71.05 RCW have been under the following
circumstances:

The officers had reasonable cause under RCW 71.05.153(2) to take

the detained person to a hospital for a mental evaluation where the
detained person made paranoid comments to the officers, there were
911 reports that the detained person young son, screaming that
someone was trying to kill her and that she would kill herself. The
amount of force used to subdue the woman, who tried to bite, scratch,
and hit the officers, was reasonable under the circumstances. Once
101

at the hospital, the detained woman was diagnosed with [a]cute

psychosis secondary to cocaine intoxication," and her urinalysis tested
positive for cocaine, dislocated shoulder and torn shoulder ligaments,
and bruises, swelling, and abrasions on her forearms, abdomen, hip,
and lower extremities. Luchtel v. Hagemann, 623 F.3d 975 (9th Cir.
2010).

d.

Officer, who knew of person's past suicide attempts, properly

detained man who threatened suicide and who made superficial cuts
on his wrists with a knife. State v. Mason, 56 Wn. App. 93, 782 P.2d
572 (1989).

A peace officer who has probable cause to arrest an individual who suffers from a
mental illness for a non-felony crime other than a serious traffic offense, a domestic
violence offense, a harassment offense, a violation of Chapter 9.41 RCW (firearms
and dangerous weapons), or any crime against persons in RCW 9.94A.411, has the
option not take the individual to jail.
RCW 10.31.110 provides that:
(1) When a police officer has reasonable cause to
believe that the individual has committed acts constituting a
nonfelony crime that is not a serious offense as identified in
RCW 10.77.092 and the individual is known by history or
consultation with the regional support network to suffer from
a mental disorder, the arresting officer may:
(a) Take the individual to a crisis stabilization unit as
defined in RCW 71.05.020(6). Individuals delivered to a
crisis stabilization unit pursuant to this section may be held by
the facility for a period of up to twelve hours. The individual
must be examined by a mental health professional within
three hours of arrival;
(b) Take the individual to a triage facility as defined
in RCW 71.05.020. An individual delivered to a triage facility
which has elected to operate as an involuntary facility may be
held up to a period of twelve hours. The individual must be
examined by a mental health professional within three hours
of arrival;
(c) Refer the individual to a mental health
professional for evaluation for initial detention and
proceeding under chapter 71.05 RCW; or

102

(d) Release the individual upon agreement to

voluntary participation in outpatient treatment.
(2) If the individual is released to the community, the
mental health provider shall inform the arresting officer of the
release within a reasonable period of time after the release if
the arresting officer has specifically requested notification and
provided contact information to the provider.
(3) In deciding whether to refer the individual to
treatment under this section, the police officer shall be guided
by standards mutually agreed upon with the prosecuting
authority, which address, at a minimum, the length,
seriousness, and recency of the known criminal history of the
individual, the mental health history of the individual, where
available, and the circumstances surrounding the commission
of the alleged offense.
(4) Any agreement to participate in treatment shall not
require individuals to stipulate to any of the alleged facts
regarding the criminal activity as a prerequisite to
participation in a mental health treatment alternative. The
agreement is inadmissible in any criminal or civil proceeding.
The agreement does not create immunity from prosecution for
the alleged criminal activity.
(5) If an individual violates such agreement and the
mental health treatment alternative is no longer appropriate:
(a) The mental health provider shall inform the
referring law enforcement agency of the violation; and
(b) The original charges may be filed or referred to the
prosecutor, as appropriate, and the matter may proceed
accordingly.
(6) The police officer is immune from liability for any
good faith conduct under this section.
4.

Protective custody of abused or neglected child.

a.

RCW 26.44.050 provides in pertinent part that:

"A law enforcement officer may take, or cause to be taken, a child
into custody without a court order if there is probable cause to believe
103

that the child is abused or neglected and that the child would be
injured or could not be taken into custody if it were necessary to first
obtain a court order"

D.

i.

Abuse or neglect means sexual abuse, sexual exploitation, or injury

of a child by any person under circumstances which cause harm to the
child's health, welfare, or safety, excluding conduct permitted under
RCW 9A.16.100; or the negligent treatment or maltreatment of a
child by a person responsible for or providing care to the child. An
abused child is a child who has been subjected to child abuse or
neglect as defined in this section. RCW 26.44.020(1).

ii.

Sexual exploitation includes: (a) Allowing, permitting, or

encouraging a child to engage in prostitution by any person; or (b)
allowing, permitting, encouraging, or engaging in the obscene or
pornographic photographing, filming, or depicting of a child by any
person. RCW 26.44.020(19).

Mendez Restrictions
1.

Definition. Const. art. I, 7 prohibits law enforcement officers from restricting the
movements of passengers in lawfully stopped vehicles absent objective rationale
predicated upon safety considerations. State v. Mendez, 137 Wn.2d 208, 970 P.2d
722 (1999), overruled on other grounds by Brendlin v. California, 551 U.S. 249, 127
S. Ct. 2400, 168 L. Ed. 2d 132 (2007). To satisfy this objective rationale, an officer
need not meet Terry 's standard of reasonable suspicion of criminal activity. Terry
must only be met if the purpose of the officer's interaction with the passenger is
investigatory. For purposes of controlling the scene of the traffic stop and to preserve
safety there, the standard is something less.

2.

Factors to be Considered. A Mendez checklist appears at the end of this section.

This checklist takes into account the factors identified by the Washington Supreme
Court:
Factors warranting an officer's direction to a passenger at a traffic
stop may include the following: the number of officers, the number
of vehicle occupants, the behavior of the occupants, the time of day,
the location of the stop, traffic at the scene, affected citizens, or
officer knowledge of the occupants. These factors are not meant to
be exclusive; nor do we hold that any one factor, taken alone,
automatically justifies an officer's direction to a passenger at a traffic
stop. The inquiry into the presence or absence of an objective
rationale requires consideration of the circumstances present at the
scene of the traffic stop.

104

State v. Mendez, 137 Wn.2d 208, 220-21, 970 P.2d 722 (1999).
a.

3.

Frisks or Pat-Downs of Passengers. No officer may search a non-arrested

passenger (or items clearly associated with such passenger) unless the officer
can provide the "more" set forth in the Terry standard which is discussed
infra. That standard provides that an officer may frisk a passenger if the
officer has objective suspicions that the person searched may be armed or
dangerous. Arizona v. Johnson, 555 U.S. 323, 129 S. Ct. 781, 172 L. Ed. 2d
694 (2009).

A trooper's belief that weapon was transferred into non-suspected,

non-arrested passenger's jacket by the vehicle's driver during early
morning, isolated vehicle stop, satisfied Terry standard for a frisk of
the passenger. The pat-down was held to not offend the state
constitution. State v. Horrace, 144 Wn.2d 386, 28 P.3d 753 (2001).

The mere fact that someone is a passenger in a stolen car does not
provide an officer with grounds to conduct a frisk. State v. Adams,
144 Wn. App. 100, 181 P.3d 37, review denied, 164 Wn.2d 1033
(2008).

It is improper to frisk a passenger in a vehicle that was stopped for

expired tabs when the driver was arrested for DWLS, and both the
driver and the passenger were cooperative and cordial and made no
furtive movements. State v. Abuan, 161 Wn. App. 135, 257 P.3d 1
(2011) (the vehicle stop occurred in the midst of a territorial conflict
between two gangs; officers did not observe the gunshot damage to
the vehicles body until after the frisk).

The trooper had objectively valid reasons for frisking the defendant
after stopping the vehicle in which the defendant was a passenger for
speeding. Specifically, the defendants furtive movements during the
time the driver was refusing to comply with the order to stop her
vehicle, his evasive and deceptive responses when asked what he was
doing at that time, the peculiar way he opened the door with his left
hand, and the way he kept his right hand near and reached for his
right coat pocket when he got out of the vehicle, would justify an
experienced law enforcement officers belief that the defendant was
armed and dangerous. United States v. Burkett, 612 F.3d 1103 (9th
Cir. 2010).

Staying vs. Leaving.

On March 9, 2000, Division III of the Washington Court of Appeals considered
whether it was reasonable for the police to seize a passenger in a car stopped for a
105

traffic violation. The case, City of Spokane v. Hays, 99 Wn. App. 653, 995 P.2d 88
(2000), arose when police stopped a vehicle they had observed leave a known gang
location merge into traffic without signaling. While following the car, the officers
observed the driver and the passenger/defendant manipulating clothing on the front
bench-style seat. The officers, concerned that the item of clothing might conceal a
firearm, approached on both sides.
The officer who pulled the passenger/defendant to ask the passenger to roll down the
window was confronted with outright hostility and the sound of the door lock being
engaged. The officer explained to the passenger/defendant that he needed to
cooperate or risk being arrested for obstruction. The passenger/defendant, guided by
the information he gleaned from newspaper articles written after Mendez was first
decided, insisted that, as a passenger, he was not required to comply with law
enforcement at a traffic stop.
After further discussions, the passenger/defendant opened the door and the officer
pulled the passenger/defendant out of the vehicle. After the passenger/defendant
resisted a frisk, he was arrested for obstruction. The backseat passengers were then
requested to leave the vehicle and to sit on the ground, but they were not searched.
In upholding the police officers actions, Division III indicated that:
The facts of this case distinguish it from Mendez in a couple of
important respects. The passenger in Mendez did not obstruct the
officers in any way. Mendez merely tried to leave the scene. Id. at
224. Mr. Hays did not leave. By electing to remain, he subjected
himself to the authority of the officers to control the scene. Second,
the police in Mendez never articulated any reason why the departing
passenger aroused fear for officer safety. Here, both Officers Yamada
and Dashiell expressed plausible safety concerns based on extrinsic
factors as well as Mr. Hays' conduct.
In discussing the factors identified by the Washington Supreme Court in Mendez for
when a passengers conduct may be restricted the Court of Appeals indicated that:
There were three vehicle occupants and two officers. Both
officers worried about the apparent interest of those in the front seat
to something concealed between them. Mr. Hays was hostile and
confrontational for no apparent reason. It was dark. The place was
Spokane's 'Charlie sector,' an area known for crime. The record does
not reflect the traffic at the scene or whether other bystanders were
present. The officers had no direct knowledge of the occupants. The
address from which one of the passengers emerged before getting in
the car was, however, particularly notorious for crime and gang
activity. These same officers had responded to an assault call there
106

earlier that day.

Mr. Hays was sitting in the passenger seat. He was therefore
not seized and was free to walk away from the initial stop. He did not.
He elected instead to remain in the vehicle. He was then seized when
Officer Dashiell ordered him out of the car. Mendez, 137 Wn.2d at
222. Officers Dashiell and Yamada were nervous about Mr. Hays'
intentions. Their safety concerns were reasonable, and therefore
tipped the interest balance from Mr. Hays' privacy to officer and public
safety. Id. at 220. It was reasonable to ask Mr. Hays to get out of the
car.
The seizure was, therefore, lawful.
4.

Arrest of Occupant. The arrest of a vehicles occupant provides officers with an

objective basis to ensure their safety by controlling the scene. If an arrest is being
made, officers may order passengers in or out of the vehicle as necessary. State v.
Reynolds, 144 Wn.2d 282, 27 P.3d 200 (2001).

107

Mendez Passenger Control Checklist

Under state constitutional right to privacy, officer must have articulable rationale predicated upon safety
considerations to order passengers out of car or to remain in car following lawful traffic stop.
To order passengers to remain in car You must have reasonable suspicion that the officers safety, the
passengers safety, or someone elses safety will be placed at risk if a passenger who is not being independently cited for
a seatbelt violation is asked to remain in car during lawful traffic stop. The suspicion required is less than that required
for a Terry detention.
Articulable factors justifying request:
___

___

hour and lighting conditions

___

high crime neighborhood

weather

___

hand to hand movement

pedestrians restricted from road upon which

stop completed

number of individuals in car compared to number

of officers present at the scene

age of passenger(s)

statements of passenger or driver

personal knowledge of violent tendencies of

passenger or that passenger has outstanding
warrants

purpose of stop (traffic infraction vs. service of

arrest warrant or investigation into recently
reported crime)

condition of passenger (i.e. intoxicated or

high)

other

arrest of one of the occupants

To order passengers to exit car You must have reasonable suspicion that the officers safety, the passengers
safety, or someone elses safety will be placed at risk if the vehicle is not being searched incident to the arrest of an
occupant before a passenger who is not being cited for a seatbelt violation is asked to exit a car during lawful traffic stop.
The suspicion required is less than that required for a Terry detention.
Articulable factors justifying request:
___

___

hour and lighting conditions

___

high crime neighborhood

visible weapons or ammunition

___

hand to hand movement

age of passenger(s)

number of individuals in car compared to

number of officers present at the scene

passengers furtive movements

statements of passenger or driver

personal knowledge of violent tendencies of

passenger or that passenger has outstanding
warrants

purpose of stop (traffic infraction vs. service of

arrest warrant or investigation into recently
reported crime)

passengers refusal to keep hands visible

other

arrest of one of the occupants

108

To Frisk Passenger for Weapons You may frisk outer clothing of passengers for weapons
and may search if you reasonably believe you are in danger.
Articulable factors justifying search for weapons:
___high crime neighborhood
___guns common in neighborhood
___feel of weapons
___shape of weapon
___sight of weapon
___sound of weapon
___concerned citizen information

___CI information
___ information from another occupant
___personal knowledge of passenger having weapons
___passengers movements
___passengers statements
___sight of ammunition
___other

To QUESTION

You may demand the passengers name, birth date, and address only if a citation
is being issued to the passenger. You may detain the passenger for a reasonable period of time to verify his answers and
to check for warrants.
If the passenger is not being cited for any infraction, you may ask the passengers name and identifying
information only if the passenger is a witness to a crime, the passenger wishes to drive the vehicle away from the scene,
or the passengers identity is relevant to a separate criminal investigation, such as a violation of a protection order.
If the driver is suspended or being arrested, you have the right to refuse to allow the passenger to drive the
vehicle away from the scene of the stop until it is established that the passenger has a valid operators license.
BOTTOM LINE You must be able to articulate reasons for placing restrictions upon individuals who just
happen to be in the car that is lawfully stopped.

109

E.

Terry Detentions
1.

Definition.

A Terry detention is a seizure for investigative purposes.

To justify a Terry stop under the Fourth Amendment and art.

I, 7, a police officer must be able to "point to specific and articulable
facts which, taken together with rational inferences from those facts,
reasonably warrant that intrusion." Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1, 21, 88
S. Ct. 1868, 20 L. Ed.2d 889 (1968); State v. Armenta, 134 Wn.2d
1, 20, 948 P.2d 1280 (1997). The level of articulable suspicion
necessary to support an investigative detention is "a substantial
possibility that criminal conduct has occurred or is about to occur."
State v. Kennedy, 107 Wn.2d 1, 6, 726 P.2d 445 (1986). Probable
cause is not required for a Terry stop because a stop is significantly
less intrusive than an arrest. Id.; Brown v. Texas, 443 U.S. 47, 50, 99
S. Ct. 2637, 61 L. Ed.2d 357 (1979) (same).
State v. Mendez, 137 Wn.2d 208, 223, 970 P.2d 722 (1999).
a.

Washington Specific Limitations.

Terry stops in Washington are limited to crimes, and traffic infractions. A
Terry stop may not be made to investigate a non-traffic infraction. See State
v. Duncan, 146 Wn.2d 166, 43 P.3d 513 (2002). A Terry stop may not be
made to investigate a parking violation. See State v. Day, 161 Wn.2d 889, 168
P.3d 1265 (2007).
A Terry stop may not be made solely upon reasonable suspicion to believe one
or more of the following traffic infractions is being committed:

Sound System Components in Vehicle Not Securely Attached, RCW

46.37.680(2) (Enforcement of this section by law enforcement
officers may be accomplished only as a secondary action when a driver
of a vehicle has been detained for a suspected violation of this title or
an equivalent local ordinance or some other offense.)

Intermediate license violation, RCW 46.20.075(6) (Except for a

violation of subsection (4) of this section, [use of wireless
communication devise] enforcement of this section by law
enforcement officers may be accomplished only as a secondary action
when a driver of a motor vehicle has been detained for a suspected
violation of this title or an equivalent local ordinance or some other
offense.

110

An officer, who has probable cause to believe that a traffic or non-traffic

infraction was committed in his presence, may detain the person receiving the
infraction for a reasonable period of time necessary to identify the person and
to complete the notice of infraction. See generally RCW 7.80.050(2); RCW
7.80.060; Laws of 2012, ch. 176, 1(2)(a) (to be codified as RCW
7.84.030(2)(a), effective date June 7, 2012); RCW 46.61.021; RCW
46.64.015; RCW 46.63.030(1)(a). The officers detention may extend for the
period necessary to conduct a warrants check if the infraction is for a violation
of Titles 46, 76, 77, 79, or 79A RCW or rules adopted under Titles 76, 77, 79,
or 79A RCW. See RCW 46.61.021 and Laws of 2012, ch. 176, 1(2)(b) (to
be codified as RCW 7.84.030(2)(b), effective date June 7, 2012).
An officer who did not witness the commission of a traffic infraction may still
detain someone for the purpose of issuing a notice of traffic infraction: (1)
when the officer is acting upon the request of a law enforcement officer in
whose presence the traffic infraction was committed; (2) when the officers
on scene investigation of a motor vehicle accident provides probable cause to
believe that the driver of a motor vehicle involved in the collision has
committed a traffic infraction; (3) when the infraction is detected through the
use of a photo enforcement system under RCW 46.63.160; (4) when the
infraction is detected through the use of an automated school bus safety
camera under RCW 46.63.180; or (5) when the infraction is detected through
the use of an automated traffic safety camera under RCW 46.63.170. RCW
46.63.030.
b.

Completed Crimes.
A Terry stop may be made to investigate whether a person was involved in or
is wanted in connection with a completed felony. United States v. Hensley,
469 U.S. 221, 105 S. Ct. 675, 83 L. Ed. 2d 604 (1985). To be lawful, the
officer making the Terry stop must have a reasonable suspicion, grounded in
specific and articulable facts. Hensley, 469 U.S. at 229.
Whether a Terry stop may be made to investigate whether a person was
involved in or is wanted in connection with a completed misdemeanor offense
is currently unsettled. The Sixth Circuit has addressed this issue, holding that
[p]olice may . . . make a stop when they have reasonable suspicion of a
completed felony, though not of a mere completed misdemeanor. Gaddis v.
Redford Twp., 364 F.3d 763, 771 n.6 (6th Cir. 2004). State courts in
Minnesota and Florida have issued rulings agreeing with the Sixth Circuit.
See Blaisdell v. Commr of Public Safety, 375 N.W.2d 880, 881, 883-84
(Minn. Ct. App. 1985), affd on other grounds, 381 N.W.2d 849 (Minn. 1986);
State v. Bennett, 520 So.2d 635, 636 (Fla. Dist. Ct. App. 1988).

111

The Ninth Circuit, relying upon the policy interests identified by the United
States Supreme Court in Hensley has held that a Terry stop may be made to
investigate whether a person was involved in or is wanted in connection with
a completed misdemeanor offense when there is an indication that the suspect
will repeat the misdemeanor offense or the misdemeanor offense is one that
could cause a danger to others. See United States v. Grigg, 498 F.3d 1070 (9th
Cir. 2007). State courts in Louisiana, and North Dakota agree with the Ninth
Circuits analysis.
Decisions from courts that have adopted the Ninth Circuits analysis indicate
that a Terry stop to investigate a completed misdemeanor is

not appropriate for a claim of indecent exposure, United States v.

Jegede, 294 F. Supp. 2d 704 (D. Md. 2003).

not appropriate for noise violations, United States v. Grigg, 498 F.3d
1070 (9th Cir. 2007).

not appropriate for a simple trespass, United States v. Hughes, 517

F.3d 1013 (8th Cir. 2008) (while a criminal trespass inherently
involves some risk of confrontation with a property owner or lessee,
this risk, standing alone, is not enough to outweigh the individual's
strong security interests).

appropriate for a completed trespass that is accompanied by a strong

threat to public safety, United States v. Moran, 503 F.3d 1135, 114243, (10th Cir. 2007), cert. denied, 128 S. Ct. 2424 (2008) (Terry stop
justified where there were multiple reports of the same individual
trespassing (two on that particular day), the individual was likely
armed as he was trespassing to reach hunting grounds, there were
previous confrontations between the trespasser and the property owner,
and the trespasser had threatened other local property owners); Bates
v. Chesterfield County, Va., 216 F.3d 367, 371 (4th Cir. 2000) (Terry
stop justified where property owner reported juvenile trespassing,
acting weird as if on drugs or dunk, and then running into the woods).

appropriate when dealing with an impaired or non-attentive driver,

State v. Myers, 490 So.2d 700, 701-03 (La. Ct. App. 1986) (hit and run
of stop sign); accord Floyd v. City of Crystal Springs, 749 So.2d 110,
117 (Miss. 1999) (reckless driving); State v. Blankenship, 757 S.W.2d
354, 357 (Tenn. Crim. App. 1988) (hit-and-run accident).

appropriate in response to a verbal altercation and/or disorderly

conduct, City of Devils Lake v. Lawrence, 2002 ND 31, 639 N.W.2d
466, 467, 473 (N.D. 2002); accord State v. Burgess, 2001 ME 117,
112

776 A.2d 1223, 1227-28 (Me. 2001) (threats by drunken man).

c.

Witnesses.
Police officers may detain a witness if there are exigent circumstances or
special officer safety concerns. State v. Dorey, 145 Wn. App. 423, 186 P.3d
363 (2008); State v. Mitchell, 145 Wn. App. 1, 186 P.3d 1071 (2008), review
denied, 165 Wn.2d 1022 (2009); State v. Carney, 142 Wn. App. 197, 203,
174 P.3d 142 (2007), review denied, 164 Wn.2d 1009 (2008).
In reviewing a particular situation, Washington courts will consider the test
contained in the American Law Institute Model Code of Pre-Arraignment
Procedure 110.0(1)(b) (1975) (ALI Model Code) to determine whether a
witness was properly prevented from leaving the scene. Under the ALI Model
Code, an officer may detain a witness when:
"(i) [T]he officer [has] reasonable cause to believe that a
misdemeanor or felony, involving danger or forcible injury to
persons or of appropriation of or danger to property, has just
been committed near the place where he finds such person, and
(ii) the officer [has] reasonable cause to believe that such
person has knowledge of material aid in the investigation of
such crime, and (iii) such action is reasonably necessary to
obtain or verify the identification of such person, or to obtain
an account of such crime."
City of Kodiak v. Samaniego, 83 P.3d 1077, 1083-84 (Alaska 2004) (quoting
the ALI Model Code). Accord 4 Wayne R. Lafave, Search & Seizure: a
Treatise on the Fourth Amendment 9.2(b), at 289 (4th ed. 2004).
Exigent circumstances are lacking when: (1) a crime has not been reported; (2)
there is no ongoing or recently committed unsolved crime; (3) the suspect is
already in custody; (4) there is no reason to believe that the potential witness
possesses knowledge that would materially aid the investigation; (5) the
officer is not acting to ensure the health or safety of a crime victim.
i.

Children. The removal of a child from a classroom to

interview the child about a crime the child witnessed was held,
by the Ninth Circuit, to be a seizure that must either be
justified by exigent circumstances, parental consent, or a court
order. See Greene v. Camreta, 588 F.3d 1011 (9th Cir. 2009).
The United States Supreme Court, however, vacated the Ninth
Circuits opinion as moot. See Camreta v. Greene, ___ U.S.
____, 131 S. Ct. 2020, 179 L. Ed. 2d 1118 (2011).

113

Many factors will determine whether an interview is a seizure,

including

the length of the interview

the location of the interview (home, school or street)

who initiated the interview (the victim called police or

told someone who called the police vs. police
contacting the victim pursuant to an ongoing
investigation)

the number of interview participants and their roles

the attire of the investigators, including whether a

firearm was present or visible

the language and tone of the investigator/interviewer

how aggressive or confrontational the questioning

(volunteered report or denial followed by questions
that challenge the denial)

physical contact between the investigator and the

person being interviewed

the age of the child (children 12-years of age or older

can provide their own consent. See generally RCW
13.40.140(10))

whether the child was told that s/he could refuse to

participate in the interview

Officers and CPS workers should document in detail the

circumstances of the interview, including the above factors.
This documentation may determine whether a subsequent court
will decide if the interview was a seizure.
Exigent circumstances permit an officer or caseworker to seize
a child without a warrant or parental consent if the investigator
"reasonably believes" that:

114

1.

medical issues need to addressed immediately, or;

2.

the child is or will be in danger of harm if the interview

or physical exam is not immediately completed.

An argument that "exigent circumstances" exists will be more

compelling if the interview is conducted with urgency and
before the child returns home to either the alleged abuser or the
perceived threat. Law enforcement officers should include
language in their report as to why the officer believed there
were exigent circumstances to interview of the child without
the consent of the parent. Information that the child has been
abused, access by the suspect to the child, prior injuries or
concerning behavior by or to the child, may justify a
warrantless interview of a child. The report should also
reference whether a decision was made, following the
interview, to place the child into protective custody, and if so,
why or why not.
Examples:

Police officers properly detained the apparent victim of an armed

robbery who was being treated for his injuries in a parking lot, until he
identified the suspects who were detained so that he could identify the
assailants. Factors to be considered in determining the reasonableness
of detaining a witness include the seriousness of the crime being
investigated, a reason to believe the person detained has knowledge of
material aid in the investigation of such crime, and the need for prompt
action. State v. Mitchell, 145 Wn. App. 1, 186 P.3d 1071 (2008),
review denied, 165 Wn.2d 1022 (2009).

An officer responding to a residential area to investigate a citizen

report of a reckless motorcyclist improperly detained two occupants in
a parked car that the officer had seen speaking with a motorcycle rider
that matched the description of the reckless rider. The fact that the
motorcyclist ran to his bike and fled, swerving around the patrol car
and ignoring the officers emergency lights and verbal instructions to
stop did not create an exigent circumstance sufficient to detain the
possible witnesses long enough to complete a records check. State v.
Carney, 142 Wn. App. 197, 203, 174 P.3d 142 (2007), review denied,
164 Wn.2d 1009 (2008).

A police officer may not stop a potential witness when investigating

a disturbance complaint that did not arise to the level of a crime. State
v. Dorey, 145 Wn. App. 423, 186 P.3d 363 (2008).
115

d.

Reasonable Suspicion
The reasonableness of the officer's suspicion is determined by the totality of
the circumstances known to the officer at the inception of the stop. A
reasonable suspicion can arise from information that is less reliable than that
required to establish probable cause, but reasonable suspicion, like probable
cause, is dependent upon both the content of the information possessed by the
officer and the degree of reliability of the information. Both factorsquantity
and qualityare considered in the totality of the circumstances, i.e., the
whole picture, that must be taken into account when evaluating whether the
police officer's suspicion of criminal activity is reasonable. State v. Lee, 147
Wn. App. 912, 199 P.3d 445 (2008), review denied, 166 Wn.2d 1016 (2009).
While a police officer's reasonable suspicion may be based on information
supplied by an informant, an informant's tip cannot constitutionally provide
police with a reasonable suspicion unless the tip possesses sufficient indicia
of reliability. Courts generally consider several factors when deciding whether
an informant's tip carries sufficient indicia of reliability, primarily (1) whether
the informant is reliable, (2) whether the information was obtained in a
reliable fashion, and (3) whether the officers can corroborate any details of the
informant's tip. State v. Lee, 147 Wn. App. 912, 199 P.3d 445 (2008), review
denied, 166 Wn.2d 1016 (2009). This test is less rigorous then the AguillarSpinelli test used to evaluate informant evidence in the context of search
warrants and arrests. Id.
With regard to information from an unidentified informant, courts have relied
upon the following factors in establishing reliability: (1) whether the tip is
provided to the officer during a face-to-face encounter; (2) whether the
unidentified informant is a member of a small class of likely sources; (3)
whether the unidentified informant's tip is made contemporaneously with a
complainant's observations; and (4) whether the unidentified reveals the basis
of knowledge of the tip--how the informant came to know the information.
See generally United States v. Palos-Marquez, 591 F.3d 1272 (9th Cir. 2010).
Accord United States v. Basher, 629 F.3d 1161, 1165 (9th Cir. 2011)
(witnesses in-person reports to officers provided a legitimate basis for a Terry
stop; officers did not write down the witnesses names).
An officers possession of sufficient facts to support probable cause will not
preclude a Terry stop. There is no requirement that an officer make an arrest
as soon as probable cause is present so that constitutional protections are
triggered at the earliest possible moment. See Hoffa v. United States, 385 U.S.
293, 310, 87 S. Ct. 408, 17 L. Ed. 2d 374 (1966); United States v. Wynne, 993
F.2d 760 (10th Cir. 1993). Accord State v. Quezadas-Gomez, 165 Wn. App.
593, 267 P.3d 1036 (2011), review denied, 173 Wn.2d 1034 (2012) (an
officer, who has probable cause to arrest the driver based upon the drivers
116

participation in a prior controlled drug sales, may make an investigatory stop

of the drivers vehicle for the purpose of obtaining the drivers name.
Probable cause for the greater intrusion of an arrest encompasses legal
justification for the lesser intrusion of a mere stop.).
Persons. A checklist for Terry stops appears at the end of this section. This
checklist identifies some factors that may be considered in deciding whether
there are grounds to stop a person. Some factors that are insufficient to stop
an individual include:

Racial Incongruity. It must be noted that Washington law does not

permit racial incongruity to support a finding of reasonable
suspicion. Racial incongruity is defined by the Washington
Supreme Court as a person of any race being allegedly "out of place"
in a particular geographic area. See State v. Barber, 118 Wn. 2d. 335,
823 P.2d 1068 (1992).

Past Reports of Criminal Activity. The fact that vehicle prowls have
been reported in a privately owned parking lot located in a high crime
area will not provide an officer with the particularized suspicion
necessary to stop an individual who is merely seen walking through
the parking lot at night. State v. Martinez, 135 Wn. App. 174, 143
P.3d 855 (2006).
Past reports of criminal activity, however, will support a Terry stop
when coupled with current suspicious behavior. State v. Bray, 143
Wn. App. 148, 177 P.3d 154 (2008) (police were justified in stopping
the defendant, who was spotted inside enclosed storage units, that were
loacted within 1000 feet of recent burglaries, at 2:30 a.m., driving
slowly with his car lights off, checking doors).

Startled Reaction. An individuals startled reaction to police, even

when coupled with a swift departure from the area, is insufficient to
support a Terry stop. State v. Gatewood, 163 Wn.2d 534, 182 P.3d
426 (2008).

Closed Businesses. An individuals walking behind a closed business

while talking on a cell phone, and her refusal to provide identification
or a birth date during an earlier social contact, did not provide
justification for a Terry stop. State v. Young, COA No. 41185-7-II,
___ Wn. App. ___, ___ P.3d ___ (May 1, 2012). A police officer
lacked specific and articulable facts to seize a vehicle after the male
driver stopped the vehicle in the lane of travel at 10:40 p.m. when no
businesses were open, in an area noted for a high level of prostitution,
and had a discussion with a female pedestrian that resulted in the
117

pedestrian entering the vehicle. State v. Diluzio, 162 Wn. App. 585,
254 P.3d 218, review denied, 173 Wn.2d 1002 (2011).

Motorcyclist. RCW 43.101.419 prohibits motorcycle profiling.

Motorcycle profiling means the the illegal use of the fact that a
person rides a motorcycle or wears motorcycle-related paraphernalia
as a factor in deciding to stop and question, take enforcement action,
arrest, or search a person or vehicle with or without a legal basis under
the United States Constitution or Washington state Constitution.

Vehicles. Officers only need reasonable suspicion, not probable cause, to stop
a vehicle in order to investigate whether the driver committed a traffic
infraction or a traffic offense. See State v. Duncan, 146 Wn.2d 166, 173-75,
43 P.3d 513 (2002). Terry has also been extended to traffic infractions, due
to the law enforcement exigency created by the ready mobility of vehicles and
governmental interests in ensuring safe travel, as evidenced in the broad
regulation of most forms of transportation. State v. Day, 161 Wn.2d 889,
897, 168 P.3d 1265 (2007), quoting State v. Johnson, 128 Wn.2d 431, 454,
909 P.2d 293 (1996).
A number of older court of appeals decisions indicate that probable cause is
required before an officer may stop a vehicle to investigate a traffic infraction.
See, e.g., State v. Chelly 94 Wn. App. 254, 970 P.2d 376, review denied, 138
Wn.2d 1009 (1999); State v. Cole, 73 Wn. App. 844, 871 P.2d 656, review
denied, 125 Wn.2d 1003 (1994). The Washington Supreme court expressly
rejected these cases, stating that probable cause . . . is the wrong standard for
deciding whether an officer properly stopped a vehicle to investigate a traffic
infraction. State v. Snapp, 174 Wn.2d 177, 197, ___ P.3d ___ (2012). The
correct standard is Terrys reasonable suspicion. In reviewing the propriety
of a Terry stop for a traffic infraction, a court evaluates the totality of the
circumstances. Id. The question of a valid stop does not depend upon the
motorist actually having violated the statute. Rather, if the officer had a
reasonable suspicion that the motorist was violating the statute, the stop was
justified. Id. (stop for violation of RCW 46.37.020 was lawful, despite the
fact that sunset occurred less than 30 minutes prior to the stop, as it was dark,
cold, and icy and the vehicles headlights were off).
Case law contains examples of what will and what will not satisfy this
standard:

A vehicle may not be stopped solely to verify the validity of a trip

permit. State v. Byrd, 110 Wn. App. 259, 39 P.3d 1010 (2002).

118

A vehicle may be stopped if the windshield is cracked and is in such

an unsafe condition as to endanger any person. State v. WaymanBurks, 114 Wn. App. 109, 56 P.3d 598 (2002).

A vehicle may be stopped if items hanging from the rearview mirror

obstruct the drivers vision of the highway or are of a type that can
distract the attention of the driver so as to make operation of the
vehicle unsafe. See generally State v. Cyrus, 297 Conn. 829, 1 A.3d
59 (2010). [Note: Washington does not have a specific statute that
prohibits hanging items from a rearview mirror, so the conduct must
either violate RCW 46.37.010(1)(a) (knowingly drive vehicle on
highway that is in such an unsafe condition as to endanger any person)
or RCW 46.61.525(1)(a) (operate a motor vehicle in a manner that is
both negligent and endangers or is likely to endanger any person or
property].

A vehicle may be stopped based upon DOL records which indicate that
the drivers license of the registered owner of the vehicle is
suspended. See State v. McKinney, 148 Wn. 2d 20, 60 P.3d 46 (2002);
State v. Gaddy, 152 Wn.2d 64, 93 P.3d 872 (2004); State v. Lyons, 85
Wn. App. 268, 932 P.2d 188 (1997).
The officer need not
affirmatively verify that the driver's appearance matches that of the
registered owner before making the stop, but the Terry stop must end
as soon as the officer determines that the operator of the vehicle
cannot be the registered owner. See State v. Phillips, 126 Wn. App.
584, 109 P.3d 470 (2005), review denied, 156 Wn.2d 1012 (2006);
State v. Penfield, 106 Wn. App. 157, 22 P.3d 293 (2001).

A vehicle may be stopped based upon an officers recognition of the

driver as someone whose license is suspended . State v. Harlow, 85
Wn. App. 557, 933 P.2d 1076 (1997).

A vehicle may be stopped based upon the existence of an arrest

warrant for the registered owner of the vehicle. The Terry stop must
end, however, as soon as the officer determines that the operator of
the vehicle and any passenger in the vehicle cannot be the registered
owner. State v. Bliss, 153 Wn. App. 197, 222 P.3d 107 (2009); State
v. Penfield, 106 Wn. App. 157, 22 P.3d 293 (2001).

A Terry stop may not be made of a vehicle that weaves within the
drivers lane of travel unless the weaving is observed over a lengthy
period of time and occurs repeatedly or if the officer identifies some
additional conduct associated with drunk drivers. United States v.
Fernandez-Castillo, 324 F.3d 1114 (9th Cir. 2003) (weaving within
lane by a driver who is sitting close to the steering wheel sufficient to
119

support a Terry stop where officer testified why sitting very close to
the steering wheel and swerving in ones lane may indicate
impairment); United States v. Colin, 314 F.3d 439 (9th Cir. 2002)
(insufficient grounds existed for stopping a vehicle that touched, but
did not cross the lines twice for approximately 10 seconds before
making safe lane changes).

A Terry stop may not be made of a vehicle that weaves between lanes
unless the weaving is pronounced, is observed over a lengthy period
of time and occurs repeatedly. See State v. Prado, 145 Wn. App. 646,
186 P.3d 1186 (2008) (Washington State's requirement that
automobile drivers remain within a single lane of travel "as nearly as
practicable," RCW 46.61.140(1), does not impose strict liability. A
vehicle crossing over a lane once for one second by two tire widths
does not, without more, constitute a traffic violation justifying a stop
by a police officer.). See also State v. Laferty, 291 Mont. 157, 967
P.2d 363 (1998) (drivers minor crossings of fog line on far right of
right lane of travel were insufficient to create particularized suspicion
that driver was intoxicated or to authorize investigatory stop); and
Rowe v. State, 363 Md. 424. 769 A.2d 879 (2001) (observing a vehicle
in the early hours of the morning crossing, by about 8 inches, the white
edge-line separating the shoulder from the traveled portion of the
highway, returning to the traveled portion, and a short time later,
touching the white edge line did not provide the officer with sufficient
grounds to make an investigatory stop); State v. Van Kirk, 306 Mont.
215, 32 P.3d 735, 740-41 (2001) (drivers traveling at 7 to 10 m.p.h.
in a 25 m.p.h. zone, and shifting vehicle from the edge of the roadway
to the mid-point and across it several times in a manner that would
have impeded any oncoming traffic provided sufficient grounds to
make an investigatory stop); and State v. Edwards, 143 Md. App. 155,
792 A.2d 1197 (2002) (crossing the center line of an undivided, two
lane road by as much as a foot and traveling in that manner for
approximately 1/4 mile provided a legally sufficient basis to justify a
traffic stop).

A Terry stop may be made when a vehicle crosses a fog line under
RCW 46.61.670. RCW 46.61.670 states that it is unlawful to operate
or drive any vehicle or combination of vehicles over or along any
pavement or gravel or crushed rock surface on a public highway with
one wheel or all of the wheels off the roadway thereof, except as
permitted by RCW 46.61.428 or for the purpose of stopping off such
roadway, or having stopped thereat, for proceeding back onto the
pavement, gravel or crushed rock surface thereof. The term
roadway excludes shoulders. See RCW 46.04.500 (Roadway
means that portion of a highway . . . ordinarily used for vehicular
120

travel, exclusive of . . . shoulder even though such . . shoulder is used

by persons riding bicycles.) There is no as nearly as practicable
defense to a violation of RCW 46.61.670. The only defense is that
contained in RCW 46.61.428 which allows slow-moving vehicles to
drive on shoulders where signs are in place that authorize the same.

A Terry stop may be made when a vehicle crosses the center line11 for
a purpose not specified in RCW 46.61.100. This is because there is
no as nearly as practicable defense to a violation of RCW
46.661.100. RCW 46.61.100 provides that:
(1) Upon all roadways of sufficient width a
vehicle shall be driven upon the right half of the
roadway, except as follows:
(a) When overtaking and passing another
vehicle proceeding in the same direction under the
rules governing such movement;
(b) When an obstruction exists making it
necessary to drive to the left of the center of the
highway; provided, any person so doing shall yield the
right-of-way to all vehicles traveling in the proper
direction upon the unobstructed portion of the highway
within such distance as to constitute an immediate
hazard;
(c) Upon a roadway divided into three marked
lanes and providing for two-way movement traffic
under the rules applicable thereon;
(d) Upon a street or highway restricted to
one-way traffic; or
(e) Upon a highway having three lanes or less,
when approaching a stationary authorized emergency
vehicle, tow truck or other vehicle providing roadside
assistance while operating warning lights with three
hundred sixty degree visibility, or police vehicle as
described under RCW 46.61.212[(1)(d)(ii)].

11

"Center line" means the line, marked or unmarked, parallel to and equidistant from the sides of a two-way
traffic roadway of a highway except where otherwise indicated by painted lines or markers. RCW 46.04.100.

121

(2) Upon all roadways having two or more

lanes for traffic moving in the same direction, all
vehicles shall be driven in the right-hand lane then
available for traffic, except (a) when overtaking and
passing another vehicle proceeding in the same
direction, (b) when traveling at a speed greater than the
traffic flow, (c) when moving left to allow traffic to
merge, or (d) when preparing for a left turn at an
intersection, exit, or into a private road or driveway
when such left turn is legally permitted. On any such
roadway, a vehicle or combination over ten thousand
pounds shall be driven only in the right-hand lane
except under the conditions enumerated in (a) through
(d) of this subsection.
(3) No vehicle towing a trailer or no vehicle or
combination over ten thousand pounds may be driven
in the left-hand lane of a limited access roadway
having three or more lanes for traffic moving in one
direction except when preparing for a left turn at an
intersection, exit, or into a private road or driveway
when a left turn is legally permitted. This subsection
does not apply to a vehicle using a high occupancy
vehicle lane. A high occupancy vehicle lane is not
considered the left-hand lane of a roadway. The
department of transportation, in consultation with the
Washington state patrol, shall adopt rules specifying
(a) those circumstances where it is permissible for
other vehicles to use the left lane in case of emergency
or to facilitate the orderly flow of traffic, and (b) those
segments of limited access roadway to be exempt from
this subsection due to the operational characteristics of
the roadway.
(4) It is a traffic infraction to drive continuously
in the left lane of a multilane roadway when it impedes
the flow of other traffic.
(5) Upon any roadway having four or more
lanes for moving traffic and providing for two-way
movement of traffic, a vehicle shall not be driven to
the left of the center line of the roadway except when
authorized by official traffic control devices
designating certain lanes to the left side of the center of
the roadway for use by traffic not otherwise permitted
122

to use such lanes, or except as permitted under

subsection (1)(b) of this section. However, this
subsection shall not be construed as prohibiting the
crossing of the center line in making a left turn into or
from an alley, private road or driveway.
Bicycles. Officers only need reasonable suspicion, not probable cause, to stop
a bicycle in order to investigate whether the driver committed a traffic
infraction or a traffic offense. Cf. State v. Duncan, 146 Wn.2d 166, 173-75,
43 P.3d 513 (2002).

A bicycle that is being operated at night must have a front light and a
rear red reflector. These requirements apply to bicycles ridden on
streets, bike paths, and sidewalks. The absence of a front light or a
rear reflector provides a lawful basis for stopping a cyclist. State v.
Rowell, 138 Wn. App. 780, 158 P.3d 1248 (2007).

Boats. Officers only need reasonable suspicion, not probable cause, to stop
a vessel in order to investigate a violation of a criminal law. See, e.g., United
States v. Todhunter, 297 F.3d 886 (9th Cir. 2002); Blair v. United States, 665
F.2d 500 (4th Cir. 1981); State v. Bell, 873 So.2d 476 (Fla. App. 2004); State
v. Baker, 197 Ga. App. 1, 397 S.E.2d 554 (1990) (police officers had
reasonable, articulable suspicion to stop a defendant for violating statute
prohibiting operating vessel while under influence of alcohol based upon their
observation of beer can in his hand and his failure to keep lookout ahead).
2.

Scope of Seizure. The scope of an investigatory stop is determined by considering

(1) the purpose of the stop, (2) the amount of physical intrusion on the suspect's
liberty, and (3) the length of time of the seizure. See State v. Laskowski, 88 Wn. App.
858, 950 P.2d 950 (1997), review denied, 135 Wn.2d 1002 (1998).
A Terry stop of a person or car is justified if the officer can "point to specific and
articulable facts which, taken together with rational inferences from those facts,
reasonably warrant that intrusion." Terry, 392 U.S. at 21; State v. White, 97 Wn.2d
92, 105, 640 P.2d 1061 (1982); State v. Kennedy, 107 Wn.2d 1, 6, 726 P.2d 445
(1986). When reviewing the merits of an investigatory stop, a court must evaluate the
totality of circumstances presented to the investigating officer. State v. Glover, 116
Wn.2d 509, 514, 806 P.2d 760 (1991). The court takes into account an officer's
training and experience when determining the reasonableness of a Terry stop. Id.
Subsequent evidence that the officer was in error regarding some of his facts will not
render a Terry stop unreasonable. State v. Seagull, 95 Wn.2d 898, 908, 632 P.2d 44
(1981) ("The Fourth Amendment does not proscribe 'inaccurate' searches only
'unreasonable' ones"). A Terry stop is also not rendered unreasonable solely because
the officer did not rule out all possibilities of innocent behavior before initiating the
stop. State v. Anderson, 51 Wn. App. 775, 780, 755 P.2d 191 (1988).
123

A Terry stop, investigative detention, must last no longer than is necessary to verify
or dispel the officer's suspicion, and the investigative methods employed must be the
least intrusive means reasonably available to effectuate the purpose of the detention.
State v. Williams, 102 W.2d 733, 738-40, 689 P.2d 1065 (1984). The reasonableness
of police activity during the Terry stop must necessarily depend on the facts of each
particular case. An appropriate and reasonable intrusion under one set of facts might
be inappropriate under another fact situation. In evaluating the validity of the
detention, the court must consider "the totality of the circumstances - - the whole
picture". United States v. Cortez, 449 U.S. 411, 66 L. Ed.2d 621, 101 S. Ct. 690, 695
(1981); United States v. Sokolow, 490 U.S. 1, 104 L. Ed.2d, 1, 109 S. Ct. 1581, 1585
(1989); State v. Dorsey, 40 Wn. App. 459, 698 P.2d 1109 (1984), review denied, 104
W.2d 1010 (1985). This includes information given the officer, observations the
officer makes, and inferences and deductions drawn from his or her training and
experience. Cortez, 101 S. Ct. at 694-96. Under the totality of the circumstances test
for investigatory stops, an officer may rely on combination of otherwise innocent
observations to briefly pull over a suspect. United States v. Arvizu, 122 S. Ct. 744,
151 L. Ed. 2d 740 (2002).
An important factor comprising the totality of circumstances which must be examined
is the nature of the suspected crime; a violent felony crime provides an officer with
more lee way to act than does a gross misdemeanor. State v. Randall, 73 Wn. App.
225, 229-30, 868 P.2d 207 (1994); State v. Thierry, 60 Wn. App. 445, 803 P.2d 844
(1991) ("Officers may do far more if the suspect conduct endangers life or personal
safety than if it does not."); State v. McCord, 19 Wn. App. 250, 576 P.2d 892, review
denied, 90 Wn.2d 1013 (1978) (seriousness of suspected crime bears on the degree of
suspicion needed to make the stop and the extent of the permissible intrusion after the
stop).
a.

Purpose for stop. A Terry stop may be made of a person or vehicle pursuant
to objective factors to believe an individual may have been involved in a
crime. The information giving rise to such a belief may come from an
officers personal observations, from information known only to a fellow
officer, or from citizen or professional informants. (A fuller discussion of
informants and the fellow officer rule appears in the discussion of search
warrants).
When a stop is made in response to a report of a crime, the following factors
must be considered:
C

Similarities between the suspects or suspect vehicles appearance and

the witness/victim description.

Temporal proximity to the crime scene. Could the suspect have gotten
to the proposed location of the stop since the time when the crime was
committed?
124

C
b.

Geographic proximity to the crime scene.

Amount of physical intrusion. The physical intrusion must be limited to that

necessary to effect the stop in a safe and effective manner. Activities that may
not be justified at the inception of the stop, may become appropriate as the
investigation continues. Actions that have been upheld by courts include:
C

Requesting lifting/opening of jacket to allow for visual inspection for

weapons. See United States v. Baker, 78 F.3d 135, 138 (4th Cir.
1996).

Separating individuals for questioning. See, e.g., United States v.

Knox, 839 F.2d 285, 293 (6th Cir. 1988), cert. denied, 490 U.S. 1019
(1989); United States v. Bautista, 684 F.2d 1286, 1290-91 (9th Cir.
1982), cert. denied, 459 U.S. 1211 (1983).

Transporting suspects for a short distance for identification by crime

victims or witnesses. State v. Wheeler, 108 Wn.2d 230, 235-36, 737
P.2d 1005 (1987) (frisk and transport in police car); State v. Lund, 70
Wn. App. 437, 447-48, 853 P.2d 1379 (1993), review denied, 123
Wn.2d 1023 (1994) (surveying cases in which suspects were moved)

Holding suspect at scene of stop to allow victim/suspect to arrive for

identification or to receive assistance from other officers. State v.
Moon, 48 Wn. App. 647, 739 P.2d 1157 (1987); State v. Mercer, 45
Wn. App. 769, 727 P.2d 676 (1986); State v. Samsel, 39 Wn. App.
564, 694 P.2d 670 (1985).

Holding suspect in patrol car while search is conducted of environs for

evidence and other suspects. State v. Smith, 115 Wn.2d 775, 787, 801
P.2d 975 (1990) (suspect detained in patrol car without handcuffs
while officers searched car and environs for evidence and other
suspects).

Placing suspect in front of the police cars headlights for safety

purposes and lighting. State v. Mercer, 45 Wn. App. 769, 776, 727
P.2d 676 (1986).

Removing suspect from vehicle. State v. Watkins, 76 Wn. App. 726,

729, 887 P.2d 492 (1995).

Performance of field sobriety tests. See State v. Jones, 115 Idaho

1029, 772 P.2d 236, 240 (1989); State v. Thomte, 226 Neb. 659, 413
N.W.2d 916, 918-19 (1987); State v. Superior Court, 149 Ariz. 269,
718 P.2d 171, 175-76 (1986); Romo v. Municipality of Anchorage, 697
125

P.2d 1065, 1069 (Alaska App. 1985); State v. Niles, 74 Or. App. 383,
703 P.2d 1030 (1985); State v. Golden, 171 Ga. App. 27, 318 S.E.2d
693, 696 (1984); State v. Wyatt, 687 P.2d 544, 552-53 (Hawaii 1984).

Requiring the detainee to bear his forearms so that his tattoos can be
viewed. State v. Moore, 129 Wn. App. 870, 120 P.3d 635 (2005).

Drawn guns and felony stop procedures. Police officers may draw their
guns and use felony stop procedures when detaining persons suspected
of criminal activity if the specific information known by the officers
reasonably makes them fear for their own safety. The decision to draw
a gun must be neither arbitrary nor for the purpose of harassment.
Among the circumstances that officers may consider are furtive
gestures made by the suspects and facts about the crime that the
persons were suspected of committing that would support an inference
that the persons are armed. State v. Belieu, 112 Wn.2d 587, 773 P.2d
46 (1989) (report of numerous burglaries where guns were stolen).

Handcuffing the detainee. See generally State v. Belieu, 112 Wn.2d

587, 773 P.2d 46 (1989) (full felony stop procedure which included
handcuffing); State v. Wheeler, 108 Wn.2d 230, 737 P.2d 1005 (1987)
(police may handcuff a suspect detained pursuant to an investigative
stop before transporting him in a police car); State v. Wakeley, 29 Wn.
App. 238, 243 n.1, 628 P.2d 835, review denied, 95 Wn.2d 1032
(1981) (Although, normally, handcuffing an individual is not within
the scope of an investigative stop and Terry frisk, in appropriate cases
handcuffing may be reasonable, as a corollary of the lawful stop.;
citation omitted). See also Houston v. Clark County Sheriff Deputy
John Does 1-5, 174 F.3d 815 (6th Cir. 1999) (the use of handcuffs
does not exceed the bounds of a Terry stop); United States v. Taylor,
716 F.2d 701 (9th Cir. 1983) (the use of handcuffs, if reasonably
necessary, while substantially aggravating the intrusiveness of an
investigatory stop, does not necessarily convert a Terry stop into a
custodial arrest).

Weapons frisk. (see fuller discussion infra).

Checking for outstanding warrants. See State v. Chelly, 94 Wn. App.

254, 261, 970 P.2d 376, review denied, 138 Wn.2d 1009 (1999); State
v. Williams, 50 Wn. App. 696, 700, 750 P.2d 278 (1988).

126

Actions that Washington courts have not yet ruled upon:

c.

Requesting that a motorist roll up windows and turn on or open the

vents of his vehicle. United States v. Ladeaux, 454 F.3d 1107 (10th
Cir. 2006) (indicating that such a request might be a violation of the
motorists Fourth Amendment rights).

Photographing a suspect during a Terry detention. Flores v. State, 120

Md. App. 171, 706 A.2d 628 (1998) (photographing an individual
who was suspected of selling drugs to an undercover detective as part
of a Terry stop was reasonable).

Length of time. There is no bright line rule for how long is too long for a
Terry stop. See State v. Williams, 102 Wn.2d 733, 739, 689 P.2d 1065 (1984).
Courts, however, begin to get concerned once the stop exceeds the 20 minute
maximum suggested by the American Law Institute. Detentions of 20 minutes
or longer have, however, been upheld in Washington when the delay was due
to investigation/officer safety reason and not merely for harassment. See,
e.g., State v. Bray , 143 Wn. App. 148, 177 P.3d 154 (2008) (detaining suspect
for 30 minutes while officers checked storage units to determine which ones
had been burglarized held reasonable); State v. Moon, 48 Wn. App. 647, 739
P.2d 1157 (1987) (detaining suspect for 20 minutes while victim of robbery
was brought to detention site held reasonable); State v. Mercer, 45 Wn. App.
769, 727 P.2d 676 (1986) (20-minute detention of suspect by Trooper who did
not feel competent to investigate potential theft until city police officer arrived
held reasonable); State v. Samsel, 39 Wn. App. 564, 694 P.2d 670 (1985)
(detaining suspects for 10 to 12 minutes until victim arrived to identify them
held reasonable).
In determining whether a detention was unreasonably long in duration, courts
look at the officers actions and whether the officer diligently pursued a means
of investigation which would likely confirm or dispel his or her suspicions.
"A court making this assessment should take care to consider whether the
police are acting in a swiftly developing situation, and in such cases the court
should not indulge in unrealistic second-guessing.... But `the fact that the
protection of the public might, in the abstract have been accomplished by `less
intrusive' means does not, itself, render the search unreasonable.'" (citations
omitted) United States v. Sharpe, 470 U.S. 675, 105 S. Ct. 1568, 1575-76, 84
L. Ed. 2d 605 (1985) (affirming a 30-40 minute long detention). Even a Terry
detention of less then 20 minutes can be unreasonable, if officers do not use
the time to diligently pursue an investigation that is likely to confirm or dispel
suspicions of criminal activity. Liberal v. Estrada, 632 F.3d 1064, 1080 (9th
Cir. 2011). A detention may , however, be prolonged where the defendants'
answers "failed to dispel [the officer's] suspicions about illegal activity and
actually created new ones". See, e.g., United States v. Torres-Sanchez, 83
127

F.3d 1123, 1128 (9th Cir. 1996).

The detention must be promptly terminated when the officer has facts
sufficient to exclude the detainee from suspicion. Thus, while an officer may
make a Terry stop of a vehicle if the officer has knowledge that the registered
owner of the vehicle is suspended, the Terry stop must end as soon as the
officer determines that the operator of the vehicle cannot be the registered
owner. In State v. Penfield, 106 Wn. App. 157, 22 P.3d 293 (2001), the
officer violated the Fourth Amendment by asking the male driver of the
stopped vehicle for his license, etc., when the registered owner of the vehicle
was a female.

An officer who stops a vehicle based upon reasonable suspicion that

the driver has committed a traffic offenses may question the driver
about matters unrelated to the justification of the stop (i.e. drugs), so
long as the questioning does not prolong the stop. United States v.
Mendez, 476 F.3d 1077 (9th Cir. 2007) (recognizing that earlier Ninth
Circuit cases to the contrary, including United States v. ChavezValenzuela, 268 F.3d 719 (9th Cir. 2001), were overruled by Muehler
v. Mena, 544 U.S. 93, 125 S. Ct. 1465, 161 L. Ed. 2d 299 (2005).
Accord State v. Veltri, 136 Wn. App. 818, 150 P.3d 1178 (2003)
(once the officer concluded his investigation into whether the vehicle
was stolen, it was improper for the officer to switch his investigatory
purpose towards whether weapons or other contraband was present
and to request consent to search the vehicle as the officer lacked
reasonable articulable suspicion of such criminal activity). But see
State v. Hoang, 101 Wn. App.732, 6 P.3d 602 (2000), review denied,
142 Wn.2d 1027 (2001) (questions by an officer that are unrelated to
the traffic infraction under investigation will be considered by the
court in deciding whether the stop was an improper pretext stop).

An officer who stops a vehicle based upon reasonable suspicion that

the driver has committed a traffic offense may expand the questioning
to the consumption and/or possession of unlawful drugs when there is
objective evidence supporting such questioning. State v. Santacruz,
132 Wn. App. 615, 133 P.3d 484 (2006) (the officer's questioning of
driver, who was initially stopped for expired vehicle registration,
regarding drugs and the subsequent consensual search were justified
by the driver's dilated pupils which did not constrict when a flashlight
was shined in the eyes and by the absence of any odor of alcohol).

An officer may not prolong a Terry detention in the hopes of accomplishing

an attitude adjustment. Liberal v. Estrada, 632 F.3d 1064, 1081 (9th Cir.
2011).

128

Lengthy waits for a drug dog may be appropriate if a timely request was made
for the canine and the canine unit proceeds as quickly as possible to the scene.
See, e.g., United States v. Donnelly, 475 F.3d 946 (9th Cir.), cert. denied, 127
S. Ct. 2954 (2007) (90+ minutes can be reasonable while waiting for a K9
unit); United States v. Bloomfield, 40 F.3d 910, 917 (8th Cir. 1994) (a onehour detention upon reasonable suspicion to wait for a drug dog was
reasonable); United States v. White, 42 F.3d 457 (8th Cir. 1994) (one hour and
twenty minutes detention while awaiting the arrival of a drug dog was
reasonable where the officer acted diligently to obtain the dog and the delay
was caused by the remote location of the closest available dog); State v.
Teagle, 217 Ariz. 17, 170 P.3d 266 (2007) (a public safety officer did not act
unreasonably by detaining defendant for one hour and forty minutes pending
the arrival of a drug detection dog, when the nearest available canine unit was
approximately 60 miles away and arrived 68 minutes after being called to the
scene).
d.

Identification
While laws requiring persons to provide reliable identification to the police,
or face arrest, violate the Fourth Amendment, police may demand to know a
suspect's true identity during Terry stops so long as the request is reasonably
related to the detention. Hiibel v. Sixth Judicial Dist. Court, 124 S. Ct. 2451,
159 L. Ed. 2d 292 (2004); United States v. Christian, 356 F.3d 1103 (9th Cir.
2004); accord State v. Madrigal, 65 Wn. App. 279, 282, 827 P.2d 1105 (1992)
(whn an officer has a reasonable suspicion of criminal activity, he or she may
stop a suspect and ask the suspect for identification and an explanation of his
or her activities).
Determining a suspect's identity is an important aspect of police authority
under Terry. Neither interrogating a suspect regarding his or her identity nor
a request for identification, by itself, constitutes a Fourth Amendment seizure
or a Fifth Amendment violation. Ascertaining the identity of a suspect assists
officers in relocating the suspect in the future. Ascertaining the identity of a
suspect protects the officer from harm, as it allows an officer to determine
whether the suspect has an outstanding warrant, or a history of violent crime.
A suspect who refuses to provide his or her name during a Terry stop has not
committed a crime. State v. Moore, 161 Wn.2d 880, 169 P.3d 469 (2007)
(defendant who was not wearing a seatbelt could not be arrested for giving a
false name as the officer was not affirmatively investigating the traffic
infraction when the officer asked the defendant his name). A suspect who
gives a false name or other false identifying information may not be arrested
for the crime of obstruction, RCW 9A.76.020(1). See State v. Williams, 171
Wn.2d 474, 251 P.3d 877 (2011) (theft suspect who gave brothers name and
false date of birth could not be prosecuted for obstruction). A suspect who
129

gives a false name or other false identifying information may be arrested for
a violation of RCW 9A.76.175, if the suspect acted knowingly. A suspect
who knowingly provides false identification information that corresponds to
a real person may be arrested for identity theft in violation of RCW
9.35.020(1). See State v. Presba, 131 Wn. App. 47, 126 P.3d 1280 (2005),
review denied, 158 Wn.2d 1008 (2006).
3.

Weapons Frisk.
a.

When Allowed.
Pursuant to Terry v. Ohio, 392 U.S. 1 (1968), police officers may make limited
searches for the purposes of protecting the officers' safety during an
investigative detention. An officer who "observes unusual conduct which
leads him reasonably to conclude in light of his experience that criminal
activity may be afoot and that the persons with whom he is dealing may be
armed and presently dangerous to stop such person and to conduct a carefully
limited search of the outer clothing of such persons in an attempt to discover
weapons which might be used to assault him." Terry, at 30-31.
An officer need not be absolutely certain that the detained person the officer
is investigating at close range is armed or dangerous; the issue is whether a
reasonably prudent person in the same circumstances would be warranted in
the belief that his or her safety was in danger. Terry, 88 S. Ct. at 1883; State
v. Harvey, 41 Wn. App. 870, 874-75, 707 P.2d 146 (1985); 3 W. LaFave,
Search and Seizure, 9.4(a) (2d ed. 1987).
The Washington Supreme Court phrased the principle thusly:
[C]ourts are reluctant to substitute their judgment for that of
police officers in the field. "A founded suspicion is all that is
necessary, some basis from which the court can determine that
the [frisk] was not arbitrary or harassing."
(Footnote omitted.) State v. Collins, 121 Wn.2d 168, 174, 847 P.2d 919 (1993)
(quoting State v. Belieu, 112 Wn.2d 587, 601-02, 773 P.2d 46 (1989) quoting
Wilson v.Porter, 361 F.2d 412, 415 (9th Cir. 1966)).
Factors that will support a frisk for weapons include:
C

Suspect refuses to keep hands in plain view. See, e.g., State v. Harper,
33 Wn. App. 507, 655 P.2d 1199 (1982) (frisk justified where
defendant thrust his hands into his coat pockets during questioning).

130

Suspects clothing would allow for concealment of weapon. See, e.g.,

State v. Xiong, 137 Wn. App. 720, 154 P.3d 318 (2007) (bulge in front
pocket of suspect who had no identification and who resembled his
brother who had outstanding felony arrest warrants).

Departmental policy requires frisk prior to transporting in patrol car.

State v. Wheeler, 108 Wn.2d 230, 235-36, 737 P.2d 1005 (1987).

Reported crime involved the use of a weapon. State v. Belieu, 112

Wn.2d 587, 773 P.2d 46 (1989) (report of numerous burglaries where
guns were stolen); State v. Harvey, 41 Wn. App. 870, 873, 707 P.2d
146 (1985) (frisk upheld where detainee was stopped near the scene of
a burglary because "[i]t is well known that burglars often carry
weapons.").

Past experience with suspect. See State v. Collins, 121 Wn.2d 168,
173, 847 P.2d 919 (1993) (the fact that the officer had two months
previously arrested the suspect and at that time discovered the suspect
to be in possession of a holster and bullets provides a reasonable basis
to believe the suspect is presently armed and dangerous).

Discovery of one weapon. See, e.g., State v. Olsson, 78 Wn. App.

202, 895 P.2d 867 (1995) (officer who was informed by a driver that
he was carrying a knife had grounds for frisking the driver to
determine whether he was carrying additional weapons); State v.
Swaite, 33 Wn. App. 477, 481, 656 P.2d 520 (1982) (officer was
justified in conducting frisk for additional weapons where detainee had
a knife in his belt).

A peculiar way of opening a car door with the farther hand, while
keeping the hand closest to the door near his pocket. United States v.
Burkett, 612 F.3d 1103 (9th Cir. 2010).

A suspects placing his hands in his pockets after being advised to

keep his hands visible, turning sideways away from the officer, and
entering the officers space after being advised to step away from the
officer provided sufficient grounds for a frisk. State v. Ibrahim, 164
Wn. App. 503, 509-510, 269 P.3d 292 (2011) (suspects contacted
behind an abandoned motel in Yakima, after they walked away from
a vehicle that was registered in Seattle and whose ignition assembly
had been broken apart, presumably with the screwdriver that was
visible on the floorboard of the vehicle).

131

Factors that will not support a frisk:

Close Quarters. A frisk may not be conducted of a suspect merely

because the officer will be confronting the suspect with suspicions that
the suspect has engaged in a non-violent offense in a small room. The
officer must, in order to conduct a frisk, have a basis to believe that the
suspect is armed or dangerous. United States v. Flatter, 456 F.3d
1154 (9th Cir. 2006).

Presence in Stolen Vehicle. The mere fact that someone is a

passenger in a stolen car does not provide an officer with grounds to
conduct a frisk. State v. Adams, 144 Wn. App. 100, 181 P.3d 37,
review denied, 164 Wn.2d 1033 (2008).

Intoxication. An officer who encountered an individual who appeared

to be under the influence of methamphetamine in a public area of the
DSHS building had no basis for conducting a frisk as the intoxicated
individual offered no threatening gestures or words and remained
seated during the encounter. The fact that the individual seemed
nervous and fidgety and lied about his name did not provide a basis for
conducting a frisk. State v. Setterstrom, 163 Wn.2d 621, 183 P.3d
1075 (2008). See also Ramirez v. City of Buena Park, 560 F.3d 1012
(9th Cir. 2009) (being testy and suspected of illicit drug use does not
support a finding that an individual may be armed or dangerous).

Nervousness. Person appears nervous and lies about his or her name.
State v. Xiong, 164 Wn.2d 506, 512-13, 191 P.3d 1278 (2008).

b.

Admissibility of Evidence. Evidence discovered during a frisk will be

admissible if (1) the initial stop is legitimate, (2) a reasonable safety concern
exists to justify a protective frisk for weapons, and (3) the scope of the frisk
was limited to the protective purpose. State v. Day, 161 Wn.2d 889, 895,
168 P.3d 1265 (2007); State v. Ibrahim, 164 Wn. App. 503, 508, 269 P.3d
292 (2011).

c.

Persons. A protective frisk of a person is strictly limited to a pat-down to

discover weapons that might be used against the officer. State v. Hudson,
124 Wn.2d 107, 112, 874 P.2d 160 (1994). This is because [t]he purpose
of the limited pat-down search is not to discover evidence of a crime, but to
allow the officer to pursue his investigation without fear of violence. United
States v. Garcia, 459 F.3d 1059, 1063 (10th Cir. 2006) (quotations omitted).
An officer exceeds the permissible scope of a frisk by squeezing an item once
the officer determines that the item does not contain a weapon. State v.
Garvin, 166 Wn.2d 242, 207 P.3d 1266 (2009). Accord United States v.
Albert, 579 F.3d 1188, 1195 (10th Cir. 2009) (Where, in the context of a
132

limited pat-down, an officer continues to explore a defendant's pocket after

concluding it does not contain a weapon, the search amount[s] to the sort of
evidentiary search that Terry expressly refused to authorize and that [the
Supreme Court] ha[s] condemned in subsequent cases. Minnesota v.
Dickerson, 508 U.S. 366, 378, 113 S. Ct. 2130, 124 L. Ed. 2d 334 (1993)
(citation omitted).).
However, in cases where a pat-down is inconclusive, an officer may reach
into a detainee's clothes and may withdraw an object in order to ascertain
whether it is a weapon. See Hudson, 124 Wn.2d at 112-13. Under this rule,
courts have held that it was proper to remove a cigarette pack, a wallet, and
a pager. See State v. Allen, 93 Wn.2d 170, 172, 606 P.2d 1235 (1980); State
v. Horton, 136 Wn. App. 29, 38, 146 P.3d 1227 (2006), review denied, 162
Wn.2d 1014 (2008); and State v. Fowler, 76 Wn. App. 168, 170-72, 883 P.2d
338 (1994), review denied, 126 Wn.2d 1009 (1995).
Once a container is removed, an officer may only open the item if it is large
enough to contain a small or normal sized weapon. A container that can only
accommodate a miniature weapon may not be opened. State v. Horton, 136
Wn. App. 29, 146 P.3d 1227 (2007). A razor blade is properly classified as
a miniature weapon. Id. A container the size of a cigarette pack or smaller
is deemed only capable of holding a miniature weapon. Id. An officer
may separate the suspect from containers that are only capable of holding
miniature weapons until the conclusion of the stop. Id.
Officers may not do a second more intensive frisk of a person once the
initial pat down is completed and there are no objective grounds for the
officer to believe that the suspect, at the time of the second frisk, is presently
armed or dangerous. See State v. Xiong, 164 Wn.2d 506, 191 P.3d 1278
(2008) (improper for officer to reach into a suspects pocket as part of a more
intensive frisk, when the initial frisk produced no weapons, and the suspect
was handcuffed and cooperative).
d.

Vehicles. Under the Washington Constitution, a valid Terry stop may

include a search of the interior of the suspects vehicle when the search is
necessary to officer safety. A protective search for weapons must be
objectively reasonable, though based on the officers subjective perception
of events. State v. Larson, 88 Wn. App. 849, 853-54, 946 P.2d 1212 (1997).
This principle survives the recent United States Supreme Court case of
Arizona v. Gant, 556 U.S. 332, 129 S. Ct. 1710, 173 L. Ed. 2d 485 (2009).
See Gant, 129 S. Ct. at 1721 (listing Michigan v. Long, 463 U.S. 1032, 103
S. Ct. 3469, 77 L. Ed. 2d 1201 (1983), which permits an officer to search a
vehicle's passenger compartment when he has reasonable suspicion that an
individual, whether or not the arrestee, is "dangerous" and might access the
vehicle to "gain immediate control of weapons, as an established exceptions
133

to the warrant requirement that authorizes an officer to enter a vehicle);

United States v. Goodwin-Bey, 584 F.3d 1117 (8th Cir. 2009) (In
reexamining the search incident to arrest exception to the warrant
requirement, Gant left [the Michigan v. Long] exception untouched.).
In a no-arrest situation, where a contact will conclude with the driver and/or
the passengers returning to the vehicle, the officer should consider whether
sufficient objective facts support a frisk for weapons. See Arizona v. Gant,
556 U.S. 332, 129 S. Ct. 1710, 1724, 173 L. Ed. 2d 485 (2009) (Scalia, J.,
concurring) ("In the no-arrest case, the possibility of access to weapons in the
vehicle always exists, since the driver or passenger will be allowed to return
to the vehicle when the interrogation is completed.). When a vehicles sole
occupant is arrested, a frisk of the vehicle is not proper. Instead, an officer
may only enter the vehicle with a search warrant, consent, or the existence of
an emergency.
Factors that will support a frisk of the passenger compartment in the area
immediately adjacent to the suspect:
C

Driver or passengers furtive movements as if placing a weapon under

the seat (i.e. bending down). See State v. Horrace, 144 Wn.2d 386,
395-96, 28 P.3d 753 (2001); State v. Kennedy, 107 Wn.2d 1, 726 P.2d
445 (1986); State v. Larson, 88 Wn. App. 849, 946 P.2d 1212
(1997).

Prior contacts with suspect. See State v. Collins, 121 Wn.2d 168,
173, 847 P.2d 919 (1993) (the fact that the officer had two months
previously arrested the suspect and at that time discovered the suspect
to be in possession of a holster and bullets provides a reasonable basis
to believe the suspect is presently armed and dangerous).

Visible weapon, weapons case (i.e. knife sheath), or ammunition.

See State v. Collins, 121 Wn.2d 168, 173, 847 P.2d 919 (1993) (the
fact that the officer had two months previously arrested the suspect
and at that time discovered the suspect to be in possession of a holster
and bullets provides a reasonable basis to believe the suspect is
presently armed and dangerous).

Credible report from citizen that an occupant in the vehicle had

pointed a gun at the citizen. State v. Glenn, 140 Wn. App. 627, 166
P.3d 1235 (2007).

134

e.

Plain Feel. If an officer encounters a soft item during a frisk that cannot
contain a weapon, the officer may not manipulate the item in order to
determine whether the item may be drugs, etc. See State v. Garvin, 166
Wn.2d 242, 207 P.3d 1266 (2009) (it is unlawful for officers to continue
squeezingwhether in one slow motion or severalafter they have
determined a suspect does not have a weapon, to find whether the suspect is
carrying drugs or other contraband).
An officer may, however, seize the item under the plain feel doctrine if the
officer was immediately able to recognize the item as contraband. See Sate
v. Hudson, 124 Wn.2d 107, 874 P.2d 160 (1994). This burden, however, is
virtually impossible for the prosecution to meet.

f.

Return of Weapon. An officer may, in the interest of protecting personal

safety, briefly seize a dangerous weapon found during a lawful frisk or
search, render it temporarily unusable by removing ammunition, and retain
the weapon during the remainder of the contact. See generally, State v.
Cotten, 75 Wn. App. 669, 683-84, 879 P.2d 971 (1994), review denied, 126
Wn.2d 1004 (1995). If the detainee is lawfully in possession of the weapon,
the weapon must be returned to the detainee at the end of the stop. Officer
safety concerns are paramount at this point. Possible strategies for preventing
an ambush once the officer turns his or her back is to unload any handgun and
explain to the driver that the weapon will be placed in one location in the car
and the bullets in another for officer safety reasons and request that the driver
not reach for the weapon or reload the weapon until both the driver and the
officer have left the scene of the stop.
The officer may also explain his or her safety concerns to the detainee and
ask the detainee if the detainee would be willing to lock the weapon in the
trunk.
An officer may request back-up if the detainee was belligerent or otherwise
uncooperative, so that the detainees movements may be observed until the
detainee has traveled far enough from the officers position so as to eliminate
the risk of ambush.

135

Terry Stop and Search Checklist

To STOP

You must have reasonable suspicion that a suspect is committing, has committed, or is
about to commit a crime. Reasonable Suspicion must be based on specific, articulable, rational facts (Less than
probable cause but more than a hunch.)
Articulable factors justifying stop. (Need multiple factors, at least one of which must come from the second column.)
___ hour

___hand to hand movement

___ high crime neighborhood

___eyewitness information

___ appears lost or to not be a resident of the area

___concerned citizen

___ unusual presence

___CI information

___ standing on street corner

__co-defendant information

___ nervousness

___personal knowledge of ds drug use

___ flight-manner of movement

___personal knowledge of ds license suspension status

___ drug trafficking neighborhood

___smell

___ other

___defendant statement

To FRISK You may frisk outer clothing for weapons and may search if you reasonably believe you
are in danger.
Articulable factors justifying search for weapons.
___high crime neighborhood
___guns common in neighborhood
___feel of weapons
___shape of weapon
___sight of weapon
___sound of weapon
___concerned citizen information

___CI information
___co-defendant information
___personal knowledge of d having weapons
___defendants movements
___defendants statements
___sight of ammunition
___other

To QUESTION

You may demand the suspects name and address and an explanation of the
suspects actions. You may detain him for a reasonable period of time to verify his answer. If he says nothing or
tells you to jump in a lake, thats your tough luck; you cannot do anything to the suspect.
BOTTOM LINE You must be able to articulate reasons to distinguish the suspect from someone who just
may happen to be there.

136

F.

Arrests
1.

Custodial Arrests. An arrest occurs when police objectively manifest that they
are restraining the person's movement, and a reasonable person would have
believed that he or she was not free to leave. When this test is met, and the
seizure is for later charging and trial, the arrest will be referred to as a "custodial
arrest". If a seizure is a custodial arrest, it must be supported by probable cause
to believe that a crime has been committed by the arrestee, and probable cause
exists "where the facts and circumstances within the arresting officers'
knowledge, and of which they had reasonably trustworthy information are
sufficient to warrant a person of reasonable caution to believe that a crime has
been committed." State v. Lund, 70 Wn. App. 437, 444-45, 853 P.2d 1379 (1993),
review denied, 123 Wn.2d 1023 (1994), quoting Brinegar v. United States, 338
U.S. 160, 175-76, 69 S. Ct. 1302, 1311, 93 L. Ed. 1879 (1949).
The following acts will always convert an investigative detention into a custodial
arrest:
C

Transporting a suspect to the station house or police interrogation room,

see Florida v. Royer, 460 U.S. 491, 103 S. Ct. 1319, 75 L. Ed.2d 229
(1983), State v. Gonzales, 46 Wn. App. 388, 396, 731 P.2d 1101 (1986).
Caution must always be used when interacting with a suspect at a station
house or police interrogation room because courts will scrutinize these
interactions with extreme care for any evidence of restraint, compulsion,
or intimidation. See, e.g., United States v. Jacobs, 431 F.3d 99 (3rd Cir.
2005). For a more detailed discussion, see the confessions chapter.

The following acts do not necessarily, but may, turn an investigative detention
into a custodial arrest:
C

An officers statement that the suspect is under arrest, see State v.

Lyons, 85 Wn. App. 268, 270, 932 P.2d 188 (1997).

Grabbing suspects arm, see State v. Lyons, 85 Wn. App. 268, 270,
932 P.2d 188 (1997).

Asking driver to exit car, see State v. Henry, 80 Wn. App. 544,
552, 910 P.2d 1290 (1995).

Use of drawn guns. State v. Belieu, 112 Wn.2d 587, 598, 773
P.2d 46 (1989).

Transporting a suspect from the scene to somewhere other than a

police station house. State v. Wheeler, 108 Wn.2d 230, 737 P.2d
137

1005 (1987).

a.

The presence of numerous police vehicles. State v. Marcum, 149

Wn. App. 894, 205 P.3d 969 (2009).

Reading Miranda warnings. The reading of Miranda rights prior

to questioning in some circumstances might indicate a person was
not free to leave. See United States v. Crawford, 372 F.3d 1048,
1060 (9th Cir. 2004) (en banc) (explaining that when the police
officer read defendant his Miranda rights the defendant stopped
the officer and said, "Oh, I'm under arrest?"). The controlling legal
standard requires, however, that we consider the total
circumstances and how an objective person would assess if he was
free to leave. The issuance of Miranda warnings as a cautionary
measure does not itself transform the situation into a Fourth
Amendment seizure. United States v. Redlightning, 624 F.3d
1090, 1105 (9th Cir. 2010).

Whether the suspects home is currently being searched. United

States v. Wright, 625 F.3d 583 (9th Cir. 2010) (concluding that
despite being told he was free to leave, the defendant would not
have reasonably believed he was free to go because agents were
searching his home); United States v. Lee, 699 F.2d 466, 467-68
(9th Cir. 1982) (holding defendant would not have felt free to
leave where he "was questioned in a closed FBI car with two
officers for well over an hour while police investigators were in
and around his house").

Custodial Arrest of Vehicles. Stopping an automobile and detaining its

occupants without a warrant constitutes a Fourth Amendment seizure.
Brendlin v. California, 551 U.S. 249, 127 S. Ct. 2400, 168 L. Ed. 2d 132
(2007); , State v. Larson, 93 Wn.2d 638, 611 P.2d 711 (1980). A seizure
is reasonable if the officer has "a reasonable suspicion, based on objective
facts, that the individual is involved in criminal activity." Larson, 93
Wn.2d at 644, quoting, Brown v. Texas, 443 U.S. 47, 51, 61 L. Ed. 2d 357,
99 S. Ct. 2637 (1979).
Washington law authorizes officers to stop a vehicle when the law
enforcement officer has a reasonable belief that an infraction has been
committed by that vehicle. RCW 46.63.030; State v. Duncan, 146 Wn.2d
166, 173-75, 43 P.3d 513 (2002). It is well established that when the
officer believes the driver of an automobile has committed a traffic
offense, the officer may stop the vehicle and investigate the infraction,
which includes detaining the driver in order to check his driver's license,
for the presence of outstanding warrants, and automobile registration.
138

Delaware v. Prouse, 440 U.S. 648, 663, 59 L. Ed. 2d 660, 99 S. Ct. 1391,
1401 (1979); RCW 46.61.021(2). The detention is generally terminated
upon the completion of the notice of infraction or citation as provided by
RCW 46.64.015. Under circumstances discussed more fully in the
warrantless arrest section of these materials, the driver or a passenger may
be custodially arrested.
The existence of an objective traffic law violation may not be used as a
pretext for stopping a vehicle for other investigative purposes. See State
v. Ladson, 138 Wn.2d 343, 979 P.2d 833 (1999) (art. I, 7 protects
against pretext stops). "A pretextual stop occurs when the police use a
legal justification to make the stop in order to search a person or place, or
to interrogate a person, for an unrelated serious crime for which they do
not have the reasonable suspicion necessary to support a stop." United
States v. Guzman, 864 F.2d 1512, 1515 (10th Cir. 1988). An officer does
not make an illegal pretext stop if the officer has the reasonable
suspicion necessary under Terry to conduct an investigation into the
unrelated serious crime. An officer does not make an illegal pretext
stop if there is a valid arrest warrant for one or more of the occupants of
the vehicle. See State v. Witherspoon, 82 Wn. App. 634, 638, 919 P.2d 99
(1996), review denied, 130 Wn.2d 1022 (1997).
i.

Passengers. A lawful seizure of a vehicle does not provide any

basis for seizing passengers who have not personally committed
any infraction. Passengers who have committed a seatbelt or other
infraction need only identify themselves, give a current address,
and sign the notice of infraction. See State v. Cole, 73 Wn. App.
844, 871 P.2d 656, review denied, 125 Wn.2d 1003 (1994). Such
a passenger is free to leave once the warrants check is completed.
A passenger who is not being cited for a personal infraction or
held under Terry, may only have his or her liberty restricted in
accordance with Mendez. (See prior discussion of the law).
A passenger who wishes to drive the vehicle away upon the arrest
of the driver may be required to establish that he or she possesses
a valid license. State v. Mennegar, 114 Wn.2d 304, 787 P.2d 1347
(1990). If the passenger is unwilling to provide the information
necessary to check upon the status of his or her license, alternative
arrangements, such as impound, may be made for the vehicle.
A passenger may not be asked for his or her identification unless
the passenger is being cited for a separate traffic violation, the
passenger is a witness to the crime for which the driver is being
arrested, the passenger wishes to drive the vehicle away, or some
139

other similar ground exists. State v. Rankin, 151 Wn.2d 689, 92

P.3d 202 (2004).
A passenger may not be asked his or her name and birthdate unless
the passenger is being cited for a separate traffic violation, the
passenger is a witness to the crime for which the driver is being
arrested, the passenger wishes to drive the vehicle away, or some
other similar ground exists. State v. Brown, 154 Wn.2d 787, 117
P.3d 336 (2005).
2.

Arrest Warrants.
a.

Who May Issue. An arrest warrant may be issued by any Washington

judge. See generally Chapter 2.20 RCW. A warrant issued by any
Washington judge, including municipal court judges, are valid throughout
the state. See generally CrRLJ 2.2; CrR 2.2. A judge normally needs
probable cause to issue an arrest warrant. An exception exits, however,
for warrants to arrest convicted individuals for violating terms of release
pending appeal, and for warrants for probation violations. See State v.
Fisher, 145 Wn.2d 209, 35 P.3d 366 (2001) (arrest warrant for defendant
who was awaiting sentencing for a felony conviction only needed a
well-founded suspicion that defendant had violated the condition of her
release); State v. Erickson, 168 Wn.2d 41, 225 P.3d 948 (2010) (a bench
warrant for a defendant's arrest for a probation violation only requires a
well-founded suspicion that defendant violated the terms of his probation).
The Governor of the State of Washington may also issue a warrant of
arrest pursuant to a request for extradition made by the governor of
another state. See RCW 10.88.260.
The Department of Corrections may also issue arrest warrants for
offenders who violate the terms of their community custody. State v.
Barker, 162 Wn. App. 858, 256 P.3d 463 (2011).
Arrest warrants may also be issued by judges in other states. Such arrest
warrants, however, may not be served or executed upon in Washington.
Arrests made pursuant to knowledge that there is a non-Washington state
warrant of arrest has been issued for the person are classified as
warrantless arrests. See RCW 10.88.330.
Arrest warrants may be issued by tribal judges. State officers may not
serve tribal court arrest warrants on Indians or non-Indians.12 This is

12

A chart at the end of these materials set out the general rules regarding criminal law jurisdiction regarding
Indians and Indian Country.

140

because the Uniform Act on Extraditions does not mention Indian Tribes
in the list of jurisdictions to which it applies. See RCW 10.88.200.
Binding Washington case law indicates that this means Indian Tribes are
not covered by the law. See State v. Moses, 145 Wn.2d 370, 37 P.3d 1216
(2002); Queets Band of Indians v. State, 102 Wn.2d 1, 4-5, 682 P.2d 909
(1984).
An arrest warrant may not be administratively issued without judicial
involvement by a court clerk. See State v. Walker, 101 Wn. App. 1, 999
P.2d 1296 (2000). An administrative arrest warrant may, however, be
issued by the Washington Department of Corrections (DOC). See RCW
9.94A.716. Any law enforcement of peace officer or community
corrections officer of this state or any other state may arrest the offender
and place him in total confinement pending disposition of the alleged
violation. Id. An arrest pursuant to a DOC administrative arrest warrant
is constitutionally valid under the Fourth and Fourteenth Amendments.
State v. Barker, 162 Wn. App. 853, 256 P.3d 463 (2011).
b.

Warrants Check. A check for any outstanding arrest warrants is a

reasonable routine police procedure during a valid criminal investigation.
See State v. Chelly, 94 Wn. App. 254, 261, 970 P.2d 376, review denied,
138 Wn.2d 1009 (1999); State v. Williams, 50 Wn. App. 696, 700, 750
P.2d 278 (1988). A check for any outstanding arrest warrants is statutorily
available whenever a person is stopped for a traffic infraction. See RCW
46.61.021(2).
Such a check is not statutorily authorized when a person is stopped for a
non-traffic infraction. See RCW 7.80.060; State v. Rife, 133 Wn.2d 140,
150-51, 943 P.2d 266 (1997). It is unclear whether Rife prohibits a record
check, or merely prohibits detaining the person until the result of the
record check is received.
c.

Service of Arrest Warrants.

i.

Arrest Warrant by telegraph or teletype. RCW 10.31.060

(1)

Allows for arrest on a warrant even if the warrant is not in

the officer's hand.

(2)

Requirements:

The existence of the warrant must be verified.

The information on the warrant must be verified.

141

ii.

The physical description of the wanted person

must be verified.

The identity of the suspect must be confirmed

Compare the physical description of the wanted

person to the suspect.

Where may the warrant be served.

(1)

Suspects Home. An officer in possession of an arrest

warrant, whether for a misdemeanor or for a felony, may
break open any outer or inner door, or windows of the
suspects dwelling house or other building, or any other
enclosure, if, after notice of his office and purpose, he be
refused admittance. See RCW 10.31.040; State v. Hatchie,
161 Wn.2d 390, 166 P.3d 698 (2007) (a misdemeanor
arrest warrant allows an officer to forcibly enter a
residence for arrest). An officer may not break open any
outer or inner door to serve a civil warrant for failure to
pay child support. State v. Thompson, 151 Wn.2d 793, 92
P.3d 228 (2004). The amount of notice that must be given
is discussed in more detail in the knock and announce
section of these materials.
Before breaking down a door, the officer must have
probable cause to believe that the building, house, hotel
room, etc., that is being entered is the suspect's residence
and must have probable cause to believe that the named
person is actually present at the time of the entry. Payton
v. New York, 445 U.S. 573, 100 S. Ct. 1371, 1380, 63 L.
Ed. 2d 639 (1980); United States v. Gorman, 314 F.3d
1105 (9th Cir.2002); United States v. Diaz, 491 F.3d
1074 (2007); State v. Hatchie, 161 Wn.2d 390, 166 P.3d
698 (2007).
Factors to consider in arriving at probable cause:

Does the suspect have a lease for the

location?

Is there a phone listing for this location in

the suspect's name?

142

Does the suspect receive mail at this

location?

Did the suspect provide this address as

his/her home address when registering as a
sex offender, when booked into jail, when
released from court, or to the Department
of Licensing?

Has a reliable informant, such as the

suspect's employer, friend, or family
member indicated that the suspect resides
at this location?

Have the neighbors observed the suspect

living at the location?

Are multiple vehicles registered to the

suspect present at the location?

Has the suspect when found at the home by

police on other days at the same time?

Has the suspect told police in the past that

he is usually at home during the day?
During the evening? At night?

Did police observe a vehicle drive away

from the house shortly before they
attempted to serve the warrant? Could they
see who was driving the vehicle?

Can police see the suspect in the house

through windows?

Can police hear movement inside of the

house?

Even with probable cause to believe that a suspect is

present and that the location is where the suspect lives, any
evidence found while executing the arrest warrant will be
suppressed if the court finds that the police used the arrest
warrant as a guise or pretext to otherwise conduct a
speculative criminal investigation or a search. State v.
Hatchie, 161 Wn.2d 390, 166 P.3d 698 (2007), citing
143

State v. Michaels, 60 Wn.2d 638, 644, 374 P.2d 989

(1962) (An arrest may not be used as a pretext to search
for evidence. (citing United States v. Lefkowitz, 285 U.S.
452, 52 S. Ct. 420, 76 L. Ed. 877 (1932); Taglavore v.
United States, 291 F.2d 262 (9th Cir. 1961))). When an
officer has an arrest warrant for an individual who is also
a suspect in other criminal investigations, it would be
prudent for the officer to obtain a search warrant for the
suspects residence rather than entering the residence
solely on the basis of the arrest warrant. See State v.
Landsen, 144 Wn.2d 654, 662, 30 P.3d 483 (2001)
(Ladson pretext doctrine does not apply to searches based
upon a validly issued search warrant.).
(2)

Anothers home. An arrest warrant for a suspect only

suffices to allow entry into the suspect's own residence, not
the residence of a third person. Absent consent from the
third person or exigent circumstances, such as hot pursuit,
entry into the home of a third party to make an arrest is
illegal absent issuance of a search warrant. See Steagald
v. United States, 451 U.S. 204, 101 S. Ct. 1642, 68 L. Ed.
2d 38 (1981); Hocker v. Woody, 95 Wn.2d 822, 631 P.2d
372 (1981). One Division of the Court of Appeals has
suggested in dicta that a search warrant for a fugitive
located in a third persons house will be subjected to a
Ladson-like pretext analysis. See State v. Anderson, 105
Wn. App. 223, 19 P.2d 1094 (2001) (search warrant to
look for misdemeanant escapee who was seen watering
plants in suspected meth cooks house criticized as
pretextual).

(3)

Outside the State of Washington

Washington peace officers may not serve a Washington
warrant of arrest outside the state boundaries. Only the
Governor can extradite a suspect from another state. RCW
10.88.210.

iii.

Protective Sweeps. The concept of a protective sweep was

adopted to justify the reasonable steps taken by arresting officers
to ensure their safety while making an arrest. Generally officers
executing an arrest warrant may search the premises for the subject
of that warrant, but must call off the search as soon as the subject
is found. However, the risk of danger with in-home arrests
justifies steps by the officers "to assure themselves that the house
144

in which a suspect is being, or has just been, arrested is not

harboring other persons who are dangerous and who could
unexpectedly launch an attack." Consequently, "as an incident to
the arrest the officers could, as a precautionary matter and without
probable cause or reasonable suspicion, look in closets and other
spaces immediately adjoining the place of arrest from which an
attack could be immediately launched." Maryland v. Buie, 494
U.S. 325, 334, 110 S. Ct. 1093, 108 L. Ed. 2d 276 (1990); State v.
Boyer, 124 Wn. App. 593, 102 P.3d 833 (2004).
To justify a protective sweep beyond immediately adjoining areas,
the officers must be able to articulate "facts which, taken together
with the rational inferences from those facts, would warrant a
reasonably prudent officer in believing that the area to be swept
harbors an individual posing a danger to those on the arrest scene."
The sweep is limited to a cursory inspection of places a person
may be found and must last no longer than necessary to dispel the
reasonable suspicion of danger or to complete the arrest,
whichever occurs sooner. Buie, 494 U.S. at 335-36; Boyer, 124
Wn. App. at 600-01.
d.

Booking searches. An inventory search of a person arrested pursuant to

an outstanding warrant is invalid if the warrant has not first been read to the
person and the person has not been given an opportunity to post bail
directly and without delay, as required by RCW 10.31.030. State v.
Caldera, 84 Wn. App. 527, 929 P.2d 482 (1997); State v. Smith, 56 Wn.
App. 145, 783 P.2d 95 (1989), review denied 114 Wn.2d 1019 (1990). This
rule means that the safety of correctional officers/booking officers is
dependent upon the adequacy of the arresting officers search incident to
arrest. The officer making the arrest must conduct a search that is
sufficient to detect and remove all weapons from the suspects possession
prior to the suspects arrival at the booking facility.
In addition, the scope of the booking search is more narrow than the search
incident to arrest. While police officers may open and examine all
unlocked personal possessions in the possession of the arrestee,
correctional staff performing an inventory search on a jacket or other
personal items may not open closed containers contained in the personal
items. Cf. State v. Dugas, 109 Wn. App. 592, 36 P.3d 577 (2001).
Once an item is inventoried and placed into the jail's property room, the
arrestee has a diminished expectation of privacy in the item. Thus, law
enforcement may take a "second look" at the property without a warrant in
connection with the investigation of a crime unrelated to the one for which
the defendant was arrested. See State v. Cheatam, 150 Wn.2d 626, 81 P.3d
145

830 (2003).
3.

Warrantless Arrests.
a.

When Allowed.
A warrantless arrest is lawful under the Fourth Amendment whenever the
arrest is based upon probable cause. Virginia v. Moore, 553 U.S. 164, 128
S. Ct. 1598, 170 L. Ed. 2d 559 (2008). A state, however, may place
additional restrictions upon warrantless arrests.
In Washington, RCW 10.31.100 provides that an officer may make a
warrantless arrest when:
i.

There exists probable cause to believe a felony has been committed.

ii.

There has been a misdemeanor committed in the presence of the

officer.

Judicially Created Exception. There is a judicially

created exception to this statutory authorization for very
minor traffic offenses. When dealing with one of these
offenses, a warrantless arrest may only be made if there are
other reasonable grounds for the arrest, i.e. suspect does not
have a stable address, suspect has a number of FTAs on his
drivers record, suspects identification information cannot
be verified, etc. Cf. State v. Hehman, 90 Wn.2d 45, 578
P.2d 527 (1978).

Issuance of Citation. An officer may issue a complaint for

a misdemeanor even if the officer did not personally
witness the crime. See State v. Crouch, 12 Wn. App. 472,
530 P.2d 344 (1975).

Municipal Ordinances. A warrantless arrest may be made

for a violation of a municipal criminal ordinance. See State
v. Kirwin, 137 Wn. App. 387, 153 P.3d 883 (2007)
(Misdemeanor includes misdemeanor violations of
municipal codes.).

A.

Committed in the presence of the officer

An offense is effectively committed in the presence of an
officer when he acquires knowledge of it through one of his
senses or inferences properly drawn from the testimony of
146

the senses. 5 Am. Jur. 2d Arrest 49. Washington has

adopted this sensory perception rule. See Tacoma v.
Harris, 73 Wn.2d 123, 436 P.2d 770 (1968). The Harris
Court found that probable cause which would justify a
warrantless arrest for a misdemeanor must be judgment
based on personal knowledge acquired at the time through
the senses or inferences properly drawn from the testimony
of the senses. Harris, 73 Wn.2d at 126 [emphasis added].
Whether the officer must be physically present when
making the necessary observations is not yet established in
Washington. However, one unpublished decision, held
that presence within the contemplation of RCW
10.31.100 requires actual physical presence or proximity of
an officer and that an officers observation of a crime while
monitoring a remote surveillance camera is insufficient.
See City of Everett v. Rhodes, COA No. 48098-7-I, 2002
Wash. App. LEXIS 3168 (Div. I, Dec. 23, 2002)
(unpublished).
The viewing officer does not have to actually make the
warrantless arrest for the non-felony offense. The viewing
officer must, however, be a participant in the arrest. See
State v. Ortega, 159 Wn. App. 889, 248 P.3d 1062 (2011)
(an arrest is made in the presence of an officer where the
officer observes the suspect committing the crime, directs
fellow officers to make the arrest, keeps the suspect and
fellow officers in view, and immediately proceeds to the
location of the arrest to confirm that the fellow officers
arrested the correct suspect.).
1.

Continuing vs. non-continuing offenses

A law enforcement officer cannot generally make a
warrantless arrest for a misdemeanor unless the
crime is committed in the officer's presence. Some
offenses, for purposes of determining when they are
committed, can be considered continuing offenses.
But the doctrine of continuing offenses should be
employed sparingly, and only when the legislature
expressly states the offense is a continuing offense,
or when the nature of the offense leads to a
reasonable conclusion that the legislature so
intended. For those offenses where the legislature
does not expressly state that the offense is
147

continuing, the offense is deemed to have been

committed at the earliest time on which the person
was supposed to perform the act. State v. Green,
150 Wn.2d 740, 82 P.3d 239 (2004). Examples of
offenses which the courts have held are noncontinuing offenses:

B.

The crime of bail jumping in violation of

RCW 9A.76.170 is completed on the date
the court hearing was held for which the
defendant failed to appear. State v. Klump,
61 Wn. App. 911, 914, 813 P.2d 131
(1991).

Timing of warrantless arrest for misdemeanor

While there is no express time limit for making the arrest in
RCW 10.31.100, the rule of reasonableness under the
circumstances has been read into similar statutes by an
overwhelming number of out of state courts. The question
of what is a reasonable time, within the meaning of the
above rule, is one of law.

Officer must act promptly in making the arrest

and as soon as possible under the circumstances
and before he transacts other business. Oleson v.
Pincock, 68 Utah 507, 251 P. 23 (1926).

Five hour delay between observing offense and

warrantless arrest renders arrest illegal where officer
did not spend time attempting to effectuate arrest,
but instead attended to other duties. See Wahl v.
Walton, 30 Minn. 506, 16 N.W. 397 (1883) (While
it is said that an arrest must be made at the time of
or immediately after the commission of the offense,
the reference is not merely to the time but also the
sequence of the events. The officer may not be
able, at the exact time of the offense, to make an
arrestbut it is essential that the officer must at
once set about the arrest, and follow up the effort
until the arrest is effected.).

Forty minute gap between observing the defendant

commit a misdemeanor and his arrest did not
invalidate the arrest as the officers spent the time
148

investigating the incident and in waiting for the

defendant to return to the scene of the crime. State
v. Hawkins, 7 Wn. App. 688, 690, 502 P.2d 464
(1972).
RCW 10.88.330 permits a warrantless arrest (i.e. without a warrant issued
by a Washington state court) of an individual who stands charged with a
crime punishable by death or imprisonment for a term exceeding one year
in another states court.
RCW 10.31.100 provides that an officer may also make a warrantless
arrest for certain crimes committed outside the officers presence. The
legality of this practice was upheld by the Washington Supreme Court
under Const. art. I, 7. See State v. Walker, No. 157 Wn.2d 307, 138
P.3d 113 (2006). An officer may currently make a warrantless arrest for
any of the following crimes regardless of whether the officer witnessed the
offense:
C

There exists probable cause to believe that a misdemeanor has been

committed outside of the officers presence involving (i) harm or
threats of harm; (ii) taking of property; (iii) the use or possession
of cannabis; (iv) the acquisition, possession, or consumption of
alcohol by a person under 21-years; or (v) criminal trespass.

Mere possession of drug paraphernalia does not provide

probable cause for arrest under state law. State v. O'Neill,
148 Wn.2d 564, 584 n. 8, 62 P.3d 489 (2003); State v.
Neeley, 113 Wn. App. 100, 52 P.3d 539 (2002). The
presence of residue, however, may provide probable cause
to arrest for possession of a controlled substance. See
generally, State v. Malone, 72 Wn. App. 429, 439, 864
P.2d 990 (1994) (possession of cocaine residue in a baggie,
in amount neither measurable nor usable was sufficient to
sustain a conviction for possession of a controlled
substance); State v. Williams, 62 Wn. App. 748, 751, 815
P.2d 825 (1991) (citing State v. Larkins, 79 Wn.2d 392,
394, 486 P.2d 95 (1971)), review denied, 118 Wn.2d 1019
(1992) ("[t]here is no minimum amount of narcotic drug
which must be possessed in order to sustain a conviction";
sustaining a conviction for possession of a controlled
substance based upon possession of cocaine residue in
crack pipe bowl).
Some counties and cities have local ordinances which make
mere possession of drug paraphernalia a crime.
149

Laws of 2011, ch. 181, 401 amends RCW 69.51A.040 to

prohibit warrantless arrest in certain circumstances:
The medical use of cannabis in accordance
with the terms and conditions of this chapter
does not
constitute a crime and a
qualifying patient or designated provider
in compliance with the terms and
conditions of this chapter may not be
arrested, prosecuted, or subject to other
criminal sanctions or civil consequences,
for possession, manufacture, or delivery of,
or for possession with intent to
manufacture or deliver, cannabis under
state law, or have real or personal property
seized or forfeited for possession,
manufacture, or delivery of, or for
possession with intent to manufacture or
deliver, cannabis under state law, and
investigating peace officers and law
enforcement agencies may not be held
civilly liable for failure to seize cannabis in
this circumstance, if:
(1)(a) The qualifying patient or
designated provider possesses no more than
fifteen cannabis plants and:
(i) No more than twenty-four ounces
of useable cannabis;
(ii) No more cannabis product than
what could reasonably be produced with no
more than twenty-four ounces of useable
cannabis; or
(iii) A combination of useable
cannabis and cannabis product that does not
exceed a combined total representing
possession and processing of no more than
twenty-four ounces of useable cannabis.
(b) If a person is both a qualifying
patient and a designated provider for
another qualifying patient, the person may
150

possess no more than twice the amounts

described in (a) of this subsection, whether
the plants, useable cannabis, and cannabis
product are possessed individually or in
combination between the qualifying patient
and his or her designated provider;
(2) The qualifying patient or
designated provider presents his or her proof
of registration with the department of
health, to any peace officer who questions
the patient or provider regarding his or her
medical use of cannabis;
(3) The qualifying patient or
designated provider keeps a copy of his or
her proof of registration with the registry
established in section 901 of this act and the
qualifying patient or designated provider's
contact information posted prominently next
to any cannabis plants, cannabis products, or
useable cannabis located at his or her
residence;
(4) The investigating peace officer
does not possess evidence that:
(a) The designated provider has
converted cannabis produced or obtained for
the qualifying patient for his or her own
personal use or benefit; or
(b) The qualifying patient has
converted cannabis produced or obtained for
his or her own medical use to the qualifying
patient's personal, nonmedical use or
benefit;
(5) The investigating peace officer
does not possess evidence that the
designated provider has served as a
designated provider to more than one
qualifying patient within a fifteen-day
period; and

151

(6) The investigating peace officer

has not observed evidence of any of the
circumstances identified in section 901(4) of
this act.
No medical cannabis users will be able to satisfy all of the
above conditions as the section 901 of the act that created
a registry was vetoed. Nonetheless, the Legislatures intent
to limit custodial arrest when a person is otherwise in
compliance with the medical cannabis law should generally
be honored by a police officer.
C

There exists probable cause to believe that a person has committed

or is committing any act of indecent exposure.

There exists probable cause to believe that a person has committed

or is committing: (i) hit and run, attended or unattended; (ii) DUI
or physical control; (iii) driving while license suspended or
revoked; (iv) negligent driving in the 1st degree; or (v) reckless
driving.
i.

ii.

Non-listed traffic offenses. For more minor traffic

offenses which do not appear in the preceding paragraph, a
custodial arrest may only occur if the officer has reasonable
grounds to believe that the driver will not respond to a
citation. See State v. Hehman, 90 Wn.2d 45, 578 P.2d 527
(1978). The following factors may give rise to such a
belief:

The defendant has no license and gives a false

name. State v. Johnson, 65 Wn. App. 716, 829 P.2d
796 (1992).

An identification check reveals that the defendant

has FTAs on record with DOL. State v. Reeb, 63
Wn. App. 678, 821 P.2d 84 (1992).

Officer's Discretion
Where RCW 10.31.100 specifically authorizes an arrest, an
officer may make the custodial arrest and then may exercise
his discretion regarding whether to release the defendant
with a citation or to book the defendant into jail after
completing the search incident to arrest. State v. Pulfrey,
154 Wn.2d 517, 111 P.3d 1162 (2005).
152

iii.

Traffic Infractions

The vast majority of traffic violations are civil

infractions and not crimes. The few traffic
violations that are crimes are listed in RCW
46.63.020. Crimes include DUI, reckless driving,
DWLS.

Arrest is not allowed for civil infractions, and the

person must be released upon issuance of the
citation.

All citations must be filed within five days of the

issuance of the notice, excluding Saturdays,
Sundays, and holidays. In the absence of good
cause shown, a notice of infraction not filed within
the five days shall, upon notice, be dismissed with
prejudice. IRLJ 2.2(d).

An officer conducting an investigation at the scene of a motor

vehicle accident may arrest the driver of a vehicle involved in the
accident if the officer has probable cause to believe that the driver
has committed in connection with the accident a violation of any
traffic law or regulation. (This provision is antiquated and is of no
effect now that most traffic laws and regulations have been
decriminalized.)

There exists probable cause to believe that a person has violated the
terms of a anti-harassment order issued under Chapter 10.14 RCW
and the person has knowledge of the issuance of the order.

There is probable cause to believe that a person has operated a

vessel in a reckless manner or while under the influence of
intoxicants.

There exists probable cause to believe that a person illegally

possesses or illegally has possessed a firearm or other dangerous
weapon on private or public elementary or secondary school
premises.

There exists probable cause believe that a person, within the last 24
hours, has willfully or recklessly disrupted the normal functioning
of a health care facility or willfully or recklessly interfered with
access to or from a health care facility. See RCW 9A.50.020.

153

RCW 10.31.100 provides that an officer shall make a warrantless arrest

when:

Probable cause exists to believe that (i) a felony assault occurred;

(ii) an assault has occurred which has resulted in bodily injury to
the victim, regardless of whether it is observable; or (iii) physical
action has occurred which was intended to cause another person
reasonably to fear imminent serious bodily injury or death. Bodily
injury is defined as physical pain, illness or an impairment of
physical condition has occurred within the preceding 4 hours
committed by a suspect who is 16 years or older against a family
or household member.
Family or household member includes:
C

Spouses or people in a state registered domestic

partnership;

Former spouses or people whose state registered

domestic partnership has been dissolved,
invalidated, or terminated;

Child in common regardless of marriage or have

lived together;

Adult persons related by blood or marriage;

Adult persons who are presently residing together or

who have resided together in the past;

Persons sixteen years of age or older who are

presently residing together or who have resided
together in the past and who have had a dating
relationship;

Persons sixteen years of age or older with whom a

person sixteen years of age or older has or has had
a dating relationship;

Persons who have a biological or legal parent-child

relationship, including stepparents and stepchildren
and grandparents and grandchildren.

RCW 10.99.020(1); RCW 26.50.010(2).

154

Probable cause exists to believe that a person has violated the

provisions of a no-contact order or restraining order issued under
RCW 7.90 (sexual assault protection order), RCW 10.99, RCW
26.09, RCW 26.10, RCW 26.44, RCW 26.26, RCW 26.50, RCW
26.52, and RCW 74.34 (vulnerable adult order), restraining the
person from a provision restraining the suspect from: (1) acts of
threats of violence; (2) from going onto the grounds of or entering
a residence, workplace, school, or day care; and (3) from knowingly
coming within, or knowingly remaining within, a specified distance
of a location such as the victims residence, workplace, school, or
day care acts. In the case of an order issued under RCW 26.44.063,
arrest is also mandatory for the violation of any other restrictions
or conditions placed upon the person if the person has knowledge
of the issuance of the order. In the case of an foreign order of
protection (any order issued by a tribe or another state), arrest is
also mandatory for a violation of any provision that the foreign
protection order specifically indicates that a violation of such
provision will be a crime.

Probable cause exists to believe that a person has violated the

provisions of a foreign protection order (an order issued by another
state court, federal court, or tribal court) restraining the person from
contacting or communicating with another person, or of a provision
excluding the person under restraint from a residence, workplace,
school, or day care, or a violation of any provision for which the
foreign protection order specifically indicates that a violation will
be a crime and the person has knowledge of the issuance of the
order.

The intent of the mandatory arrest provisions is to protect victims

of domestic violence.
When the officer has probable cause to believe that family or
household members have assaulted each other, the officer is not
required to arrest both persons. The officer shall arrest the person
whom the officer believes to be the primary physical aggressor. In
making this determination, the officer shall make every reasonable
effort to consider: (i) The intent to protect victims of domestic
violence under RCW 10.99.010; (ii) the comparative extent of
injuries inflicted or serious threats creating fear of physical injury;
and (iii) the history of domestic violence of each person involved,
including whether the conduct was part of an ongoing pattern of
abuse. RCW 10.31.100(2)(c).

155

Knowledge of an order may be established by the existence of a

return of service, but service of the order is not a prerequisite to
enforcement of the order. See City of Auburn v. Solis-Marcial, 79
P.3d 1174 (2003).

An officer may not be held liable criminally or civilly for making

a domestic violence arrest, so long as the officer acts in good faith.

An office could be held liable for not making an arrest as required

by the statute.

The various types of court orders are described in the following

chart. Key facts to recall regarding all of the various orders are:
A.

It is not a defense to arrest that the person protected by the

order initiated the contact or invited the person whose
conduct is restrained to a protected place. See State v.
Dejarlais, 136 Wn.2d 939, 969 P.2d 90 (1998). While
Washington courts have yet to rule on this issue, the Eighth
District Court of Appeals of Ohio held in City of North
Olmsted v. Bullington, No. 76224 (July 27, 2000), that the
victim/protected person cannot be prosecuted for aiding and
abetting an offender in the violation of a court order. The
Ohio Courts reasoning, which is likely to be adopted by
our states courts, is that the placement of non-waivability
language in the law, the legislature chose to focus
absolutely on the behavior of the offender with intent to
punish the offenders behavior and not the behavior of the
victim for whom the order is designed to protect. As a
protected person under these laws, the victim/protected
person cannot be charged with violating this law. City of
North Olmsted v. Bullington, No. 76224 (July 27, 2000); cf.
State v. Megan R., 42 Cal. App. 4th 17, 49 Cal. Rptr. 2d
325, 332 (1996) (a child victim of statutory rape cannot be
charged as an aider and abettor to the crime of statutory
rape).
These decisions are consistent with RCW
9A.08.020(5)(a) which provides that: [A] person is not an
accomplice in a crime committed by another person if: (a)
He is a victim of that crime.

B.

Probable cause will depend upon verification that the order

exists, that the order has not expired, that the defendant
knows about the order, that the person to be restrained
knowingly went to or knowingly remained at a protected
place or had contact with a protected person.
156

C.

Proof of the orders existence can be established by: (1) the

victim actually showing the officer a copy of the order; (2)
through the Washington computer records if the order was
registered in Washington, through the issuing states
computerized protection order database; (3) by calling the
issuing court; (4) by the victims oral representations; and
(5) by the defendants admissions. These same sources can
establish whether the order has expired and/or whether the
defendant had knowledge of the order.
While the orders presence in a computerized data base
tends to provide the greatest comfort to a responding
officer, the fact that the order has not been entered into
WASIS/WASIC is not grounds for not arresting the suspect.
If the victim has a copy of the order but it is the victims
sole copy, the officer should not deprive the victim of the
order for any longer than it takes to photocopy the order.
After the photocopy is made, the original certified copy of
the order should generally be returned to the victim. An
exception to this rule arises if the person whose conduct is
restrained by the order claims to have never been served.
In that case, the officer should serve the original certified
copy of the order upon the suspect and the officer should
promptly complete and file a proof of service with the court
that originally issued the order and, if the order is a foreign
protection order, with the Washington court where the order
was filed. If an officer serves suspect with the victims sole
certified copy of the order, the officer should provide the
victim with a uncertified copy of the order and should take
steps, such as contacting a victim advocate, to assist the
victim in obtaining a new certified copy.

D.

A person is deemed to have knowledge if the existence of

an order if: (1) the order recites that the person to be
restrained appeared in person before the court; (2) the
person to be restrained signed the order; (3) the order was
served upon the person to be restrained; or (4) the peace
officer read from the order, thereby giving the person oral
or written evidence of the order or by handing to the person
a certified copy of the original order, certified to be an
accurate copy of the original by a notary public or by the
clerk of the court. Actual service of the order is not a
prerequisite to its enforcement if the restrained person
knows about the order and knows its contents. See City of
Auburn v. Solis-Marcial, 119 Wn. App. 398, 79 P.3d 1174
157

(2003).
When a victim indicates that an order exists that precludes
the suspect from contacting her, the suspect should always
be asked if there are any court orders that prohibit him or
her from contacting the victim. In the case of foreign
protection orders, if the suspect initially says no, the officer
should inquire about whether an order was issued in any
other state (or tribal) court. The expected answer to foreign
orders will probably be something along these lines-Yeah, a Delaware judge told me not to contact the victim,
but this aint Delaware. Such a statement will not prevent
an officer from establishing probable cause. To constitute
a knowing violation, the suspect need not know that his
conduct is illegal. In other words, the suspect does not need
to know that the Delaware order is valid in Washington, he
must merely know that the Delaware order exists and that
it restricts his conduct.
E.

In determining probable cause to arrest, an officer may not

rely upon the victim's statement regarding the contents of
the order. If the suspect contends that the order does not
preclude him from engaging in the particular conduct.
Instead, the officer must actually view the protection order
or must have the terms of the order read to the officer by
dispatch. Beier v. City of Lewiston, 354 F.3d 1058 (9th Cir.
2004).

158

COMPARISON OF COURT ORDERS

FAMILY AND DOMESTIC VIOLENCE ORDERS
KIND OF
ORDER

DOM ESTIC VIOLENCE

NO-CONTACT ORDERS

DOM ESTIC
VIOLENCE
PROTECTION ORDERS

F A M ILY
ORDERS

Nature of
Proceeding

Criminal in context of pending

criminal action. See Chapter
10.99 RCW

Civil, under RCW 26.50

Civil, normally in context of pending

dissolution or other family law action.
See, e.g., 26.09, 26.10, and 26.26

Civil or Criminal, under the law of the state or

tribe where the order was issued

Who may
Obtain
order

The prosecuting attorney, on

behalf of victims of domestic
violence, when criminal charges
are filed. Limited ability for
order to be imposed on an
individual who is released from
jail pending his or her first
appearance in court.

Petitioner who has been a victim of

domestic violence or who fears abuse from
a family or household member.

Petitioner who is either married to respondent

or has a child in common with the respondent.

Depends upon the law of the state or tribe

where the order was issued.

How is the
Order
obtained

Prosecution, generally after

consultation with the victim, will
make a request to the court for
issuance of an order. Order may
be obtained regardless of the
victims wishes.

Victim files petition. Order may be

obtained telephonically in special
circumstances. May also be obtained
during the course of a family law matter.

Victim files a petition for divorce, legal

separation, or child custody, or a paternity
action.

Depends upon the law of the state or tribe

where the order was issued.

W here is the
O r d e r
obtained

District, Municipal or Superior

Court through the prosecuting
authority.

District, Municipal, or Superior Court.

Superior Court only if family law action
pending or if case involves children or
order to vacate home.

Superior Court only.

Depends upon the law of the state or tribe

where the order was issued.

W hat does
the Order
provide

No contact with petitioner

directly or indirectly anywhere by
phone, in writing, or in person.
Prohibition from knowingly
coming within, or knowingly
remaining within, a specified
distance of a location.

Temporary: Exclusion from a residence,

prohibition from knowingly coming
within, or knowingly remaining within, a
specified distance of a location. no acts of
violence, no interference with custody of
minor children.
Full: All of the above and custody and
visitation schedule, treatment or
counseling, court costs, specific relief or
assistance.

Temporary or Full: Various restraint provisions

including exclusion from a residence,
prohibition from knowingly coming within, or
knowingly remaining within, a specified
distance of a location, no acts of violence or
harassment, custody and visitation directives.
.

Depends upon the law of the state or tribe

where the order was issued.

Cost of the
Order

None.

No cost to petitioner.

Same as dissolution (divorce) filing fee. The

filing fee may be waived if indigent. Petitioner
pays related costs and service fees.

Depends upon the law of the state or tribe

where the order was issued.

159

LAW

R E S T R A IN IN G

FOREIGN PROTECTION ORDERS

KIND OF
ORDER

DOM ESTIC VIOLENCE

NO-CONTACT ORDERS

DOM ESTIC
VIOLENCE
PROTECTION ORDERS

FA M ILY
ORDERS

LAW

R ESTR A IN IN G

FOREIGN PROTECTION ORDERS

How does the

respondent
r e c e i v e
notice of the
Order

Verbal and written notice given

to the defendant when order is
entered. Order may be entered at
any stage of the proceeding,
including the bail hearing, the
arraignment, or the sentencing.

Notice served on respondent by police

officer, private party, or process server.
Notice by certified mail, or publication
authorized in limited circumstances.

Notice served on respondent or respondents

attorney generally by process server, private
party, or police server.

Depends upon the law of the state or tribe

where the order was issued.

C on se q u e nc
es if Order is
know ingly
violated

Mandatory arrest.
Release
pending trial may be revoked.
Additional criminal or contempt
charges may be filed. Class C
felony if assault or reckless
conduct accompanies a violation.
Class C felony if two or more
prior convictions of any similar
type of order. Otherwise gross
misdemeanor.
See RCW
26.50.110.

Mandatory arrest for violating restraint

and exclusion provisions.
Possible
criminal charges or contempt. Class C
felony if assault or reckless conduct
accompanies a violation. Class C felony if
two or more prior convictions of any
similar type of order. Otherwise gross
misdemeanor. See RCW 26.50.110.

Mandatory arrest if criminal legend appears.

Possible criminal charges or contempt. Class C
felony if assault or reckless conduct
accompanies a violation. Class C felony if two
or more prior convictions of any similar type of
order. Otherwise gross misdemeanor.
See
RCW 26.50.110.

Mandatory arrest for violating restraint and

exclusion provisions or other provision where
the foreign order expressly provides for
mandatory arrest. Possible criminal charges or
contempt. Class C felony if assault or reckless
conduct accompanies a violation. Class C
felony if two or more prior convictions of any
similar type of order. Otherwise gross
misdemeanor. See RCW 26.50.110.

Duration of
Order

Set period of time, usually until

trial and/or sentencing are
concluded.
Post-sentencing
provision may last up to the
statutory maximum sentence
and/or until probation is
concluded.

Temporary: 14 days
Full: 1 year or more

Temporary: 14 days. Preliminary: Pendency of

action.

Depends upon the law of the state or tribe

where the order was issued.

How may the

Order be
modified

Only by the Court.

Only by the Court.

Only by the Court.

Depends upon the law of the state or tribe

where the order was issued.

How do the
police know
the Order
exists

Entered into WACIC, except

those issued by jail prior to
charging.

Entered into Washington State Criminal

Information Computer (WACIC).

Entered into WACIC by request only.

Entered into WACIC if registered with a

Washington Court. Depending upon the law
of the state or tribe where the order was
issued, the order may be entered into that
jurisdictions criminal information computer.

Full: In final decree, permanent until modified.

OTHER COURT ORDERS

KIND OF
ORDER

N ature of
Proceeding

Who may
Obtain
order

ANTIHARASSM ENT
ORDERS

HARASSM ENT NO
C O N T A C T
ORDERS

ABUSED
CHILD
R ESTR A IN IN G
ORDERS

VULNERABLE ADULT
PROTECTION ORDERS

SEXUAL ASSAULT PROTECTION ORDER

Civil,
10.14

Criminal, under RCW

9A.46.040

Any judicial proceeding

conducted in juvenile court
in which it is alleged that a
child has been subjected to
sexual or physical abuse.
See RCW 26.44.063.

Civil, under RCW 74.34.110.

Civil, under RCW 7.90.090.

The Court on its own

motion, the guardian ad
litem, or any party.

A vulnerable adult who has been

abandoned, abused, subject to
financial exploitation or neglect.
The Department of Social and
Health Services may also obtain an
order on behalf of a vulnerable
adult.

under

RCW

Petitioner who has

been seriously alarmed,
annoyed, or harassed
by conduct which
served no legitimate or
lawful purpose.

The prosecuting
attorney, on behalf of
victims of harassment,
when charges are filed.

Criminal as part of a pending criminal proceeding or as

a condition of a sentence, under RCW 7.90.150.

Petitioner, or the parent of a petitioner or the guardian of

a vulnerable adult, who has been a victim of
nonconsensual sexual conduct or sexual penetration and
who has a fear of future dangerous acts based upon
specific statements or actions made at the time of the
sexual assault of subsequently thereafter.
The prosecuting attorney, on behalf of victims of sex
offenses, when criminal charges are filed. Limited
ability for order to be imposed on an individual who is
released from jail pending his or her first appearance in
court.

How is the
Order
obtained

Victim files a petition.

W here is the
O r d e r
obtained

District Court, but in

Superior Court when
respondent is under the
age of 18 years or
when case is referred to
the Superior Court by
the District Court.

Prosecuting attorney,
generally after
consultation with the
victim, will make a
request to the court for
issuance of an order.
Order may be obtained
regard l e s s of the
victims wishes.

A party or the guardian ad

litem will make a request to
the court of issuance of an
order or the Court may issue
an order on its own. The
order may be obtained
regardless of the victims
wishes.

Victim or the Department of Social

or Health Services will file a
petition.

The criminal order may

be obtained by the
prosecutor in district,
municipal, or superior
court.

Superior Court
Department

Superior court.

Juvenile

Victim or parent of a victim files a petition for a civil

order.
Prosecuting attorney, generally after consultation with
the victim, will make a request to the court for
issuance of an order. Order may be obtained
regardless of the victims wishes.

The superior court, district court, and municipal court,

but if the respondent is less than District Court, but only
the superior court can issue a final order if the
respondent is under the age of 18 years.
The criminal order may be obtained by the prosecutor in
district, municipal, or superior court.

KIND OF
ORDER

ANTIHARASSM ENT
ORDERS

HARASSM ENT NO
C O N T A C T
ORDERS

ABUSED
CHILD
R ESTR A IN IN G
ORDERS

VULNERABLE ADULT
PROTECTION ORDERS

SEXUAL ASSAULT PROTECTION ORDER

W hat does
the Order
provide

Exclusion from and

restrained from a
specific distance from
residence, work, or
school of petitioner, no
contact of any kind
directly/indirectly by
phone, writing, or in
person.

Prohibition
on
contacting the victim,
going to the victims
home , school, business
or place of employment
o r o t h e r s pecific
locations.

Prohibition on contacting
the victim, entering the
victims family home
without specific court
approval, molesting or
disturbing the peace of the
victim, and on knowingly
coming within, or remaining
within, a specified distance
of a specified location.

Various restraint provisions

including exclusion from victims
residence, prohibition from
contacting victim, prohibition
upon knowingly coming within, or
remaining within, a specified
distance of a specified location.

Various restraint provisions including no contact with

victim, prohibition upon going to the petitioners
residence, workplace, school or day care, and a
prohibition upon knowingly coming within or remaining
within, a specified distance of a specified location.

Cost of the
Order

Basic district court or

superior court filing
fee. The filing fee may
be waived if the
petitioner is indigent.
The service fee may be
waived if the petitioner
is indigent, the victim
of stalking or a sex
offense, or a family or
household member.

No cost.

No cost to victim, since the

order is generally obtained
in a proceeding initiated by
the Department of Social
and Health Services.

Basic superior court filing fee.

The fee may be waived at the
discretion of the court.

No cost to the petitioner.

How does the

respondent
r e c e i v e
notice of the
Order

Notice served on
respondent or
respondents attorney
by police, private
party, or process
server.

Verbal and written

notice of criminal order
given to the defendant
when order is entered.
Order may be entered
whenever the defendant
is being released on bail
o r
p e r s o n a l
recognizance.

Verbal and written notice

generally given to the
individual whose conduct
will be restrained or to the
individual whose conduct
will be restraineds attorney.
Ex parte orders may be
entered only if the court
finds evidence that
irreparable injury could
result if an order is not
issued until the time for
responding has elapsed.

Notice served on respondent or

respondents attorney by police,
private party, or process server.

Notice of civil order served on respondent by police,

private party, or process server.
Verbal and written notice of criminal order given to
the defendant when order is entered. Order may be
entered at any stage of the proceeding, including the
bail hearing, the arraignment, or the sentencing.

KIND OF
ORDER

ANTIHARASSM ENT
ORDERS

HARASSM ENT NO
C O N T A C T
ORDERS

ABUSED
CHILD
R ESTR A IN IN G
ORDERS

VULNERABLE ADULT
PROTECTION ORDERS

SEXUAL ASSAULT PROTECTION ORDER

Consequences
if Order is
knowingly
violated

May be arrested.
P o ssib le criminal
charges or contempt if
the violator is an adult.
Contempt only if the
violator is a juvenile.
See RCW 10.14.120;
RCW 10.14.170; RCW
10.31.100(8).

An intentional violation
is a misdemeanor. RCW
9A.4 6 .040(2).
A
warrantless arrest may
only be made for
violations that occur in
the officers presence,
unless the violation also
constitutes criminal
trespass.

Mandatory arrest if criminal

legend appears. See RCW
10.31.100(2)(a). Possible
c r i mi n a l c h a r ges o r
contempt. The crime is a
misdemeanor. See RCW
26.44.067.

Mandatory arrest if criminal

legend appears. Possible criminal
charges or contempt. Class C
felony if assault or reckless
conduct accompanies a violation.
Class C felony if two or more prior
convictions of any similar type of
order. Otherwise gross
misdemeanor.
See RCW
26.50.110.

Mandatory arrest if criminal legend appears. Possible

criminal charges or contempt. Class C felony if assault
or reckless conduct accompanies a violation. Class C
felony if two or more prior convictions of any similar
type of order. Otherwise gross misdemeanor. See RCW
26.50.110.

Duration
Order

Emergency: 14 days
Full: 1 year

Until the criminal case is

concluded.

Until further order of the

Court.

Not to exceed 1 year.

Temporary civil order 14 days. Full civil order fixed

period not to exceed 14 days.

of

Criminal orders Set period of time, usually until trial

and/or sentencing are concluded. Post-sentencing
provision may last up to two years following the
expiration of any senence of imprisonment and
subsequent period of community supervision,
conditional release, probation, or parole.
How may the
Order be
modified
How do the
police know
the Order
exists

Only by the Court.

Only by the Court.

Only by the Court.

Only by Court.

Only by Court.

Entered into WACIC.

May be entered into

WACIC. Victim is
provided with a copy of
the order.

Entered into WACIC.

Entered into WACIC.

Entered into WACIC.

163

b.

Where Allowed.
Residences. Probable cause to make a warrantless arrest does not provide a
basis for a non-consensual entry into a residence. Payton v. New York, 445
U.S. 573, 100 S. Ct. 1371, 1380, 63 L. Ed. 2d 639 (1980). The prohibition
upon entry into the residence will preclude an arrest while a suspect is
standing within the doorway of the residence or in a garage. State v.
Holeman, 103 Wn.2d 426, 693 P.2d 89 (1985); Altshuler v. Seattle, 63 Wn.
App. 389, 395, 819 P.2d 393 (1991), review denied, 118 Wn.2d 1023 (1992).
Police may, however, make a warrantless arrest of a suspect who voluntarily
exits the residence to speak to officers on an unenclosed front porch. State
v. Solberg, 122 Wn.2d 688, 861 P.2d 460 (1993).
Police may also make a warrantless arrest within a defendants home if the
defendant invites the officers into the home. State v. Williamson, 42 Wn.
App. 208, 710 P.2d 205 (1985), review denied, 105 Wn.2d 1012 (1986).
Such consent may need to be preceded by Ferrier warnings.
Police may make a warrantless arrest of a suspect who is barricaded in a
residence by surrounding the home. Regardless of how long the standoff
occurs, police need not obtain an arrest warrant before taking the suspect into
full physical custody, so long as the police are actively engaged in completing
the suspects arrest. This remains true regardless of whether the exigency
that justified the seizure of the house has dissipated by the time the suspect
is taken into full physical custody. See Fisher v. City of San Jose, 558 F.3d
1069 (9th Cir. 2009) (officers did not need an arrest warrant to take an
intoxicated man, who had threatened to shot police officers if they attempted
to enter his property in response to a uniformed security guards report that
the intoxicated man threatened to shot him, into custody, when the man left
his apartment and peaceably surrendered following a 12-hour long standoff).
Businesses. Police may enter a business to make an arrest without a warrant,
so long as the officer does not access any area of the commercial premises
that is restricted to employees of owners. Dodge City Saloon v. Wa State
Liquor Control Board, COA No. 41454-6-II, ___ Wn. App. ___, ___ P.3d
___ (May 15, 2012) (government officials do not conduct a search by
entering those portions of a commercial premise that is held open to the
public).
Hospitals. Most courts hold that police may enter a hospital emergency
room without a warrant to make an arrest. See, e.g., Buchanan v. State, 432
So. 2d 147, 148 (Fla. App. 1983) (defendant did not have reasonable
expectation of privacy in curtained area of hospital emergency room where
medical personnel constantly walking in and out and where he could have
expected to stay a few hours at the most); People v. Torres, 144 Ill. App. 3d
164

187, 494 N.E.2d 752, 755, 98 Ill. Dec. 630 (Ill. App. 1986) (defendant had no
objectively reasonable expectation of privacy in hospital emergency room);
State v. Rheaume, 2005 VT 106, 179 Vt. 39, 889 A.2d 711 (2005) (defendant
had no objectively reasonable expectation of privacy in hospital emergency
room); .State v. Thompson, 222 Wis. 2d 179, 585 N.W.2d 905, 908-09 (Wis.
App. 1998) (defendant had no reasonable expectation of privacy in hospital
emergency room or operating room).
Hospital rooms, on the other hand, should be treated the same as a residence,
with an officer only able to gain access in order to make a warrantless arrest
with the consent of the patient or a search warrant. See generally Jones v.
State, 648 So. 2d 669, 677-78 (Fla. 1994) (hospital room is not necessarily
a public place for Fourth Amendment purposes); State v. Stott, 171 N.J. 343,
794 A.2d 120, 127-28 (N.J. 2002) ("[W]e accept as a basic premise that a
hospital room is more akin to one's home than to one's car or office."). Contra
People v. Courts, 205 Mich. App. 326, 517 N.W.2d 785, 786 (Mich. Ct.
App. 1994) ("No one who had ever spent any time in a hospital room could
continue to harbor any false expectations about his personal privacy or his
ability to keep the world outside from coming through the door").
i.

Pursuit
(1)

What is the particular officer's scope of authority.

(2)

Felony Pursuit Within Washington State

(a)

Felony pursuit into a private dwelling

(i)

All warrantless entries of a home are

presumptively unreasonable.

(ii)

The Fourth Amendment prohibits police from

making a warrantless and nonconsensual
entry into a suspect's home to make a routine
felony arrest without exigent circumstances.
Paxton v. New York, 445 U.S. 573 (1980)

(iii)

The government bears the burden of

demonstrating exigent circumstances to
overcome this presumption.

(iv)

Factors to be considered in determining

whether exigent circumstances exist to justify
a warrantless entry into a home:

165

whether a grave offense, particularly a

crime of violence, is involved

whether the suspect is reasonably

believed to be armed

whether there is reasonably

trustworthy information that the
suspect is guilty

whether there is strong reason to

believe that the suspect is on the
premises

whether the suspect is likely to escape

if not swiftly apprehended

whether the warrantless entry may be

made peaceably

whether police are in hot pursuit of the

suspect

whether the suspect is fleeing

whether the suspect poses a danger to

arresting officer or the public if not
immediately apprehended

whether the suspect has access to a

vehicle

whether evidence associated with the

crime is mobile or subject to
destruction if the suspect is not
immediately apprehended

See State v. Steinbrunn, 54 Wn. App. 506 (1989).

State v. Patterson, 112 Wn.2d 731, 736, 774 P.2d 10
(1989); State v. Terrovona, 105 Wn.2d 632, 644, 716
P.2d 295 (1986), citing State v. Counts, 99 Wn.2d 54,
60, 659 P.2d 1087 (1983) and Dorman v. United
States, 435 F.2d 385, 392-93 (D.C. Cir. 1970). None
of these factors is dispositive and every factor need
not be present. See, e.g., State v. Patterson, 112
Wn.2d at 736 ; State v. Flowers, 57 Wn. App. 636,
166

644, 789 P.2d 333, review denied, 115 Wn.2d 1009

(1990); State v. Machado, 54 Wn. App. 771, 777, 775
P.2d 997 (1989), review denied, 114 Wn.2d 1009
(1990).
Specific Examples. The Washington appellate courts
have upheld warrantless entries/arrests in the
following circumstances:

In State v. Carter, 127 Wn.2d 836, 904 P.2d

290 (1995), the court found exigent
circumstances existed where the police just
conducted a drug deal in a motel room. The
arrest team was called and approached the
room with their weapons drawn. As the
officers approached the room, an unidentified
woman opened the door and came out into the
hallway. When she saw the arrest team, she
slammed the door behind her and tried to run
away. The arrest team detained the woman,
announced their presence and forced open the
door. The court held the officers had exigent
circumstances justifying entry of the motel
room without a warrant.

In State v. Flowers, 57 Wn. App. 636, 644,

789 P.2d 333, review denied, 115 Wn.2d 1009
(1990), the Court upheld the warrantless entry
into a motel room shortly after two suspects in
an armed robbery were traced to the hotel and
when one of the suspects exited the hotel
room pursuant to a ruse, she called out
police to the other suspect.

In State v. Machado, 54 Wn. App. 771, 775

P.2d 997 (1989), review denied, 114 Wn.2d
1009 (1990), the court held that exigent
circumstances justified warrantless arrest of
defendant at accomplice's home where
defendant was wanted for a first-degree
robbery committed just a few hours earlier and
there was reason to believe that he was armed,
similarity of descriptions given by witnesses
and police officer who had stopped vehicle
which defendant was driving shortly after
robbery pointed emphatically to defendant as
167

man who committed robbery, there was strong

reason to believe that defendant was in
apartment based upon presence of his car
outside home and information received from
witness, and entry itself was peaceful, made in
early morning and was not part of preplanned
operation.
(b)

Felony pursuit into private business.

(i)

(3)

Safety of officer and customers is of primary

concern.

Misdemeanor Pursuits Within Washington State

(a)

Forced entry of private dwellings

(i)

168

An important factor to be considered when

determining whether any exigency exists is the
gravity of the underlying offense.

A warrantless home arrest cannot be

upheld simply because evidence of the
petitioner's blood-alcohol level might
have dissipated while the police
obtained a warrant. Welsh v.
Wisconsin, 466 U.S. 740, 104 S. Ct.
2091, 80 L. Ed. 2d 732 (1984).

DUI is not a grave offense that will

allow for a warrantless entry into a
home to effect an arrest. The risk of
losing blood-alcohol evidence is not a
sufficient exigency that will justify a
warrantless entry to effect an arrest.
State v. Hinshaw, 149 Wn. App. 747,
205 P.3d 178 (2009).

The odor of burning marijuana will

not justify a warrantless entry. Cf.
State v. Tibbles, 169 Wn.2d 364, 236
P.3d 885 (2010) (while the odor of
marijuana will provide probable cause
for a search, the odor of marijuana
does not present exigent circumstances
that will permit a warrantless search of

a motor vehicle); People v. Torres,

No. B233368, ___ Cal. Rptr. ___, ___
P.3d ___ (Cal. App. May 2, 2012)
(odor of marijuana does not, in itself,
provide authority for a warrantless
entry into a hotel room.

(b)

(ii)

A "warrantless entry into a home requires 'real

immediate, and serious consequences' if action
is postponed to get a warrant." Seattle v.
Altschuler, 53 Wn. App. 317, 321, 766 P.2d
518 (1989).

(iii)

Hot pursuit alone is not sufficient exigent

circumstances. State v. Altschuler, 53 Wn.
App. 317, 321, 766 P.2d 518 (1989).

Fresh pursuit onto property of private business.

(i)

(ii)

(1)

Parking lot in front of building.

Try not to block the way to customers.

Move patrol vehicle as soon as

possible.

Inside a business establishment.

Be reasonable.

Ask suspect to step outside to

conclude contact.

Try not to confront the suspect with

their violation in front of other
customers.

Out-of-State Pursuits
(a)

Felony
(i)

No pursuit into Canada.

(ii)

Oregon/Idaho rules under RCW 10.89.

169

(A)

Pursuit can be for any felony including

the crime of felony eluding.

Idaho Code 49-1404 governs

eluding a police officer. The
offense is a misdemeanor
except when the driver: (a)
Travels in excess of thirty (30)
miles per hour above the
posted speed limit; (b) Causes
damage to the property of
another or bodily injury to
another; (c) Drives his vehicle
in a manner as to endanger or
likely to endanger the property
of another or the person of
another; or (d) Leaves the
state. If any of these four
circumstances are present, the
offense is a felony.
Oregon makes it a felony for a
person operating a motor
vehicle to use his or her
vehicle to knowingly flee or
attempt to elude a pursuing
police officer when the police
officer is in uniform and
prominently displaying the
police officer's badge of office
or operating a vehicle
appropriately marked showing
it to be an official police
vehicle gives a visual or
audible signal to bring the
vehicle to a stop, including any
signal by hand, voice,
emergency light or siren.
ORS 811.540.

170

Oregon Uniform Act on Fresh

Pursuit, O RS 133.410.

Idaho Uniform Act on Fresh

Pursuit, 19.701

(B)

4.

Rules Under RCW 10.89.

Officer has same authority as

officer in other state.

Suspect must be taken

immediately before local
magistrate.

An arrest for negligent

homicide at an out-of- state
hospital, for the purpose of
taking a blood sample under
implied consent, is legal
because of felony pursuit law.
State v. Steinbrunn, 54 Wn.
App. 506, 774 P.2d 55, review
denied, 113 Wn.2d 1015
(1989).

Only Governor can extradite.

RCW 10.88.210.

Use of force in making an arrest.

a.

An officer may use all necessary means to effect an arrest. RCW 10.31.050;
State v. Harris, 106 Wn.2d 784, 725 P.2d 975 (1986).

b.

Four reasons for officer to use force (to get the D-O-P-E):

c.

i.

Secure and DETAIN the offender

ii.

OVERCOME resistance

iii.

PROTECT the officer from bodily harm

iv.

Prevent ESCAPE and to recapture

Statutory Use of Force

i.

RCW 9A.16.020 -- Applies to citizens and to the police. Allows for

the use of force:

When necessary in performance of a legal duty.

When necessary to arrest a felon.

171

ii.

d.

e.

When used by a party about to be injured.

When used to detain a person who remains unlawfully in a

building.

When used by a carrier of passengers to expel a passenger .

When used to prevent a mentally ill person from committing

a dangerous act.

RCW 10.31.050 applies to police officers. Allows for the use of

force if after notice of intention to arrest defendant, the defendant
either flees or forcibly resists.

The officer may use all necessary force to effect the arrest.

Person arresting another cannot use unnecessary force or

resort to dangerous means if arrest can be accomplished
otherwise.

Reasonable force depends upon all facts and circumstances as

they appear at the time. Palmer v. Hall, 380 F.2d 1974 (1975)

The person making the arrest is not required to gauge the

exact amount of force necessary at his/her peril--it is only the
use of unreasonable excessive force that is condemned

Use of force continuum

Escalate force gradually.

Must justify a jump in force.

If person is only offering passive resistance Use only enough force

to take subject into custody and get sufficient help from others to to
handle the person gently.

Citizen's use of force during arrest

"In a lawful arrest, the arrestee may not use physical force against the
arresting officer, unless the use of excessive force by the officer
places the arrestee in actual danger of serious injury." State v.
Westlund, 13 Wn. App. 460, 536 P.2d 20, review denied, 85 Wn.2d
1014 (1975).

172

f.

The use of force to prevent even an unlawful arrest which threatens

only a loss of freedom is not reasonable. It is a Class C Felony
(Assault in the Third Degree) to assault a peace officer with intent to
resist unlawful arrest or detention. State v. Valentine, 132 Wn.2d 1,
935 P.2d 1294 (1997).

Limitations on the Use of Force

i.

Constitutional limitations
Use of deadly force is unreasonable if used against a non- dangerous
suspect.

Deadly force can never be used to simply arrest a suspect for

committing a misdemeanor.

Deadly force may be used only:

When the officer is threatened with a weapon.

The officer has probable cause to believe the suspect

poses a significant threat of death or serious physical
injury to the officer or others.

Tennessee v. Garner, 471 U.S. 1, 105 S. Ct. 1694, 85 L. Ed.

2d 1 (1985).

Fleeing felons
DO NOT SHOOT AT ANY FLEEING FELON WHO IS
NOT AN IMMEDIATE DANGER TO THE OFFICER OR
TO OTHERS
Deadly force may not be used against a nonviolent felon.
Phillins v. Ward, 415 F. Supp. 976 (1975).

ii.

Statutory limitations on the use of deadly force RCW 9A.16.040

Deadly force is justified in the following cases:

When directed by a court.

When used to overcome resistance to legal duty.

173

When used by officer to:

Apprehend a felon.

Prevent escape from a prison.

Prevent escape of a felon from a county or city jail.

To suppress a riot when participant is armed with a

deadly weapon.

Officer must have probable cause to believe that the suspect

poses a threat of serious physical harm to the officer or others.
"Threat of serious physical harm" includes:

iii.

Suspect threatens officer with weapon.

Officer has probable cause to believe suspect has

committed a crime involving serious physical harm.

Court cases

The use of drawn guns is appropriate whenever police have a

"reasonable apprehension" of fear. State v. Hudson, 56 Wn.
App. 490, 784 P.2d 553 (1990).

When officers have a reasonable belief a car's occupants are

armed and dangerous, they may make a stop at gunpoint.
State v. Belieu, 112 Wn. 2d 587, 773 P.2d 46 (1989).

The issue is whether a reasonable and prudent person would

believe his/her safety was in danger in like circumstances.

A "specific fear" (crime of armed robbery) will support the

use of drawn weapons. State v. Thornton, 41 Wn. App. 506,
705 P.2d 271, review denied, 104 Wn.2d 1022 (1985).

A police officers attempt to terminate a dangerous highspeed car chase that threatens the lives of innocent bystanders
does not violate the Fourth Amendment, even when it places
the fleeing motorist at risk of serious injury or death. Scott v.
Harris, 550 U.S. 372, 127 S. Ct. 1769, 167 L. Ed. 2d 686
(2007).

174

5.

Post-arrest control of suspect

a.

After making a lawful arrest, the officer may conduct a limited search of the
detainee and the area immediately under the detainees control. See search
incident to arrest, infra.

b.

An arrest allows the officer to promptly take the detainee to a custodial center
for booking or to a magistrate for a determination of probable cause and the
setting of bail.
i.

c.

Many jurisdictions have bail schedules which reflect the range

generally imposed in that community for various crimes. Deviations
from the bail schedule normally require a prosecutor or supervisors
approval.

An arrest does not allow the officer to accompany the detainee into another
room. An arrest does not allow the officer to accompany a friend or relative
of the detainee when that person leaves the officers sight to retrieve property
belonging to the detainee. State v. Kull, 155 Wn.2d 80, 118 P.3d 307 (2005)
(officer who arrested defendant in the laundry room on a misdemeanor
warrant violated the defendants right to privacy when they accompanied her
and her friend into her bedroom so the defendant could retrieve her purse
which held her bail money; cocaine located on top of the defendants dresser
and in her purse was suppressed); State v. Chrisman, 100 Wn.2d 814, 676
P.2d 419 (1984) (campus police officer who arrested an underage college
student for the offense of minor in possession of alcohol violated the
students privacy rights by entering the students dorm room after the officer
who accompanied the student into the dorm room to retrieve his identification
noticed what the officer believed to be marijuana).
i.

Result might be different if the crime for which the defendant was
arrested is a felony.

ii.

Result might be different if the residence is on the ground floor and

the detainee might be able to escape out of a back door.

iii.

Result might be different if the detainee was armed at the time of

arrest.
Bottom Line for Police Officers: Think carefully before deciding
to be a good guy.

175

6.

Arrestees with Special Needs.

Accommodations may have to be made if the person under arrest has a physical
challenge. The American With Disabilities Act applies to police officers.
a..

DUI arrests and deaf suspects. An officer need not wait for an oral interpreter
before administering field sobriety tests to a profoundly deaf suspect. Nor
must an officer refrain from administering field sobriety tests in favor of
transporting the suspect to the police station for a breath test. An officer may
administer field sobriety tests if the officer can give directions in a manner
that the deaf suspect can understand.
Once at the station, an officer must take appropriate steps to ensure the his or
her communication with the deaf arrestee is a s effective as with other
individuals arrested for DUI. In many circumstances, oral communication
plus gestures and visual aids or note writing will achieve effective
communication. In other circumstances, an interpreter will be needed. There
is no bright-line rule, and the inquiry is highly fact specific.
If a deaf arrestee wishes to speak with an attorney, efforts should be made to
provide the arrestee with access to a TDD phone or other relay system.
Bricoll v. Miami-Dade County, 480 F.3d 1072 (11th Cir. 2007).

IV.

SEARCHES

A.

General Rule.
A warrantless search is presumed unreasonable except in a few established and welldelineated exceptions. Katz v. United States, 389 U.S. 347, 357, 88 S. Ct. 507, 19 L. Ed. 2d
576 (1967). The State bears the burden of proving that a warrantless search falls under an
established exception. State v. Johnson, 128 Wn.2d 431, 451, 909 P.2d 293 (1996). The
defendant bears the burden of proving that a search conducted pursuant to a search warrant
was improper. State v. Mance, 82 Wn. App. 539, 544, 918 P.2d 527 (1996).
Just as not every police-citizen encounter is an arrest or detention, not every inspection by
police of an item of property is a search. The relevant inquiry for determining when a search
has occurred under Const. art. I, 7 is whether police unreasonably intruded into the
defendants private affairs. The following searches do not implicate a constitutionally
protected zone of privacy:
1.

Abandoned Property. Police may retrieve voluntarily abandoned property without

violating the expectation of privacy of the person who discarded the property. See,
e.g., State v. Reynolds, 144 Wn.2d 282, 27 P.3d 200 (2001) (coat discarded by
passenger onto the pavement of the lawfully stopped vehicle was legally searched by
176

police); State v. Hepton, 113 Wn. App. 673, 54 P.3d 233 (2002) (refuse placed in a
neighbors garbage can); State v. Young, 86 Wn. App. 194, 935 P.2d 1372 (1997)
(drugs thrown into the bushes by defendant before the defendant was actually seized
by police were lawfully searched without a warrant); State v. Nettles, 70 Wn. App.
706, 855 P.2d 699 (1993), review denied, 123 Wn.2d 1010 (1994) (drugs dropped
by defendant before the defendant was actually seized by police were lawfully
searched without a warrant). However, property cannot be deemed voluntarily
abandoned (and thus subject to search) if a person abandons it because of unlawful
police conduct. State v. Whitaker, 58 Wn. App. 851, 853, 795 P.2d 182 (1990).

In State v. Reichenbach, 153 Wn.2d 126, 101 P.3d 80 (2004), a passenger,

riding in a vehicle that was stopped and searched pursuant to the driver's
valid consent, was deemed to have involuntarily abandoned a baggy
containing methamphetamine when officers ordered the passenger to raise his
or her hands at gunpoint when the driver brought the vehicle to a stop.

A persons claim that the property is not theirs is not enough to establish
abandonment. State v. Evans, 159 Wn.2d 402, 150 P.3d 105 (2006).

2.

Department of Licensing Records. A police officers' search of Department of

Licensing database using a license plate number obtained from a vehicle without the
officer stopping it, did not violate the drivers expectation of privacy such that
officers were precluded from searching those records without an individualized
suspicion of a driver's involvement in criminal activity. State v. McKinney, 148
Wn.2d 20, 60 P.3d 46 (2002); accord United States v. Diaz-Castaneda, 494 F.3d
1146 (9th Cir. 2007). A police officer's suspicionless review of a jail visitor's driver's
license records did not violate either Const. art. I, 7 or the Fourth Amendment.
State v. Hathaway, 161 Wn. App. 634, 251 P.3d 253, review denied, 172 Wn.2d
1021 ( 2011).

3.

Private Commercial Records. A customer has no expectation of privacy in the

entry and exit records at a storage unit. See State v. Duncan, 81 Wn. App. 70, 912
P.2d 1090, review denied, 130 Wn.2d 1001 (1996). A customer has no expectation
of privacy in receipts kept at a store, at least as to transactions that the customer
discloses to a third party, such as an insurance company. See State v. Farmer, 80
Wn. App. 795, 911 P.2d 1030 (1996).
This exception, however, should not be read too broadly as the Washington Supreme
Court recently held that information contained in a motel registry constitutes a private
affair under article I, 7 of the Washington Constitution. Random viewing of a
motel registry violates article I, 7. State v. Jorden, 160 Wn.2d 121, 156 P.3d 893
(2007). The questioning of a motel desk clerk regarding the occupant of a room will
not violate Const. art. I, 7 when any examination of the registry is based upon
current or recent individualized suspicion regarding criminal activity in the hotel
room. In re Personal Restraint of Nichols, 171 Wn.2d 370, 256 P.3d 1131 (2011).

177

4.

Telephones and Pagers. An individual has no expectation of privacy in the

incoming calls to the pager of a third person. See State v. Wojtyna, 70 Wn. App. 689,
855 P.2d 315 (1993), review denied, 123 Wn.2d 1007 (1994). An individual has no
expectation of privacy in the incoming telephone calls, and police who are lawfully
in a residence pursuant to a search warrant may lawfully answer such calls. See, e.g.,
State v. Goucher, 124 Wn.2d 778, 881 P.2d 210 (1994); State v. Gonzales, 78 Wn.
App. 976, 900 P.2d 564 (1995).
This exception should not be read too broadly as some courts have held that
individuals have an expectation of privacy in the data stored on a cellular phone, such
that a warrant or consent is always needed to access the archived voice mails, text
messages, photographs, and address book. See, e.g., State v. Smith, 124 Ohio St. 3d
163, 920 N.E.2d 949 (2009) (the search-incident-to-arrest exception to the Fourth
Amendment's warrant requirement does not permit police officers to examine the
contents of an arrestee's cell phone); United States v. Park, 2007 WL 1521573 (N.D.
Cal. 2007) (officers cannot conduct a warrantless examination of the contents of a
cellular phone under the booking exception to the warrant requirement); State v.
Isaac, 209 P.3d 765; 2009 Kan. App. Unpub. LEXIS 492 (2009) (relying upon State
v. Rupnick, 280 Kan. 720, 125 P.3d 541 (2005), to hold that since modern cell phones
contain personal data in the same fashion as a computer, a search warrant is generally
necessary to retrieve information stored on a cell phone; warrantless search incident
to arrest may be appropriate when conducted immediately at the scene of the arrest,
but not later at the station house). Other courts take a different view and allow for
warrantless examination under certain exceptions to the warrant requirement. See,
e.g., United States v. Young, 278 Fed. Appx. 242, 245-46 (4th Cir. May 15, 2008),
cert. denied, 129 S. Ct. 514 (2008) (per curiam) (holding that officers may retrieve
text messages from cell phone during search incident to arrest); United States v.
Finley, 477 F.3d 250 (5th Cir. ), cert. denied, 549 U.S. 1353 (2007) (officers
warrantless search of the cellular phones call records and text messages upheld as
search incident to arrest); United States v. Ortiz, 84 F.3d 977 (7th Cir. 1996) (officer
did not violate the Fourth Amendment by recovering, without a search warrant,
phone numbers from a pager that was seized incident to arrest).

5.

Letters and Mail. Senders and receivers of United States mail have only a minimal
expectation of privacy as to the information on the outside of the mail and no
reasonable expectation of privacy that the air immediately around the mail in transit
will not be sniffed by specially trained canines. State v. Stanphill, 53 Wn. App. 623,
769 P.2d 861 (1989). Inmates of jails and prisons have no expectation of privacy in
the contents of their non-legal mail. See generally Robinson v. Peterson, 87 Wn.2d
665, 669, 555 P.2d 1348 (1976) ("We have upheld the right of jail officials to
examine the letters and packages, incoming and outgoing, of all inmates. State v.
Hawkins, 70 Wn.2d 697, 425 P.2d 390 (1967), cert. denied, 390 U.S. 912 (1968). We
said there that there can be no claim of an invasion of privacy under such
circumstances.")

178

6.

Pharmacy Records. Patients who purchase prescription narcotics from pharmacists

have a limited expectation of privacy in the information compiled by pharmacists
regarding their prescriptions. Because patients know or should know that their
purchase of such drugs will be subject to government regulation and scrutiny, and
because dispensers of prescription drugs have kept similar records open to
government scrutiny throughout this state's history, prescription records maintained
by pharmacies may be accessed by the pharmacy board without a warrant. Murphy
v. State, 115 Wn. App. 297, 62 P.3d 533 (2003).

7.

Second Looks. Inmates whose possessions have been inventoried and placed in a
property room upon their arrival in a correctional facility have a diminished
expectation of privacy in those possessions. Law enforcement may examine the
possessions without a warrant in connection with the investigation of a crime
unrelated to the crime for which the defendant was arrested. State v. Cheatam, 150
Wn.2d 626, 81 P.3d 830 (2003).

8.

Fraudulently Obtained or Stolen Goods. The Fourth Amendment does not protect
a defendant from a warrantless search of property that he stole, because regardless
of whether he expects to maintain privacy in the content of the stolen property, such
an expectation is not one that "society is prepared to accept as reasonable." See
Rakas v. Illinois, 439 U.S. 128, 143 n.12, 99 S. Ct. 421, 58 L. Ed. 2d 387 (1978).
This same rule has been extended to fraudulently obtained goods. United States v.
Caymen, 404 F.3d 709 (9th Cir. 2005). The applicability of this rule to a Const. art.
I, 7, claim is not fully established.

Hotel Rooms. An individual who fraudulently procures a hotel room has no

reasonable expectation of privacy in the unlawfully obtained suite. United
States v. Cunag, 386 F.3d 888 (9th Cir. 2004).

Stolen Cars. Defendant had no legitimate expectation of privacy in stolen

car by virtue of his wrongful presence in car. State v. Zakel, 61 Wn. App.
805, 812 P.2d 512, review granted, 117 Wn.2d 1023, 820 P.2d 511 (1991),
aff'd, 119 Wn.2d 563, 834 P.2d 1046 (1992). Please be aware that the lawful
owner of the car still has an expectation of privacy in the car and evidence
seized from the car without the lawful owner's consent or a warrant will not
be admissible into evidence against the lawful owner of the car.

Computers. An individual who fraudulently obtained a computer from a

business supply store has no reasonable expectation of privacy in the contents
of the computer's hard drive. United States v. Caymen, 404 F.3d 709 (9th
Cir. 2005) (computer purchased with someone else's credit card). A person
who steals a computer lacks a reasonable expectation of privacy in the
contents of the stolen computer. United States v. Wong, 334 F.3d 831 (9th
Cir. 2003). Please be aware that the lawful owner of the computer still has
an expectation of privacy in the computer and evidence seized from the hard
drive without the lawful owner's consent or a warrant will not be admissible
179

into evidence against the lawful owner of the computer.

9.

Saliva. A citizen has no expectation of privacy in saliva that the citizen voluntarily
relinquishes by licking an envelope, by smoking a cigarette, by spitting on the
sidewalk, or in some other manner. State v. Athan, 160 Wn.2d 354, 158 P.3d 27
(2007). The State may perform DNA testing on the saliva without violating a
citizens privacy interests, provided the DNA testing is limited to identification
purposes. Id.

10.

Commercial Premises. The state and federal constitutions afford no privacy

protection to the common area of a gated commercial storage facility. State v.
Lakotiy, 151 Wn. App. 699, 214 P.3d 181 (2009), review denied, 168 Wn.2d 1026
(2010). Government officials do not conduct a search by entering those portions of
a commercial premise that is held open to the public. A warrant is only required to
access commercial premises or portions of such premises restricted to all by
employees or owners. Dodge City Saloon v. Washington Liquor Control Board,
COA No. 41454-6-II, ___ Wn. App. ___, ___ P.3d ___ (May 15, 2012).

11.

Jail Phone Calls. A pre-trial detainee has no reasonable expectation of privacy in

jail telephone conversations. State v. Modica, 164 Wn.2d 83; 186 P.3d 1062 (2008);
State v. Archie, 148 Wn. App. 198, 199 P.3d 1005, review denied, 166 Wn.2d 1016,
1018 (2009). The recording of a detainees phone conversations did not violate
Const. art. I, 7. State v. Haq, 166 Wn. App. 221, 268 P.3d 997 (2012).

12.

Computers with File Sharing Software. An individual who installs file sharing
software on his computer does not have a reasonable expectation of privacy in the
files stored on his computer. The Fourth Amendment does not require police to
obtain a search warrant before viewing files via a file sharing software program.
United States v. Ganoe, 538 F.3d 1117 (9th Cir. 2008).

The following "searches" have been held to implicate a constitutionally protected zone of
privacy:
1.

Canine Sniffs. A police officers use of a trained narcotics dog to detect the presence
of a controlled substance in a locked dwelling or associated structure under
circumstances in which the presence of the controlled substance cannot be detected
by the police officers using one or more of their own senses from a lawful vantage
point constitutes a search for purposes of Const. art. I, 7. State v. Dearman, 92 Wn.
App. 630, 962 P.2d 850 (1998), review denied, 137 Wn.2d 1032 (1999).
a.

Prior to Dearman, the Court of Appeals held that the warrantless use of a
trained dog in certain public places did not constitute a search. See generally,
State v. Stanphill, 53 Wn. App. 623, 769 P.2d 861 (1989) (package at post
office); State v. Boyce, 44 Wn. App. 724, 723 P.2d 28 (1986) (safety deposit
box at bank); State v. Wolohan, 23 Wn. App. 813, 598 P.2d 421 (1979),
review denied, 93 Wn.2d 1008 (1980) (parcel in bus terminal). The Dearman
180

court specifically did not overrule the prior holdings in Stanphill, Boyce, and
Wolohan; it distinguished them as not involving a private residence.
b.

Post Dearman, the Court of Appeals held that a canine sniff, by a dog that is
outside the vehicle, of air coming from the open window of a vehicle is not
a search that requires a search warrant. State v. Hartzell, 156 Wn. App. 918,
237 P.3d 928 (2010).

The Florida Supreme Court has determined that a "sniff test" by a drug detection dog
conducted at the front door of a private residence is a "search" under the Fourth
Amendment that must be supported by probable cause and a search warrant. State
v. Jardines, 73 So. 3d 34 (Fla.. 2011). The United States Supreme Court granted the
States petition for certiorari. See Florida v. Jardines, 132 S. Ct. 995 (2011). The
question presented in the cert. petition is Whether a dog sniff at the front door of a
suspected grow house by a trained narcotics detection dog is a Fourth Amendment
search requiring probable cause? The briefs filed in the United States Supreme
Court are available at http://www.scotusblog.com/case-files/cases/florida-v-jardines/
2.

Global Positioning Satellites. A warrant is needed prior to installing a GPS device

on a suspect's vehicle. State v. Jackson, 150 Wn.2d 251, 76 P.3d 217 (2003).

3.

Infrared Detection Devices. A warrant is needed prior to utilizing a device to

determine who much heat a certain building is releasing into the atmosphere. State
v. Young, 123 Wn.2d 173, 867 P.2d 593 (1994).

4.

Trash. A citizen has an expectation of privacy in his or her trash. This expectation
of privacy protects the citizen's trash from a warrantless search while it sits on the
curb awaiting pick-up. State v. Boland, 115 Wn.2d 571, 800 P.2d 1112 (1990). The
citizen's privacy interest is violated when officers arrange to have the trash collected
from the curbside by the municipal garbage collector in a manner that keeps it
segregated from all other garbage to facilitate police examination. State v. Sweeney,
125 Wn. App. 881, 107 P.3d 110 (2005). There is, however, no expectation of
privacy in trash placed in a community dumpster serving an apartment complex or
in trash placed on a neighbor's property. State v. Rodriguez, 65 Wn. App. 409, 828
P.2d 636 (1992); State v. Hepton, 113 Wn. App. 673, 54 P.3d 233 (2002), review
denied, 149 Wn.2d 1018 (2003).

5.

Hotel Registries. A citizen has an expectation of privacy in the information

contained in a hotel registry. Law enforcement may not access hotel registry
information without a warrant, unless a valid exception to the warrant requirement
exists or the officer has current or recent individualized suspicion regarding criminal
activity in the hotel room. In re Personal Restraint of Nichols, 171 Wn.2d 370, 256
P.3d 1131 (2011); State v. Jorden, 160 Wn.2d 121, 156 P.3d 893 (2007).

181

6.

B.

E-mails. The Fourth Amendment requires a search warrant before the government
can obtain email messages from an internet service provider (ISP). United States v.
Warshak, 631 F.3d 266 (6th Cir. 2010).

Sanctions for Unreasonable Searches

1.

Exclusionary Rule Illegally obtained evidence is not admissible in court. Mapp

v. Ohio, 367 U.S. 643, 82 S. Ct. 23, 7 L. Ed. 2d 72 (1961). The primary objective
underlying the exclusionary rule is first and most important, to protect privacy
interests of individuals against unreasonable government intrusions; second to deter
the police from acting unlawfully in obtaining evidence; and third to preserve the
dignity of the judiciary by refusing to consider evidence which has been obtained
through illegal means. State v. Afana, 169 Wn.2d 169, 180, 233 P.3d 879 (2010);
State v. Bonds, 98 Wn.2d 1, 12, 653 P.2d 1024 (1982), cert. denied, 464 U.S. 831
(1983).
a.

Fruits of the Poisonous Tree Legal evidence derived from illegally

obtained evidence is not admissible in court. See Wong Sun v. United States,
371 U.S. 471, 83 S. Ct. 407, 9 L. Ed. 2d 441 (1963).

b.

Example: An officer makes an illegal arrest and, in the course of the

search incident to arrest, finds drugs. The drugs will be inadmissible,
even though a search incident to arrest is an exception to the warrant
requirement, because the underlying arrest was unlawful and the
search stemmed from that arrest.

Officers Good Faith is Irrelevant Unlike its federal counterpart,

Washington's exclusionary rule is nearly categorical. State v. Winterstein,
167 Wn.2d 620, 636, 220 P.3d 1226 (2009). This is due to the fact that article
I, section 7 of our state constitution clearly recognizes an individual's right
to privacy with no express limitations. State v. White, 97 Wn.2d 92, 110,
640 P.2d 1061 (1982). Accordingly, a police officer's reliance on
subsequently invalidated legal authority to conduct a search will not preclude
suppression of evidence. State v. Afana, 169 Wn.2d 169, 179-184, 233 P.3d
879 (2010).

2.

Criminal Liability Absent consent or other exception to the warrant requirement,

it is unlawful for an officer to search a residence without a warrant. Violation of this
law is a gross misdemeanor. See RCW 10.79.040; RCW 10.79.045.

3.

Civil Liability An illegal search may violate an individual's civil rights.

An individual whose Fourth Amendment rights are violated may have a cause
of action under 42 U.S.C. 1983.

182

C.

Washington Constitution art. I, 7 will not support a private cause of action

for damages. See Reid v. Pierce County, 136 Wn.2d 195, 961 P.2d 333, 342
(1998) (stating that Washington courts do not recognize a private cause of
action for State constitutional violations); Spurrell v. Block, 40 Wn. App.
854, 701 P.2d 529, 534-35 (1985) (same); Sys. Amusement, Inc. v. State, 7
Wn. App. 516, 500 P.2d 1253, 1254-55 (1972) (same).

Warrants
1.

Defined. An order in writing (or telephonically made) in the name of the state,
signed by a neutral and detached magistrate who has authority to issue such an order,
directing a law enforcement officer to search for personal property (or for a the body
of a person) and to bring the same before the court.

2.

Authority.
The authority for search warrants is derived from the Constitution, statutes, and court
rules. See, e.g. U.S. Constitution Amendment IV. Washington's Court rules
specifically authorize search warrants for: (1) evidence of a crime; (2) contraband,
the fruits of crime, or things otherwise criminally possessed; (3) weapons or other
things by means of which a crime has been committed or reasonably appears about
to be committed; and (4) person for whose arrest there is probable cause, or who is
unlawfully restrained. CrR 2.3(b).
Search warrants may be issued for evidence of both misdemeanors and felonies.
Search warrants may be obtained after charges have been filed. No prior notice must
be given to the defense before obtaining or serving the search warrant. See State v.
Kalakosky, 121 Wn.2d 525, 533-37, 852 P.2d 1064 (1993).

While CrR 4.7(b)(2)(vi) permits the taking of samples of or from the

defendant's blood, hair, and other materials of the defendant's body including
materials under the defendant's fingernails which involve no unreasonable
intrusion thereof, State v. Garcia-Salgado, 170 Wn.2d 176, 240 P.3d 153
(2010), held that any order under this court rule must satisfy all the
requirements of a search warrant:
a CrR 4.7(b)(2)(vi) order must be entered by a neutral and
detached magistrate; must describe the place to be searched
and items to be seized; must be supported by probable cause
based on oath or affirmation; and there must be a clear
indication that the desired evidence will be found, the method
of intrusion must be reasonable, and the intrusion must be
performed in a reasonable manner.
Garcia-Salgado, 170 Wn.2d at 186.
183

The requirements identified in Garcia-Salgado for collection of biological

samples would apply to any other item listed in CrR 4.7(b)(2) or CrRLJ
4.7(b)(2) that involve a search under either the Fourth Amendment or
Const. art. I, 7.
Since the requirements of Garcia-Salgado is the same as for search warrants,
the prudent prosecutor will utilize search warrants rather than the court rule.
3.

Components.
a.

Person Issuing Warrant. The proper official must issue a search warrant.
In Washington, the following individuals are considered magistrates: (1)
the justices of the supreme court; (2) the judges of the court of appeals; (3)
the superior judges, and district judges; and (4) all municipal officers
authorized to exercise the powers and perform the duties of district judges.
See RCW 2.02.020.
Superior Court Judges and Commissioners. A superior court judge may
issue a warrant for virtually anywhere in Washington (some exceptions may
apply for property located within an Indian reservation), including another
county. A superior court commissioner possesses the same authority. See
State v. Goss, 78 Wn. App. 58, 895 P.2d 861 (1995). A superior court pro
tempore judge may not issue a warrant as the owner of the property to be
searched will not have tendered the written consent to the pro tempores
service that is required by Const. art. 4, 7. See generally, National Bank v.
McCrillis, 15 Wn.2d 345, 356, 130 P.2d 901, 144 A.L.R. 1197 (1942);
Mitchell v. Kitsap County, 59 Wn. App. 177, 797 P.2d 516 (1990).
A superior court judge may also issue a warrant for the production of records
that are located outside the state of Washington. See generally Chapter 10.96
RCW.
District Court Judges and Commissioners. A district court judge may
issue a search warrant for virtually any location within the county (some
exceptions may apply for property located within an Indian reservation). See
State v. Uhthoff, 45 Wn. App. 261, 724 P.2d 1103, review denied, 107 Wn.2d
1017 (1986). A district court judge may also issue a warrant in connection
with an investigation of a charge already filed in superior court. See State v.
Stock, 44 Wn. App. 467, 474-75, 722 P.2d 1330 (1986). A district court
judge may not, however, issue a search warrant for property located outside
of the county. State v. Davidson, 26 Wn. App. 623, 613 P.2d 564, review
granted, 94 Wn.2d 1020 (1980), review dismissed, 95 Wn.2d 1026 (1981).
District court commissioners may issue a warrant, but only if their office was
properly created. See State v. Moore, 73 Wn. App. 805, 814, 871 P.2d 1086
(1994). A district court pro tempore may issue a valid warrant, but only if the
184

office in which the pro tempore judge is sitting was validly created. See,
e.g., State v. Canady, 116 Wn.2d 853, 809 P.2d 203 (1991) (warrant issued
by a judge pro tempore sitting in a municipal court department that was not
validly created was void); State v. Hill, 17 Wn. App. 678, 682-83, 564 P.2d
841 (1977) (warrant signed by a district court pro tempore judge upheld);
State v. Franks, 7 Wn. App. 594, 501 P.2d 622 (1972) (warrant signed by a
district court pro tempore judge upheld).
Municipal Court Judges. A municipal court judge may issue a search
warrant for virtually any location within the city limits (some exceptions may
apply for property located within an Indian reservation). RCW 69.50.509
gives a municipal court judge the authority to sign search warrants for
controlled substances violations, seemingly with no jurisdictional restraints.
Out-of-State Judges. A judge from another state may not issue a warrant to
search a location within Washington state. When an officer from another
jurisdiction believes that there is evidence within Washington that relates to
the crime in the officers jurisdiction, the out-of-state officer will need to
obtain a search warrant from an appropriate Washington superior court,
district court, or municipal court judge. While the out-of-state officer may
serve as the affiant for the search warrant, a Washington commissioned
police officer will have to apply and execute the search warrant.
A judge from another state may issue a search warrant for records that are
located within Washington. See RCW 10.96.040.
i.

Special Restrictions.

A judge should not issue a warrant if the judge has any special
relationship (i.e. family relationship, employer/employee,
personal friendship, ownership) to a victim, an alleged
suspect, the informant, the affiant, a member of the
prosecutors officer, or the place to be searched. See, e.g.
Commonwealth v. Brandenburg, 114 S.W.3d 830 (Ky. 2003)
(a trial commissioner's marriage to an employee in the
Commonwealth Attorney's office created an appearance of
impropriety, which destroyed the trial commissioner's
character as a neutral and detached issuing authority for a
search warrant); State v. Edam, 281 Conn. 444, 915 A.2d 857
(2007) (judges prior relationship with the defendant that
included personal discussions regarding career development,
family, finances, and health concerns, golf games, and sitting
at the same table at various dinner receptions was sufficient
to undermine his ability to act as the neutral and detached
magistrate guaranteed by the fourth amendment); Grimes v.
Superior Court of Madera County, 120 Cal. App. 3d 582, 174
185

Cal. Rptr. 623 (1981) (judge who was defendants landlord

was not a neutral and detached magistrate).

A warrant issued by a state judge for property located within

an Indian reservation will be valid, so long as the property to
be searched is not owned by the tribal government, itself. See
generally Nevada v. Hicks, 533 U.S. 353, 121 S. Ct. 2304,
150 L. Ed. 2d 398 (2001) (state warrants effective within the
geographic boundaries of a reservation); State v. Clark, COA
No. 29508-7-III, ___ Wn. App. ___, ___ P.3d ___ (Apr. 12,
2012) (when the evidence being sought relates to an offreservation offense that the State has jurisdiction over, state
courts have the authority to issue a search warrant for a
residence located on trust property within the exterior
boundaries of an established Indian reservation).

One Washington Tribe, the Yakama Nation, has taken

the position that State officers may not enter trust
property on the reservation to execute a warrant
without first seeking permission from the Yakama
Nation. Litigation regarding this claim is on-going.
See, e.g., Confederated Tribes & Bands of the Yakama
Nation v. Holder, No. CV-11-3028-RMP (E.D. Wash.
Mar. 15, 2012 and Apr. 4, 2012) (orders denying
motions for temporary restraining order or preliminary
injunction).
Washington tries to be respectful of Tribal
Governments. See generally Centennial Accord
between the Federally Recognized Indian Tribes in
Washington State and the State of Washington (Aug.
4, 1989). When the integrity of the States
investigation will not be unduly compromised, state
officers should consider coordinating with Tribal
police officers prior to executing warrants. State
officers may also wish to consider obtaining a parallel
Tribal search warrant. Officers should consult their
supervisors and/or legal advisors for guidance in this
sensitive area.

b.

Place/Person to be Searched. The warrant must describe the place or person

to be searched with specificity. The description of the person or place to be
searched properly appears in the caption of the warrant and affidavit in
support of search warrant (i.e. State of Washington v. the two-story white
house with green shutters located at the corner of Pike and Pine, Port
Orchard, Washington, with a street address of 2265 Pike).
186

i.

Buildings/Houses/Apartments. In addition to the street address or

apartment number, a description of the building or the location of the
apartment in the building (i.e. No. 2D, an apartment located in the NE
corner of the 2nd floor of the apartment building with a red door), can
save a search warrant that contains a typographical error with respect
to the house or apartment number. State v. Smith, 39 Wn. App. 642,
648-49, 694 P.2d 660 (1984), review denied, 103 Wn.2d 1034 (1985).
The better practice when a typographical error is found in the search
warrant is to contact the issuing magistrate for permission to correct
the error. See State v. Bohan, 72 Wn. App. 335, 340 n.8, 864 P.2d 26
(1993), review denied, 124 Wn.2d 1002 (1994).
A warrant authorizing the search of a residence will not authorize
entry into outbuildings or vehicles not specifically mentioned in the
warrant. State v. Kelley, 52 Wn. App. 581, 762 P.2d 20 (1988). A
warrants incorporation by reference of the affidavit in support of
issuance of the warrant will authorize entry into the outbuildings and
vehicles, but only if the affidavit is actually attached to the warrant.
See State v. Riley, 121 Wn.2d 22, 29-30, 846 P.2d 1365 (1993).
A warrant authorizing the search of an apartment may support a
search of a storage locker related to that apartment that is located in
the same building of the apartment despite the warrants failure to
specifically mention and any storage lockers or rooms connected
with apartment 2B at 500 Smith Place, Tacoma, Washington. See,
e.g., State v. Llamas-Villa, 67 Wn. App. 448, 836 P.2d 239 (1992)
(search of padlocked locker located in storage room next to
defendant's apartment upheld). The better practice, of course, is to
expressly mention storage lockers, etc., in the search warrant.

Shared Living Situations. A search warrant for a multipleoccupancy building will be held invalid if it fails to describe
the particular subunit to be searched with sufficient
definiteness to preclude a search of one or more subunits
indiscriminately. Exceptions to this specificity rule include
the multiple-unit rule and the :community living rule.
Under the multiple-unit exception, if the building in question
appears to be a single occupancy structure rather than a
multiple occupancy structure, and neither the affiant nor the
investigation officers knew or had reason to know of the
buildings actual multiple-occupancy character until
execution of the warrant was under way. Under this
circumstance, the warrant is not defective for failure to
specify a subunit within the named building. State v.
Chisholm, 7 Wn. App. 279, 499, P.2d 81 (1972). Upon
187

discovery of the multiple occupancy, the police should

immediately cease their search, should attempt to determine
which subunit is most likely connected with the criminality
under investigation and should then confine their search to
that subunit. State v. Alexander, 41 Wn. App. 152, 154, 704
P.2d 618 (1985). A particularly prudent officer may wish to
recontact the magistrate and obtain a new warrant for the
particular subunit.
The community living unit exception applies when several
persons or families occupy the premises in common rather
than individually, as when they share common living quarters
but have separate bedrooms. In a common living unit
situation, a search warrant describing the entire premises is
valid and will justify a search of the entire premises. State v.
Alexander, 41 Wn. App. 152, 155, 704 P.2d 618 (1985). If
an officer knows that a building is occupied by multiple
people in a community living situation, the officer should
alert the issuing magistrate to this fact.
In determining whether a shared living situation constitutes a
multiple-occupancy or a communal living situation, courts
will consider whether the building is a boarding house or
other divided building, and whether the bedrooms or other
independently lived in areas are separately locked. State v.
Alexander, 41 Wn. App. 152, 155-57, 704 P.2d 618 (1985).
ii.

Vehicles. Vehicles must be described with particularity. Color,

make, model, license number, etc. should be included to the extent
possible. A warrant authorizing search of any vehicle on described
premises and its curtilage will not satisfy the particularity requirement
of the Fourth Amendment. See State v. Rivera, 76 Wn. App. 519, 888
P.2d 740 (1995).

iii.

Route of Travel. The Washington Supreme Court recently

held that warrants will be needed to "seize" a person's route
of travel through the use of technology, including the use of
a global positioning device. See State v. Jackson, 150 Wn.2d
251, 76 P.3d 217 (2003). The exact rules governing the
issuance of such a judicial order, including how to describe
where the search will be conducted, have not yet been
established.

Person. A warrant authorizing the search of an individual must

describe the individual with sufficient particularity so that the police
can identify him with reasonable certainty. Identifying the person to
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be searched by name is best. John Doe warrants which merely

indicate that the person is known to be in the vicinity of a certain
described premise are inadequate in Washington. See State v.
Douglas S., 42 Wn. App. 138, 709 P.2d 817 (1985); State v. Rollie
M., 41 Wn. App. 55, 701 P.2d 1123 (1985). A John Doe warrant
that includes a physical description of the person to be searched and
identifies the unnamed suspects residence may be adequate. See
State v. Martinez, 51 Wn. App. 397, 753 P.2d 1011, review denied,
111 Wn.2d 1010 (1988) (a warrant describing two persons who sold
cocaine as (1) Mexican/Male, 20's, 5'7, med. build blk curly hair. (2)
Mexican/Male, 20's, 5'6, heavy build, blk hair residing at a certain
address was sufficiently specific to reduce the likelihood of
misidentification).
A warrant for a person authorizes a search of the entire person,
including such private areas as the space between a mans penis and
scrotum. A more specific warrant should be obtained, however,
before entering any body cavities. See State v. Hampton, 114 Wn.
App. 486, 60 P.3d 95 (2002). If a strip search will be conducted in
conjunction with a warrant for a person, the search must be conducted
in a reasonably private place, without unnecessary touching, by
persons of the defendant's gender. Id., at 494.
A warrant for any and all persons present will generally violate the
particularity requirement of the Fourth Amendment. State v. Garcia,
140 Wn. App. 609, 166 P.3d 848 (2007).
c.

Crime Under Investigation. The warrant must state with specificity the
crime being investigated. Naming the crime acts to place scope limitations
on the search. The failure to state the crime in the body of the warrant cannot
be cured by the personal knowledge of the officer executing the warrant.
State v. Riley, 121 Wn.2d 22, 29-30, 846 P.2d 1365 (1993).
The specificity with which the search warrant must identify the crime
depends upon the items being sought. The greatest specificity is required
when the items sought are protected by the First Amendment or are not
patently illegal (i.e. stolen televisions vs. controlled substances).
i.

Identifying Wrong Controlled Substance. A search warrant for

evidence of manufacturing of a controlled substance is valid if
supported by probable cause even if an incorrect controlled substance
is named. See State v. Dodson, 110 Wn. App. 112, 39 P.3d 324
(2002) (warrant form for marijuana, but telephonic approval given for
methamphetamine and probable cause for methamphetamine).

189

d.

ii.

Pretext. Where a valid warrant is issued, the result reached in State

v. Ladson, 138 Wn.2d 343, 358, 979 P.2d 833 (1999), of prohibiting
stops or seizures on a mere pretext to dispense with a warrant is not
applicable. State v. Lansden, 144 Wn.2d 654, 30 P.3d 483 (2001).

iii.

Alternative Means. When a crime can be committed in more than

one way, an officer who chooses to cite the statute that defines the
offense, must specify the applicable alternatives means of committing
the offense in the search warrant and in the search warrant affidavit.
See State v. Higgins, 136 Wn. App. 87, 147 P.3d 649 (2006) (a search
warrant which did not list the items to be seized and which identified
the crime under investigation as Assault 2nd DV RCW 9A.36.021"
without specifying which alternative means of second degree assault
applied did not satisfy the constitutional particularity requirement).

Items that May be Seized. A warrant must be for specifically authorized

objects or people, i.e. any property that constitutes evidence of a criminal
offense. The particularity requirement serves to prevent general searches by
limiting the places that may be invaded to those areas of the premises large
enough to hold the item sought. In other words, a search warrant for seizure
of a stolen elephant would not authorize the opening of a dresser drawer or
bread box while a search warrant for marijuana will authorize an officer to
inspect virtually every aspect of the premises. See State v. Chambers, 88
Wn. App. 640, 645, 945 P.2d 1172 (1997). The particularity requirement
also serves to prevent general searches as once the listed items are located the
search must end unless an expanded or new search warrant is obtained.
Impossible degrees of particularity are not required, but officers should
always strive to be as specific as possible under the circumstances (i.e.
marijuana vs. controlled substances; 19-inch televisions, model numbers,
manufactured by Panasonic, Zenith, etc. vs. electronic equipment).
The required degree of particularity depends upon the nature of the materials
sought and the circumstances of each case. When a warrant lists items
protected by the First Amendment, courts demand the highest degree of
particularity. If items such as books or films are the subject of the search, the
particularity requirement takes on special importance. Thus, in State v.
Perrone, 119 Wn.2d 538, 549, 834 P.2d 611 (1992), a case involving child
pornography, the court applied the higher standard of "scrupulous exactitude"
to a warrant authorizing the seizure of "photographs, movies, slides, video
tapes, magazines or drawings of children or adults engaged in sexual
activities or sexually suggestive poses" and held the warrant to be overbroad.
A search warrant that authorizes the officer to seize evidence of child sex
is also insufficient to satisfy the particularity requirement of the Fourth
Amendment. State v. Reep, 161 Wn.2d 808, 167 P.3d 1156 (2007).

190

A search warrant authorizing the seizure of property that is "inherently

innocuous" (i.e. stolen television sets) must contain sufficient information to
allow an officer to distinguish between a television set that is believe to have
been stolen and a legally obtained television set. Information such as serial
numbers, make, model, size, age, color, etc. of the sought after inherently
innocuous items must be included in the search warrant itself.
A search warrant for property that is "inherently illegal" (i.e. controlled
substances) may be adequate without specifying specific illegal drugs. See
State v. Chambers, 88 Wn. App. 640, 644, 945 P.2d 1172 (1997). This
practice, however, should be avoided as nothing is lost by specifying the
controlled substance believed to be present (i.e. crack cocaine). Any other
controlled substances found during the search for the specific named
substance is lawfully seized under the plain view doctrine discussed infra.

An officer who executes a search warrant that does not list the items
to be seized is not entitled to qualified immunity in any civil action
arising from the service of the invalid search warrant. Groh v.
Ramirez, 540 U.S. 551, 124 S. Ct. 1284, 157 L. Ed. 2d 1068 (2004).

A search warrant that describes particular documents authorizes the seizure

of a computer when the searching agents reasonably believes that documents
specified in the warrant would be found stored in the computer. In this
respect, computers are treated no differently than traditional file cabinets or
home libraries. United States v. Giberson, 527 F.3d 882 (9th Cir. 2008).
i.

Evidence of Dominion and Control. Houses and vehicles ordinarily

contain evidence identifying those individuals occupying or
controlling them. Evidence identifying those in control of premises
where stolen property, drugs, or a murder weapon is found tends to
aid in conviction of the guilty party. A warrant may authorize
seizure of evidence establishing a nexus between the suspect and the
crime. See Warden v. Hayden, 387 U.S. 294, 307, 18 L. Ed. 2d 782,
87 S. Ct. 1642 (1967). The section of the warrant that authorizes the
seizure of such evidence is often referred to as a dominion and
control clause. A dominion and control clause must be carefully
written to avoid overbreadth challenges. See, e.g., State v. Kealoha,
62 Haw. 166, 613 P.2d 645 (1980) (language authorizing seizure of
"property" tending to establish identity of persons in control of the
premises too closely resembles wording of a forbidden general
warrant and invites strong intrusion into private papers and other
personal effects). As a general rule, courts have upheld dominion and
control clauses where the general catch-all phrase follows or precedes
a list of specific items. See Andresen v. Maryland, 427 U.S. 463,
479-482, 49 L. Ed. 2d 627, 96 S. Ct. 2737 (1976). Permissible
language includes the following:
191

For Premises: Articles of personal property tending to

establish the identity of persons in control of the premises,
including but not limited to rent receipts, utility bills or
receipts, canceled mail envelopes, keys, identification cards,
and mortgage documents.

For Vehicles: Articles of personal property tending to

establish the identity of persons in control of the vehicle,
including but not limited to traffic tickets, insurance papers,
car repair invoices or receipts, vehicle registration, keys,
identification cards, and canceled mail envelopes.

See, e.g., United States v. Alexander, 761 F.2d 1294, 1302 (9th Cir.
1985) (collecting cases); United States v. Honore, 450 F.2d 31, 33
(9th Cir. 1971).
e.

Oath. The Fourth Amendment specifies that warrants may only be issued
upon probable cause, supported by Oath or affirmation. No particular
ceremony is necessary to constitute the act of swearing.
The question whether a statement is made under oath or
affirmation turns on whether the declarant expressed the fact
that he or she is impressed with the solemnity and importance
of his or her words and of the promise to be truthful, in moral,
religious, or legal terms. The Wisconsin Supreme Court has
recently provided an eloquent explanation for the role that an
oath or affirmation plays in a probable cause determination:
The purpose of an oath or affirmation is to
impress upon the swearing individual an
appropriate sense of obligation to tell the
truth. An oath or affirmation to support a
search warrant reminds both the investigator
seeking the search warrant and the magistrate
issuing it of the importance and solemnity of
the process involved. An oath or affirmation
protects the target of the search from
impermissible state action by creating liability
for perjury or false swearing for those who
abuse the warrant process by giving false or
fraudulent information. An oath preserves the
integrity of the search warrant process and
thus protects the constitutionally guaranteed
fundamental right of people to be secure in
their persons, houses, papers, and effects
against unreasonable searches and seizures.
192

State v. Tye, 2001 WI 124, 248 Wis. 2d 530, 636 N.W.2d 473,
478 (Wis. 2001) (footnotes omitted). The Second Circuit has
expressed the purpose of the oath or affirmation similarly:
An "Oath or affirmation" is a formal assertion
of, or attestation to, the truth of what has been,
or is to be, said. It is designed to ensure that
the truth will be told by insuring that the
witness or affiant will be impressed with the
solemnity and importance of his words. The
theory is that those who have been impressed
with the moral, religious or legal significance
of formally undertaking to tell the truth are
more likely to do so than those who have not
made such an undertaking or been so
impressed.
Turner, 558 F.2d at 50.
United States v. Bueno-Vargas, 383 F.3d 1104, 1110-11 (9th Cir. 2004), cert.
denied, 543 U.S. 1129 (2005).
Ultimately, the true test of whether the required oath or affirmation was
made is whether the procedures followed were such that perjury could be
charged therein if any material allegation contained therein is false. United
States v. Bueno-Vargas, 383 F.3d 1104, 1111 (9th Cir. 2004), cert. denied,
543 U.S. 1129 (2005).
In Washington, a oath for purposes of a perjury prosecution includes

Oral Oath. An oral oath administered by a judge, notary public or

other person authorized by law to administer an oath. See RCW
9A.72.010(2) and (3). (When obtaining a telephonic search warrant
in the middle of the night, it is the officer's responsibility to ensure
that the semi-awake judge remembers to administer the oath prior to
hearing the testimony.

Affidavits. A written statement is under oath if the statements

recites that it was made under oath, the declarant was aware of such
recitation at the time of making the sentence, and the declarant
intends the statement to be treated as a sworn statement, and the
statement is signed by an officer authorized to administer an oath.
See RCW 9A.72.010(2)(b) and (3).

193

Declarations. A written statement is under oath if the document

(1) Recites that it is certified or declared by the person to be true
under penalty of perjury; (2) Is subscribed by the person; (3) States
the date and place of its execution; and (4) States that it is so certified
or declared under the laws of the state of Washington. The
certification or declaration may be in substantially the following
form:
"I certify (or declare) under penalty of perjury under
the laws of the State of Washington that the foregoing
is true and correct":
............ ............
(Date and Place) (Signature)
RCW 9A.72.085. See also RCW 9A.72.010(2)(c); GR 13.
The Ninth Circuit has determined that a signed declaration that is
faxed to the magistrate will satisfy the Fourth Amendment oath
requirement. United States v. Bueno-Vargas, 383 F.3d 1104, 1111
(9th Cir. 2004), cert. denied, 543 U.S. 1129 (2005); Jones v. City of
Santa Monica, 382 F.3d 1052, 1056 (9th Cir. 2004).

f.

Record. A record must be made of the testimony given to the issuing

magistrate. The record is generally generated through the production of a
written affidavit or declaration in support of the issuance of a search warrant.
The record may also be generated through the production of live witnesses.
When live testimony is tendered either in addition to the written submission
or in lieu of the written affidavit, such as during a telephonic search warrant,
the office must ensure that the testimony is being recorded by a court reporter
or electronic device. Officers who obtain telephonic search warrants should
always personally check the recording device to ensure that the testimony was
received prior to disconnecting from the judge, or should request that the
judge check the recording device prior to ending the call to ensure that the
testimony was collected.
i.

Completeness/Accuracy. All material information, both inculpatory

and exculpatory, must be contained in an affidavit. Information
known to the officer that supports probable cause that is not included
in the affidavit in support of search warrant may not be considered in
a subsequent challenge to the search warrant.
The material must be as accurate as possible. A hearing may be held
by a judge to determine if there are material omissions from the
affidavit. If an omission was made knowingly or intentionally or with
194

a reckless disregard for the truth, the court will add the information
and retest the affidavit in support of a warrant for probable cause. The
same test applies to material misrepresentations.
Franks v.
Delaware, 438 U.S. 154, 57 L. Ed. 2d 667, 98 S. Ct. 2674 (1978);
State v. Garrison, 118 Wn.2d 870, 827 P.2d 1388 (1992).

Criminal history of informants. A known informants

criminal history, including all convictions for crimes of
dishonesty (theft, forgery, etc.), should always be included in
the search warrant affidavit. See United States v. Elliott, 322
F.3d 710 (9th Cir. 2003).

Alibi. Law enforcement should disclose information known

to them about the whereabouts of the suspect at the time of
the commission of the crime. See generally Bravo v. City of
Santa Maria, 665 F.3d 1076 (9th Cir. 2011) (the Fourth
Amendment was violated by the issuance and execution of a
search warrant whose application failed to disclose that the
suspect, a known gang member, was at the time of obtaining
the warrant, and for over six months prior, had been
incarcerated in the California prison system and therefore not
only was not present at the home but also could not have been
involved in the shooting or storage of weapons used in the
shooting).

Ulterior motivations. Law enforcement officers must

ordinarily disclose information regarding whether an
informant has ulterior motivations for providing information
for a search warrant affidavit. This information includes
biases for or against the suspect, and inducements such as
financial rewards or leniency with respect to an informant's
pending charges. See, e.g., United States v. Martinez-Garcia,
397 F.3d 1205, 1216 (9th Cir. 2005).

Computers. An affidavits failure to provide general

information about hacking, IP Spoofing, or internet hijacking
does not constitute a deliberate or reckless omission of facts
that will support a Franks hearing. United States v.
Craighead, 539 F.3d 1073 (9th Cir. 2008).

Medical Cannabis. Laws of 2011, ch. 181, 901, which was

vetoed, created a secure and confidential registry with the
Department of Health for medical cannabis patients. Specific
portions of the vetoed provision required officers
investigating a cannabis-related incident to make reasonable
efforts to ascertain whether the location or person under
195

investigation is registered in the registration system, and

include the results of this inquiry in the affidavit submitted in
support of the application for the warrant. This requirement
did not apply to investigations in which:
(a) The peace officer has observed evidence of an apparent
cannabis operation that is not a licensed producer, processor
of cannabis products, or dispenser;
(b) The peace officer has observed evidence of theft of
electrical power;
(c) The peace officer has observed evidence of illegal drugs
other than cannabis at the premises;
(d) The peace officer has observed frequent and numerous
short-term visits over an extended period that are consistent
with commercial activity, if the subject of the investigation is
not a licensed dispenser;
(e) The peace officer has observed violent crime or other
demonstrated dangers to the community;
(f) The peace officer has probable cause to believe the subject
of the investigation has committed a felony, or a
misdemeanor in the officer's presence, that does not relate to
cannabis; or
(g) The subject of the investigation has an outstanding arrest
warrant.
An officer seeking a search warrant for cannabis should
determine whether any state13 or local entity maintains a
voluntary registry for medical cannabis users. If one is
maintained, the officer should disclose the existence of the
registry, the efforts the officer made to determine whether the
location or person has a current valid registry, or why no
efforts were made to check the registry.
g.

Probable Cause. The warrant must be issued upon probable cause. This
probable cause is slightly different than the probable cause to make an arrest.
Probable cause to arrest concerns the guilt of the arrestee, whereas probable
cause to search an item concerns the connection of the items sought with

13
At least one bill was introduced during the 2011 Special Session that would create a registry. The Special
Session had not concluded at the time this update was prepared.

196

crime and the present location of the items. Probable cause to search or seize
may exist even though probable cause to arrest does not. See generally
United States v. O'Connor, 658 F.2d 688, 693 n.7 (9th Cir. 1981). Accord
Zurcher v. Stanford Daily, 436 U.S. 547, 556, 56 L. Ed. 2d 525, 98 S. Ct.
1970 (1978) (The critical element in a reasonable search is not that the
owner of the property is suspected of crime but that there is reasonable cause
to believe that the specific 'things' to be searched for and seized are located
on the property to which entry is sought.").
Conclusory statements must be avoided in providing probable cause for a
search warrant. Instead, detailed information about the investigation, the
training, knowledge and experience of the affiant, and other factors must be
given.
i.

ii.

Factors. In determining the accuracy of probable cause the courts

consider two factors:
C

Basis of Information

Credibility of Information

Basis of Information. Information contained in an affidavit in

support of a search warrant can include first person observations and
hearsay (statements made to the affiant by another person). The
source of hearsay offered in support of a search warrant can include
other police officers, victims, citizen witnesses, and professional
informants. Such hearsay will only be adequate to support probable
cause if it is demonstrated that the informant had the opportunity to
collect the information that was provided, that the informant had the
knowledge necessary to understand what was seen (i.e. past exposure
to marijuana), and that there is reason to believe the informant. These
two concerns stem from the United States Supreme Court cases of
Aguillar-Spinelli.
Information contained in an application for issuance of search warrant
that is obtained illegally, such as through a warrantless entry onto
property, will be struck from the application upon later review and the
warrant will be declared invalid if the remaining evidence does not
support review.
While some cases indicate that evidentiary rules which would bar
consideration of testimony at trial does not always preclude the
consideration of such evidence in determining whether there is
probable cause for the issuance of a search warrant, an careful officer
should limit his or her inclusion of statements from clergy regarding
statements made to him or her by a penitent, etc. See, e.g., State v.
197

Cahoon, 59 Wn. App. 606, 611-12, 799 P.2d 1191 (1990), review
denied, 116 Wn.2d 1014 (1991) (physician/patient privilege did not
preclude consideration of statements contained in application for
search warrant); State v. Bonaparte, 34 Wn. App. 285, 289, 660 P.2d
334, review denied, 100 Wn.2d 1002 (1983). (spousal testimonial
privilege did not preclude consideration of statements contained in
application for search warrant); State v. Osborne, 18 Wn. App. 318,
569 P.2d 1176 (1977) (spousal testimonial privilege did not preclude
consideration of statements contained in application for search
warrant).
An informant's personal observations can satisfy the basis of
knowledge prong of Aguilar-Spinelli. State v. Wolken, 103 Wn.2d
823, 827, 700 P.2d 319 (1985).
iii.

Reliability of Information. Information will only be considered

reliable if the application for search warrant supports an inference that
the person who made the observations had an opportunity to observe
the information and that the person who made the observations had
sufficient experience or training to know what they saw.

Example: "Informant X has told affiant that heroin is located

at ...." would be insufficient. The correct way would be
"Informant X has told affiant that he observed heroin at ..... on
.... date. Informant X knows what heroin looks like because
.... or Informant X believes that the substance he observed is
heroin because ....., the owner of the address to be searched,
told Informant X that the substance was heroin and the owner
was packaging the heroin for sale."

If the information contained in an application for search warrant

concerns the results of a scientific test, i.e. portable breath test, the
application for search warrant must contain some reason why the test
should be believed (i.e. a reading of .095 was obtained on my
departmental issued PBT that has been certified in accordance with
the regulations promulgated by the state toxicologist). See, e.g.,
Bokor v. Department of Licensing, 74 Wn. App. 523, 874 P.2d 168
(1994) (PBT results could not be used in consideration of whether the
Trooper has probable cause to arrest absent evidence that would
permit the trier of fact to conclude that the test was reliable). Test
results, however, do not have to meet courtroom admissibility
standards to be considered by a magistrate in deciding whether or not
probable cause has been established. See, e.g. State v. Cherry, 61
Wn. App. 301, 810 P.2d 940, review denied, 117 Wn.2d 1018 (1991)
(court permitted results of polygraph tests to be used to determine
existence of probable cause).
198

iv.

Informants. Informant testimony must satisfy both the veracity and

the knowledge prongs of Aguillar-Spinelli. If an informants tip fails
one or the other prong, probable cause may yet be established by
independent police investigation the corroborates the tip. The
additional investigation must do more than merely verify innocuous
details, commonly known facts, or easily predictable events. The
police investigation must point to indications of criminal activity
along the lines suggested by the informant. State v. Kennedy, 72 Wn.
App. 244, 864 P.2d 410 (1993); State v. Olson, 73 Wn. App. 348, 869
P.2d 110, review denied, 124 Wn.2d 1029 (1994).
Washington courts have divided informants into a number of types.
The degree of corroboration necessary to satisfy the credibility
prong of probable cause varies with the type of informant used. The
degree of corroboration necessary to satisfy the credibility prong
may be increased for a particular informant if the informant has been
convicted of any crimes of dishonesty such as theft, forgery, and
fraud. See, e.g., United States v. Elliott, 322 F.3d 710 (9th Cir. 2003).
Credibility of information is always considered higher when the
informant is brought before the magistrate to swear under oath that
the informant is telling the truth. See, e.g., McLaughlin v. State, 818
P.2d 683, 686 (Alaska App. 1991) (As with any other similarly
situated witness, the informant's willingness to submit to an oath, and
his personal presence and the availability for questioning by the
magistrate [provide] adequate procedural safeguards to assure a sound
basis for assessing veracity and reliability.); Latham v. State, 790
P.2d 717, 720 (Alaska Ct. App. 1990) (When an informant appears
before a judge or magistrate and testifies under oath concerning
personal observations, there is no comparable need for extrinsic
corroboration of the informant's veracity: the presiding judge or
magistrate is able to observe the informant's demeanor, is capable of
questioning the informant, and is provided further assurance by the
fact that the informant's testimony is under oath ); State v. Roth, 269
N.W.2d 808 (S.D. 1978) (informants physical presence before the
magistrate was sufficient to establish credibility); Polston v.
Commonwealth, 24 Va. App. 738, 485 S.E.2d 632 (1997) (informer's
credibility can be established for Fourth Amendment purposes by the
informer's personal appearance before the issuing magistrate and his
testimony under oath); Rainey v. State, 74 Wis. 2d 189, 246 N.W.2d
529 (1976) (a police informant's desire to remain anonymous had no
affect on the validity of a search warrant where the unnamed
informant personally appeared before the magistrate and testify under
oath; magistrate was in a position to personally observe the
informant and to evaluate for himself, first hand, the informant's
reliability and credibility).

199

Anonymous informant. An anonymous informant is

someone who is not even known to the police. Wholly
anonymous informants will never, by their tip alone, satisfy
the two prong requirement of Aguillar-Spinelli. Independent
police investigation is necessary to obtain a search warrant
where the investigation was initiated by an anonymous
informant. Merely verifying innocuous facts or events that
are not per se illegal will not support the issuance of a search
warrant. Compare State v. McPherson, 40 Wn. App. 298,
698 P.2d 563 (1985) (increased power usage insufficient to
remedy deficiencies in Aguillar-Spinelli), with State v.
Ladvik, 40 Wn. App. 257, 698 P.2d 1064 (1985) (heavy foot
traffic and exchange of bag for money cured deficiencies in
Aguillar-Spinelli) and State v. Olson, 73 Wn. App. 348, 869
P.2d 110, review denied, 124 Wn.2d 1029 (1994) (increased
power usage and a plain sniff by police cured deficiencies
in Aguillar-Spinelli).

Citizen Informant. When the informant is an ordinary

citizen, as opposed to a criminal or professional informant,
and his identity is revealed to the magistrate, the veracity
prong of Aguillar-Spinelli is relaxed. Such citizens will rarely
have a track record of prior tips with which to show
reliability, instead, reliability will be inferred from the details
of the affidavit setting forth the basis of knowledge, and from
the citizen's willingness to come forward and be identified.
See, e.g., State v. Tarter, 111 Wn. App. 336, 44 P.3d 899
(2002). The information must still satisfy the independent
basis of knowledge test.
A different analysis applies when the identify of the citizen
informant is made known to police to police, but withheld
from the affidavit and the magistrate for fear of discovery and
reprisal In such cases, it is necessary for the police to
interview the citizen and independently verify background
information, such as lack of criminal record and ties to the
community. The affiant should then set forth in the affidavit
the extent of the background check and legitimate reasons
why the citizen informant wishes to remain anonymous:
i.e. The citizen informant is a shopkeeper who
has lived in Seattle for the last 20 years and
who has no criminal history. The citizen
informant does not wish his/her name to be
disclosed in court documents as the informant
has observed the suspect, Really Bad,
brandishing a firearm and the citizen
200

informant is aware that the suspect, Really

Bad, has prior convictions for assault.
Legitimate reasons for keeping an informant's identity
confidential include: (1) to retain his/her usefulness to law
enforcement; and (2) because of danger to the informant's life
or health.
Do not promise to keep the informant's identity totally
confidential since the defendant may eventually be entitled to
disclosure of the informant's identity. To obtain such a
disclosure, the defendant must demonstrate the "materiality"
of the informant. If the State declines to reveal the
informant's identity after the defendant makes the required
showing, charges will be dismissed.

If police merely have the name of a citizen informant,

and no information regarding the citizen informant's
background or ties to the community, then the court
will apply the anonymous informant test to the
information on the grounds that anyone can provide a
name and the name given may not have even been the
informant's true name. See, e.g. State v. Hopkins, 128
Wn. App. 855, 117 P.3d 377 (2005); State v.
McCord, 125 Wn. App. 888, 106 P.3d 832, review
denied, 155 Wn.2d 1019 (2005). It is a good idea to
review the informant's picture identification or to
obtain an address from the informant and an
employer's name, etc.

The Department of Licensing (DOL) is treated as a citizen

informant with respect to the information it provides law
enforcement regarding enforcement regarding an individual's
licensing status. State v. Gaddy, 152 Wn. 2d 64, 93 P.3d 872,
(2004). DOL's basis of knowledge arises from its statutory
obligation to regulate drivers' licenses in this state. DOL's
records are presumptively reliable. A defendant may rebut
that presumption, but to do so, the defendant must show that
DOL's records are affected by systemic problems in
maintaining accurate and reliable records of the millions of
drivers DOL oversees. Mere proof that the defendant's
driving records were inaccurate will not rebut the
presumption. Id.

Professional Informant. The most common way to satisfy

the veracity prong when dealing with a professional
informant is to evaluate the informants track record," ie.,
201

the number of times he or she has provided accurate

information to police in the past. A mere conclusion that the
confidential informant has been reliable in the past is
insufficient. State v. Woodall, 100 Wn.2d 74, 666 P.2d 364
(1983). But some information that the informants tips have
led to arrests or convictions in the past may be enough to
prove a credible track record. State v. Fischer, 96 Wn.2d 962,
639 P.2d 743 (1982); State v. Partin, 88 Wn.2d 899, 567 P.2d
1136 (1977).
Controlled buys are another way to establish an informants
reliability. The controlled buy must, however, be closely
supervised with pre- and post- buy searches regarding both
money and controlled substances so that the possibility that
the drugs could have come from a source other than the
suspect building or the suspect person is greatly reduced.

Canines, such as drug dogs, are a type of professional

informant. Evidence collected pursuant to a search
warrant predicated upon a canines alert, will be
inadmissible if the issuing magistrate is not provided
with sufficient evidence of the drug dogs reliability.
A conclusory statement that the dog was [t]rained to
recognize the odor of illegal narcotics is insufficient
to establish reliability. State v. Neth, 165 Wn.2d 177,
196 P.3d 658 (2008).

Criminal Informant. There are generally two types of

criminal informants. The first groups involves those
individuals who are providing information to the police in
order to avoid criminal punishment for his/her own crimes
(working off a beef). Courts have determined that since a
reduction of charges is not likely for false information, that
such informants have a strong incentive to provide accurate
information. See, e.g., State v. Bean, 89 Wn.2d 467, 469-71,
572 P.2d 1102 (1978) (an informant who trades information
for a favorable sentencing recommendation has a strong
motive to be accurate). When such statements are against the
informants penal interest, the probability that the information
is accurate is heightened. When preparing an application for
search warrant predicated upon statements against penal
interest, be sure to identify any information regarding the
crime that the informant disclosed that was not generally
known to the public at the time of the statement (i.e.
individual who admits to murder who indicates the type of
weapon that was used, or the location of the wounds, etc.
when such information has not yet been released to the press).
202

The second group of criminal informants are the unknown

and generally unwitting middlemen. An example of such an
informant occurs when a CI arranges to purchase drugs
from an unknown source through a middleman and the
middleman is observed by the police leaving the CI, entering
the defendants house and returning to the CI and delivering
cocaine. Police do not need to establish the middlemans
veracity in order to establish probable cause to search the
defendants home. See State v. Mejia, 111 Wn.2d 892, 766
P.2d 454 (1989).
v.

Fellow Officer Rule/Collective or Imputed Knowledge Doctrine.

Under the collective or imputed knowledge doctrine (also referred to
as the fellow officer rule), an arrest or search is permissible where
the actual arresting or searching officer lacks the specific information
to form the basis for probable cause or reasonable suspicion but
sufficient information to justify the arrest or search was known by
other law enforcement officials initiating or involved with the
investigation. See United States v. Hensley, 469 U.S. 221 , 230-33
(1985); United States v. Canieso, 470 F.2d 1224, 1230 n.7 (2d Cir.
1972). "The rule exists because, in light of the complexity of modern
police work, the arresting officer cannot always be aware of every
aspect of an investigation; sometimes his authority to arrest a suspect
is based on facts known only to his superiors or associates." United
States v. Valez, 796 F.2d 24, 28 (2d Cir. 1986).

This rule allows for investigative stops to be made based upon

another departments bulletins or flyers if the flyers or
bulletins have been issued on the basis of articulable facts
supporting a reasonable suspicion that the wanted person has
committed an offense. United States v. Hensley, 469 U.S.
221 (1985). The information that supported the issuance of
the flyer or bulletin will have to be produced in court if the
defendant challenges the stop or arrest that was made based
upon the existence of the bulletin or flyer. See State v.
OCain, 108 Wn. App. 542, 545, 31 P.3d 733 (2001).

The fellow officer rule allows one police officer to conduct

a warrantless stop, search or arrest based upon another
officers direction. The officer giving the direction must have
facts sufficient to justify the intrusion, but need not convey
these facts to the officer who is actually making the contact.
United States v. Ramirez, 473 F.3d 1026 (9th Cir. 2007).

Under the "fellow officer" rule, a police agency's collective

knowledge of information exonerating a suspect formerly
wanted in connection with a crime is imputed to police
officers in the field. The rule imposes on law enforcement the
203

responsibility to disseminate accurate information only. State

v. Mance, 82 Wn. App. 539, 918 P.2d 527 (1996).

Case law is split upon whether the fellow officer rule

extends to police dispatchers who are not commissioned
officers. Compare United States v. Fernandez-Castillo, 324
F.3d 1114 (9th Cir. 2003) (dispatchers knowledge that was
not communicated to the stopping officer is properly
considered as part of the reasonable suspicion analysis), with
United States v. Colon, 250 F.3d 130 (2nd Cir. 2001)
(dispatchers knowledge which was not communicated to the
officer in the field can only be considered in the reasonable
suspicion analysis if the dispatcher had sufficient training and
ability to make the determination that there was probable
cause to support defendant's arrest). Washington law implies,
at least, that dispatchers will be treated as fellow officers
with respect to the accuracy of their dissemination of the
information they receive. See State v. Randall, 73 Wn. App.
225, 230, 868 P.2d 207 (1994) (To require an officer under
these circumstances to stop and undertake an in-depth
analysis of the reliability of the information received by the
police dispatcher would greatly impede the officer's discharge
of duty and would greatly increase the threat to the public
safety. Under such circumstances, the officer should be able
to rely on the reliability of information disseminated by police
dispatch and, when his or her observations corroborate the
information and create a reasonable suspicion of criminal
activity, to make an investigatory stop.).

Case law is split upon whether the fellow officer rule

extends to situations where no single officer has the requisite
knowledge to supply probable cause. Compare United States
v. Edwards, 885 F.2d 377, 383 (7th Cir. 1989) (allowing
knowledge of officers working closely together at the scene
to be imputed without requiring proof of actual
communication where the officers made the arrest together);
United States v. Nafzger, 974 F.2d 906, 911 (7th Cir. 1992)
("when officers are in communication with each other while
working together at a scene, their knowledge may be mutually
imputed even when there is no express testimony that the
specific or detailed information creating the justification for
a stop was conveyed (though of course the information
actually possessed by the officers must be sufficient to justify
the stop or arrest)"); with United States v. Shareef, 100 F.3d
1491, 1504 & n.5 (10th Cir. 1996) (declining to extend
collective knowledge doctrine where evidence showed
officers had not communicated with each other; "'information
scattered among various officers in a police department
204

cannot substitute for possession of the necessary facts by a

single officer related to the arrest'") (quoting State v. Cooley,
457 A.2d 352, 355-56 (Del. 1983)) (internal quotations
omitted).
vi.

Staleness of the Information. The warrant affidavit must set forth

sufficient facts and circumstances to establish a reasonable
probability that criminal activity is occurring or is about to occur.
The passage of time between the known criminal activity and the
issuance of the warrant is one factor to be considered by the
magistrate in the probable cause determination. Timeliness is
measured from when an informant observed the criminal activity, not
from when the officer received the tip from an informant. State v.
Lyons, No. 85746-6, ___ Wn.2d ___, ___ P.3d ___ (Apr. 26, 2012).
The test for staleness is one of common sense. The nature and scope
of criminal activity are the primary factors to be considered in
determining if too much time has passed for the information to be
reliable. Whereas a two week lapse between the informants
observations and the warrant request was too long where the criminal
activity was drug sales, it was not too long where the activity
observed was an extensive marijuana growing operation. While time
is only one factor in resolving a staleness challenge, case law
identifies some time periods that should be taken into consideration:

Intoxication / Breath or Blood Alcohol Test Within 6

hours of the traffic stop. State v. Dugas, 296 S.W.3d 112
(Tex. App. 2009).

Odor of Methamphetamine 48 to 72 hours

See, e.g., United States v. Morrison, 594 F.3d 626 (8th Cir.
2010) (three to four day period between the police drive-by
during which chemical odors associated with
Methamphetamine production and the execution of the
warrant did not render the information obtained via the
drive-by presumptively stale)

Odor of Burning Marijuana 24 to 48 hours if there is

evidence that this is not a single isolated event.
The odor of burning marijuana emanating from the open front
door of a single home would lead a reasonable officer to
believe that marijuana was probably present in the residence.
If an officer had only the evidence of the odor of burning
marijuana and knew nothing more about the circumstances
concerning the detection of the odor, the involved dwelling
and its occupants, then the reasonableness of believing the
205

marijuana remained in the dwelling would dissipate quickly

with the passage of time. United States v. Harwell, 426 F.
Supp. 2d 1189 (D. Kan. 2006) (odor of burning marijuana,
suspicious behavior toward the management companys
employees, time of day, and recent prior drug arrests of two
residents of the home, supported an inference that the use of
controlled substances was not a single isolated event, thus
search warrant issued 48 hours after the odor was detected
was not stale).
C

Marijuana Grow/Odor of Fresh Marijuana 2 weeks.

Longer periods may be sustained if the evidence supports an
extremely large grow.
See, e.g., State v. Dobyns, 55 Wn. App. 609, 779 P.2d 746,
review denied, 113 Wn.2d 1029 (1989) (information
contained in search warrant affidavit alleging growing
marijuana at a residence not stale, even after lapse of six
weeks, in light of the ongoing nature of growing operations);
State v. Payne, 54 Wn. App. 240, 246-47, 773 P.2d 122,
review denied, 113 Wn.2d 1019 (1989) (informant's tip about
marijuana growing operation, three weeks old on date of
search warrant affidavit, not too stale to establish probable
cause, where reported extensive growing operation allowed
magistrate to reasonably infer that operation was continuing);
State v. Hall, 53 Wn. App. 296, 766 P.2d 512, review denied,
112 Wn.2d 1016 (1989) (lapse of two months since informant
had been present in house to make marijuana purchase did not
render information stale for purpose of search warrant
affidavit because it was reasonable to believe that established
growing operation was still in existence based on the number
of plants found at another location and informant's comment
regarding size of plants remaining at house.); State v. Petty,
48 Wn. App. 615, 621-22, 740 P.2d 879, review denied, 109
Wn.2d 1012 (1987) (information in affidavit in support of a
search warrant based on an informant's observation of
marijuana plant growing in house two weeks earlier was not
stale, given nature and scope of activity and fact that police
officer detected odor of marijuana from doorway of house on
day before he sought warrant).

Controlled Buys 2 weeks if suspect is a known drug

dealer. Mere days if not.
See, e.g., United States v. Jeanetta, 533 F.3d 651, 655 (8th
Cir.), cert. denied, 129 S. Ct. 747 (2008) (two week period
between the controlled buy and issuance of the warrant did
not render the informant's information presumptively stale);
206

United States v. Formaro, 152 F.3d 768, 771 (8th Cir. 1998)
(" [T]he two and one-half weeks lapse did not negate the
existence of probable cause . . . .") (quoting United States v.
LaMorie, 100 F.3d 547, 552 (8th Cir. 1996)); United States v.
Ortiz, 143 F.3d 728, 732-33 (2d Cir. 1998) ("In investigations
of ongoing narcotics operations, 'intervals of weeks or months
between the last described act and the application for a
warrant [does] not necessarily make the information stale.'"
quoting Rivera v. United States, 928 F.2d 592, 602 (2d Cir.
1991)); see also United States v. Pitts, 6 F.3d 1366, 1369 (9th
Cir. 1993) ("With respect to drug trafficking, probable cause
may continue for several weeks, if not months, of the last
reported instance of suspect activity.") (quoting United States
v. Angulo-Lopez, 791 F.2d 1394, 1399 (9th Cir. 1986)); State
v. Perez, 92 Wn. App. 1, 963 P.2d 881 (1988), review denied,
137 Wn.2d 1035 (1999) (4-day interval with know drug
dealer sufficient to defeat a staleness challenge); State v.
Bittner, 66 Wn. App. 541, 547, 832 P.2d 529 (1992), review
denied, 120 Wn.2d 1031, 847 P.2d 481 (1993) (because the
affidavit did not state that the defendant was a known drug
dealer and the single, unobserved transaction was not
corroborated by any other evidence, a one-week delay
rendered the warrant invalid)State v. Higby, 26 Wn. App.
457, 460, 613 P.2d 1192 (1980) (one sale of a small amount
of marijuana did not establish probable cause to search two
weeks later).
C

Child pornography several months

See, e.g., United States v. Estey, 593 F.3d 836, 840 (8th Cir.
2010) (search warrant issued five months after discovering
information linking the defendant's residence with child
pornography valid); United States v. Horn, 187 F.3d 781,
786-787 (8th Cir 1999) (warrant not stale three or four
months after child pornography information was developed);
United States v. Davis, 313 Fed. Appx. 672, 674, (4th Cir.
2009) (holding that information a year old is not stale as a
matter of law in child pornography cases); United States v.
Hay, 231 F.3d 630, 636 (9th Cir. 2000) (warrant not stale for
child pornography based on six-month old information);
United States v. Lacy, 119 F.3d 742, 745-46 (9th Cir. 1997)
(warrant upheld for child pornography based on ten month old
information); State v. Garbaccio, 151 Wn. App. 716, 214
P.3d 168 (2009), review denied, 168 Wn.2d 1027 (2010) (5
months okay, citing cases that upheld time periods as long as
2 years).

207

Firearms 10 days
See, e.g., United States v. Perry, 531 F.3d 662 (8th Cir. 2008)
(four month-old information indicating that a suspect
possessed firearms was not stale because survivalists and
firearm enthusiasts retain their weapons for a long period of
time); United States v. Shomo, 786 F.2d 981, 984 (10th Cir.
1986) (search warrant issued ten days after the defendant was
observed leaving his residence carrying a pistol in his pocket
not stale, as people generally keep pistols and other weapons
at their homes or on their persons); United States v. Rahn, 511
F.2d 290 (10th Cir.) (warrant to search for guns issued on
information eighteen months old not stale when affidavit
showed the defendant had said guns would appreciate in value
if kept, had been seen making personal use of one gun, and
search of records of area pawnshops revealed no sales by the
defendant); United States v. Foster, 897 F. Supp. 526 (1995)
(3 week gap in time between when informant traded guns to
defendant in exchange for drugs and issuance of search
warrant to look for the guns at the defendants home did not
invalidate the search warrant); Allen v. State, 798. N.E.2d 490
(Ind. Ct. App. 2003) (holding that the information upon which
the warrant was based was not stale because the type of
evidence sought (handguns and rifles) were the type of
property that a person reasonably could be expected to keep
for over one month).

vii.

Nexus. The application for search warrant must establish a factual

link between the place to be searched and the crime. Boilerplate
generalizations in affidavits regarding the habits and practices of drug
dealers, child pornographers, etc., will be insufficient to produce
probable cause without a specific factual nexus (i.e. where grow
operation is at an open field a warrant will not be obtainable for the
suspects house merely by indicating that drug dealers tend to keep
detailed grow records in their homes).
It is, however, reasonable to believe when the crime in question is
theft, burglary or robbery in which valuable property was obtained by
the perpetrator to infer that the criminal would have the fruits of his
crime in his residence, vehicle or place of business. This assumption
will only be valid for a reasonable period of time after the
commission of the crime and only if there is some evidence that the
perpetrator had an opportunity to reach his vehicle, home, or place of
business between the commission of the crime and the issuance of the
search warrant. See State v. McReynolds, 104 Wn. App. 560, 17 P.3d
608 (2000).

208

Exceptional scrutiny will be given to search warrants for the contents

of a home computer. The nexus that must be shown between the
crime and the computer in sex offenses must include more than a
general statement that sex offenders often keep notes, newspaper
clippings, diaries and other memorabilia of their crimes and that
such items were found on suspects computers in other sexual assault
cases. State v. Nordlund, 113 Wn. App. 171, 53 P.3d 520 (2002).
Even proof that an individual has a subscription to a website service
that provides access to child pornography may not be support a search
warrant for the individual's computer. United States v. Gourde, 382
F.3d 1003 (9th Cir. 2004). Search warrants for home computers have
been upheld where a computer technician notified the police that the
suspects computer files had names suggesting pornographic images
and that some of the reviewed videos appeared to involve children
younger than 18. See State v. Wible, 113 Wn. App. 18, 51 P.3d 830
(2002).
A nexus to search a drug dealers home can be established by
evidence that the drug dealer left from and returned to the home
before and after selling drugs. State v. G.M.V., 135 Wn. App. 366,
144 P.3d 358 (2006).
viii.

Anticipatory Search Warrants

An "anticipatory search warrant" is one issued with the expectation
that it will not be served unless a specific event occurs.
i.e. UPS discovers that there are drugs in one of the
packages they have received for delivery. UPS calls
police. Police obtain search warrant for package,
determines that yes it is drugs. Police then obtain a
search warrant for the location where the package is to
be delivered, to only be executed upon once UPS
delivers the package to that address.
Any warrant requires the issuing magistrate to determine:
(1) that it is now probable that (2) contraband,
evidence of a crime, or a fugitive will be on the
described premises (3) when the warrant is executed.
United States v. Grubbs, 547 U.S. 90, 164 L. Ed. 2d 195, 203, 126
S. Ct. 1494 (2006).
When dealing with an anticipatory search warrant, two prerequisites
of probability must be satisfied:

209

It must be true not only that if the triggering condition

occurs there is a fair probability that contraband or
evidence of a crime will be found in a particular
place, but also that there is probable cause to believe
the triggering condition will occur. The supporting
affidavit must provide the magistrate with sufficient
information to evaluate both aspects of the probablecause determination. [Citations omitted.]
United States v. Grubbs, 547 U.S. 90, 164 L. Ed. 2d 195, 204, 126
S. Ct. 1494 (2006).
While there is no requirement that the triggering condition appear on
the face of the warrant, Grubbs, 164 L. Ed. 2d at 204-205, the better
practice is to include the triggering condition on the face of the
warrant to avoid misunderstandings.
Washington law is not clear on whether "anticipatory search
warrants" are authorized under Const. art. I, 7, but if one is
obtained any search conducted prior to the condition being met will
be considered to be a warrantless search. State v. Nusbaum, 126 Wn.
App. 160, 107 P.3d 768 (2005).
ix.

Protecting the Integrity of the Investigation

All documents filed with a court are presumptively open to the public.
See generally Const. art. I, 10; GR 15. Applications for search
warrants and search warrants may be sealed up until the filing of
charges by the court when necessary to protect an investigation. See
Seattle Times v. Eberharter, 105 Wn.2d 144, 713 P.2d 710 (1986);
Cowles Publishing Co. v. Murphy, 96 Wn.2d 584, 637 P.2d 966
(1981).
A motion to seal the affidavit in support of the warrant, the warrant,
the return of service, and the inventory of items that were seized,
must be presented to the issuing magistrate when the warrant is
obtained. The motion must contain specific reasons, supported by
facts, demonstrating that a substantial threat exists to the interests of
effective law enforcement or individual privacy and safety and that
these interests cannot be protected by deletion of the harmful material
rather than sealing the entire file. The motion to seal can be made
part of the affidavit for the issuance of the search warrant.
The order granting the motion to seal, a transcript of the hearing on
the motion to seal, and the judges written finding of fact and
conclusions of law explaining the reasons for sealing the documents
must be made available for public inspection.

210

x.

Other Issues to Consider

An individuals refusal to grant consent to a search may not

be used to establish probable cause to search. See, e.g.,
United States v. Hyppolite, 65 F.3d 1151, 1157 (4th Cir.
1995), cert. denied, 116 S. Ct. 1558 (1996); State v.
McGovern, 111 Wn. App. 495, 501 n. 18, 45 P.3d 624 (2002).

Prior convictions are properly considered in determining

whether probable cause exists, but prior arrests may not be.
State v. Tarter, 111 Wn. App. 336, 44 P.3d 899 (2002). But
see United States v. Conley, 4 F.3d 1200, 1207 (3d Cir.
1993), cert. denied, 510 U.S. 1177 (1994) (The use of prior
arrests and convictions to aid in establishing probable cause
is not only permissible, . . ., but is often helpful. This is
especially so where, as in the matter presently before the
court, the previous arrest or conviction involves a crime of the
same general nature as the one which the warrant is seeking
to uncover. (citations omitted.)).

A search warrant for an attorneys office will require the

appointment of a special master or the creation of a taint
team or privilege team. See, e.g., United States v. Law
Offices of Brown and Norton (In re Search of Law Office,
Residence, and Storage Unit), 341 F.3d 404 (2003); DeMassa
v. Nunez, 747 F.2d 1283 (9th Cir. 1984); Klitzman, Klitzman
& Gallagher v. Krut, 744 F.2d 955 (3rd Cir. 1984). No
search warrant should ever be sought for an attorneys office
without the specific approval of a supervisor.

A search warrant may issue for a search warrant for an x-ray

or for other intrusion into a suspects body. See Schmerber v.
California, 384 U.S. 757, 770, 16 L. Ed. 2d 908, 86 S. Ct.
1826 (1966); United States v. Allen, 337 F. Supp. 1041 (E.D.
Pa. 1972). Such a search warrant must reveal a clear
indication that the sought evidence will be found. See, e.g.,
People v. Thompson, 820 P.2d 1160 , 1163 (Colo. App.
1991). In addition, the court must consider whether the
requested procedure will present a risk to the suspect's life or
health. Winston v. Lee, 470 U.S. 753, 84 L. Ed. 2d 662, 105
S. Ct. 1611 (1985). And, it must weigh the "individual's
dignitary interests in personal privacy and bodily integrity"
against the "community's interest in fairly and accurately
determining guilt or innocence" in light of the other means of
proof of guilt that may be available. Winston v. Lee, supra.
Thus it is harder to get a search warrant for surgery than for
a blood test. Compare Winston v. Lee (surgery), with
Schmerber, 384 U.S. at 771 (discussing how common blood
211

tests have become). Finally, the bodily intrusion must be

performed by a properly trained medical personnel in a proper
setting. Schmerber, 384 U.S. at 771. The search warrant must
identify the non-police persons that will help in executing the
search warrant.

A suspects claim of a defense, even if supported by evidence,

does not negate probable cause and does not prevent the
execution of a search warrant by officers. See State v. Fry,
168 Wn.2d 1, 228P.3d 1 (2010) (the production of a
document purporting to be a medical marijuana use
authorization did not negate probable cause; officers properly
continued their search of the defendants home as authorized
in the warrant).

Laws of 2011, ch. 181, 901, which was vetoed,

created a secure and confidential registry with the
Department of Health for medical cannabis patients.
Specific portions of the vetoed provision required
officers investigating a cannabis-related incident to
make reasonable efforts to ascertain whether the
location or person under investigation is registered in
the registration system, and include the results of this
inquiry in the affidavit submitted in support of the
application for the warrant. This requirement did not
apply to investigations in which:
(a) The peace officer has observed evidence of an
apparent cannabis operation that is not a licensed
producer, processor of cannabis products, or
dispenser;
(b) The peace officer has observed evidence of theft
of electrical power;
(c) The peace officer has observed evidence of illegal
drugs other than cannabis at the premises;
(d) The peace officer has observed frequent and
numerous short-term visits over an extended period
that are consistent with commercial activity, if the
subject of the investigation is not a licensed dispenser;
(e) The peace officer has observed violent crime or
other demonstrated dangers to the community;
(f) The peace officer has probable cause to believe the
subject of the investigation has committed a felony,
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or a misdemeanor in the officer's presence, that does

not relate to cannabis; or
(g) The subject of the investigation has an outstanding
arrest warrant.
An officer seeking a search warrant for cannabis
should determine whether any state14 or local entity
maintains a voluntary registry for medical cannabis
users. If one is maintained, the officer should disclose
the existence of the registry, the efforts the officer
made to determine whether the location or person has
a current valid registry, or why no efforts were made
to check the registry.

xi.

A police officers exposure to liability for an illegal search is

lessened when the police officer obtains a search warrant.
When the alleged violation involves a search or seizure
pursuant to a warrant, the fact that a neutral magistrate has
issued a warrant is the clearest indication that the officers
acted in an objectively reasonable manner or in objective
good faith. An exception to this principle allows suit when
it is obvious that no reasonably competent officer would
have concluded that a warrant should issue. The threshold
for this exception is extremely high. Messerschmidt v.
Millender, ___ U.S. ___, 132 S. Ct. 1235, 182 L. Ed. 2d 47
(2012).

Computers
A number of cases dealing with search warrants for computers have
been issued by courts. These cases are frequently contradictory, and
the rules announced in them are subject to further consideration by
the appellate courts. An officer who is seeking a search warrant for
a computer should discuss these cases with his or her departments
legal advisor and the local prosecutor.
A.

Staleness. Evidence supporting the issuance of a search

warrant for a computer was not stale, even though the
detective did not seek the search warrant until five months
after a known video of child pornography publicly available
for download from the IP address assigned to the defendant.
The presence of 21 other files available for download that had
titles strongly suggestive of child pornography supported an

14
At least one bill was introduced during the 2011 Special Session that would create a registry. The Special
Session had not concluded at the time this update was prepared.

213

inference that the defendant was a "collector" and the

detective's training and experience allowed him to state that
collectors of child pornography often retain the contraband.
Most importantly, the detective was able to declare that
evidence of the defendant's contraband, in the form of
metadata, would likely be found on his computer hardware,
even if the contraband itself could no longer be viewed on his
computer. State v. Garbaccio, 151 Wn. App. 716, 214 P.3d
168 (2009).
B.

Exculpatory Evidence. An affidavits failure to provide

general information about hacking, IP Spoofing, or internet
hijacking does not constitute a deliberate or reckless
omission of facts that will support a Franks hearing. United
States v. Craighead, 539 F.3d 1073 (9th Cir. 2008).

C.

Specific Protocol Regarding Service of Warrant. In United

States v. Comprehensive Drug Testing, Inc., 579 F.3d 989
(9th Cir. 2009), an 11 judge panel set forth specific
requirements that must be included in every federal search
warrant for a computer. The case was subsequently reheard
by the Ninth Circuit. The later opinion does not require the
government to forswear reliance on the plain view doctrine.
See United States v. Comprehensive Drug Testing, Inc., 621
F.3d 1162 (9th Cir. 2010). The final opinion in the
Comprehensive Drug Testing saga still requires government
agents to attempt a process to cull the seizable data from the
non-seizable data in a sensitive manner.

d.

Hidden Land Mines

Attorney/client communications stored on phone or
computers. Once an officer becomes aware that such
information is contained on the device, the officer must stop
his or her review of the contents of the device. The review
cannot resume until a special master or a taint team has
been appointed. Failure to take appropriate steps after being
notified that privileged information is on the device being
searched can result in the dismissal of charges. State v.
Perrow, 156 Wn. App. 322, 231 P.3d 853 (2010).

e.

Exceptional Levels of Scrutiny

Possibly because of the stigma that attaches when an
individuals name becomes linked with a child pornography
investigation, the Ninth Circuit recently held that individuals
whose house was searched pursuant to a search warrant may
maintain a civil rights lawsuit against the officers who
214

obtained the search warrant. The claimed constitutional

violation was the officers allegedly deliberate falsehood or
reckless disregard for the truth in their search warrant
application. The false statements included: (1) that the suspect
had downloaded images, as the evidence only indicated that
the suspect's credit card had been billed for hosting fees and
there was no evidence that anyone downloaded anything; and
(2) that the suspect's credit card was used to purchase images
of child pornography from the web site, as the evidence only
indicated that the credit card was charged a hosting fees for
the sites to which illegal images were uploaded at some
unknown time, date, and location. "Serious omissions"
included: (1) that the IP addresses that were used to open the
offending Yahoo! user accounts and websites were traced to
people other than the suspect; (2) a third IP address was used
to log in to both the first and second user accounts, and that
this IP address was never traced; (3) the credit card was
shared by 2 people, and the non-suspect's name was
associated with the two user accounts; and (4) the user
accounts contained nonsensical identifying information. See
Chism v. Washington State, 661 F.3d 380 (9th Cir. 2011),
cert. denied, ___ S. Ct. ___ (Apr. 16, 2012).
f.

4.

Encryption. The Fifth Amendment protects an individual

from being forced to decrypt hard drive contents. United
States v. Doe (In re Grand Jury Subpoena Duces Tecum
Dated March 25, 2011), 670 F.3d 1335 (11th Cir. 2012).

How to Obtain a Warrant.

There is no legal requirement that affidavits or search warrants be prepared by
attorneys. Some counties, however, have policies whereby every warrant must be
approved by the prosecuting attorney's office prior to being presented to a magistrate.
a.

In person The affiant officer may appear in person before a judge in order
to obtain a search warrant. In such cases, the affiant officer may present a
written affidavit and/or may provide oral testimony under oath. Informants
or other witnesses may also testify during an in person presentation. The
mere act of bringing an informant or witness before the magistrate to testify
under oath can satisfy the credibility prong of Aguillar/Spinelli.
i.

The affidavit should be typed or printed legibly.

ii.

The officer who signs the affidavit must fill out the affidavit in its
entirety.

215

iii.

Layout of affidavit:
A.

Detailed description of the place, person, or vehicle that the

officer is requesting to search and of the person or things to be
seized.

B.

Introduction

C.

1.

Who the officer is.

2.

Violation of what laws.

3.

Summary of probable cause.

Three part narrative for the affidavit.

1.

2.

Affiant/Officer's Background and Experience

a.

How long has the affiant/officer been in

continuous employment with the agency?

b.

Has the affiant/officer been employed by any

other law enforcement agency? If so, for how
long?

c.

Basic training?

d.

All training pertaining to the violation being

charged.

e.

All training and experience pertaining to the

facts at hand.

Facts and circumstances supporting probable cause.

a.

Stick to facts, not conclusions

b.

i.

Specific evidence exists at a particular

location.

ii.

Reasons for believing evidence exists.

List primarily facts which support probable

cause
i.

216

Possession
discovered

of

evidence

already

ii.

Facts indicating there is more

contraband or evidence elsewhere.

3.

List facts which support why you believe the specified

evidence or contraband is in the place you are seeking
to search.

4.

List facts which describe exactly what you are seeking

in the greatest possible detail. These are the items you
want to take with you after you execute the search
warrant.

5.

If a non-police officer will be assisting in the

execution of the search warrant, identify the
individual by name or if name not yet known, by
occupation, and explain why this assistance is
necessary.

6.

a.

The withdrawal of blood pursuant to this

warrant will be performed by a physician, a
registered nurse, a license practical nurse, a
nursing assistant as defined in chapter 18.88A
RCW, a physician assistant as defined in
chapter 18.73 RCW, an emergency medical
technician as defined in chapter 18.73 RCW,
a health care assistant as defined in chapter
18.135 RCW, or any technician trained in
withdrawing blood. See RCW 46.61.506(5).

b.

If the affidavit indicated that the officer would

be assisted in executing the warrant by a
civilian, the warrant should include that
limitation.

If the affidavit is based on any information from an

informant, always:
a.

State what information was received.

b.

State when the informant learned of the

information.

c.

State where the informant was when he made

this observation and where the property
sought was seen or where he was told the
property is located.

217

b.

d.

State why the informant was in a position to

acquire his information.

e.

State how he got the information.

f.

State when the information was related to you.

g.

State why the judge should believe the

informant is credible.

Telephonic The actual process each county utilizes for a telephonic search
warrant may differ, but the following elements/steps should be included in
every procedure:
i.

An affidavit and warrant is written out by the officer. The written

affidavit should contain the same information discussed in the
previous section. Failure to complete a written warrant will result in
the suppression of all evidence obtained pursuant to the warrant. See
State v. Ettenhofer, 119 Wn. App. 300, 73 P.3d 478 (2003).

ii.

The affiant (officer) must talk directly with the judge on the
telephone. Some counties require the officer to review his or her
warrant application with the on-call deputy prosecuting attorney prior
to speaking with the judge.

iii.

The conversation must be electronically recorded by the judge, the

officer, or by communications by way of a telephone patch.
1.

Turn the recorder on as soon as everyone is on the phone.

2.

Announce the time and date when you begin recording.

3.

Announce that you are a law enforcement officer, give your

rank, personal number , and state what agency you are with.

4.

Ask for the judge's consent to record the affidavit and search
warrant conversations.

5.

Do not turn the tape recorder off until the end of the
conversation. Leaving the recorder on avoids questions
concerning gaps or omissions in the recording.

6.

Announce the time and date before you finish recording and
end the conversation.

iv.

The judge must administer an oath to the affiant on the recording.

v.

The affiant (officer) will read the affidavit and warrant to the judge.
218

vi.

Once the judge is satisfied probable cause exists, the judge will direct
the officer to sign the judge's name to the search warrant. If the judge
does not direct this to be done, ask the judge for authority to sign the
judge's name to the search warrant.

vii.

Before ending the call, the person who is operating the recording
device checks to ensure that the conversation was fully recorded. If
the recording device failed in any way, steps iii through vii must be
repeated.

viii.

Print the case number and other necessary information on the tape.

ix.

Remove the cassette tape from the recorder, seal it in an envelope,

and place it in a safe place with a copy of the search warrant.

5.

If a tape recording fails, a reconstructed record of the

information given to the magistrate is only acceptable by
courts if the officers testimony regarding what the officer
told the magistrate is corroborated by detailed and specific
evidence from a disinterested party, such as the issuing
magistrate. See, e.g., State v. Garcia, 140 Wn. App. 609, 166
P.3d 848 (2007).

If communications records the conversation, be certain to

instruct the operator on tape preservation methods.

x.

Execute the warrant as described below.

xi.

Provide a copy of the affidavit, search warrant, inventory, and return

of service to the deputy prosecutor who was involved in obtaining the
search warrant as soon as possible.

xii.

File the original search warrant, affidavit, audio tape, return or

service, and inventory with the court clerk's office the day following
service of the warrant. (In some counties, the deputy prosecuting
attorney will handle this for the officer).

Execution of Warrant.
a.

Time of Service. Once a search warrant is issued, service must be started

within 10 days and the return must be filed within 3 days after service.
Waiting to the last day for service, however, is dangerous because if the
information upon which the search warrant was issued has dissipated in the
interim, the evidence may be suppressed. See State v. Maddox, 152 Wn.2d
499, 98 P.3d 1199 (2004). Dissipation will depend upon whether information
acquired after issuance of the search warrant but before execution, if
believed, negates probable cause. If the answer to this question is yes, then
a magistrate must redetermine whether probable cause exists. Id.
219

b.

Blood Alcohol. When a search warrant is for a substance that will

dissipate quickly, i.e. for blood alcohol, then the court may restrict the
time within which to serve the warrant to less than 10 days. Failure
to comply with this restriction will result in the search being
considered a warrantless search.

Bank Records. When the search warrant is for bank records, etc., the
warrant must be provided to the bank within 10 days of issuance. The
collection of the authorized information may, however, extend long
past the 10 day period. See, e.g., State v. Kern, 81 Wn. App. 308, 914
P.2d 114, review denied, 130 Wn.2d 1003 (1996) (search warrant
executed in a proper manner where warrant was given to bank
officials and the bank took several months to compile the information
and return the records to the police).

Computers. A forensic examination of information stored on copies

of a hard drive may extend beyond the 10-day deadline specified in
CrR 2.3(c), provided the computer is seized within the 10-day period.
A delay in analyzing the information stored on a hard drive will only
result in the suppression of evidence if: (1) the delay caused a lapse
in probable cause; (2) the delay created unfair prejudice to the
defendant; or (3) the officers acted in bad faith. State v. Grenning,
142 Wn. App. 518, 174 P.3d 706 (2008).

Automobiles. When a search warrant is issued for a vehicle, the

vehicle may be towed to a police crime laboratory for forensic
processing. The Fourth Amendment was not violated when the police
crime laboratory retained a vehicle for 12 days in order to complete
the search for trace evidence. People v. Superior Court (Nasmeh),
151 Cal. App. 4th 85, 59 Cal. Rptr. 3d 633 (2007).

Control of Individuals Outside the Place to be Searched.

Police may not seize and detain for investigation individuals who appear at
a location where officers are serving a search warrant unless: (1) the
individuals are named in the search warrant; (2) the vehicle the individuals
are in is named in the warrant; (3) there is probable cause to believe the
individuals have committed a crime; or (4) there are specific and articulable
objective facts that give rise to a reasonable suspicion that the individuals
have been or are about to be involved in a crime. See State v. Smith, 145 Wn.
App. 268, 187 P.3d 768 (2008) (officers seizure at gunpoint and detention
for investigation the two occupants of a car who appeared in the driveway of
a residence at which officers were preparing to execute a search warrant
violated the Fourth Amendment when neither the vehicle nor any woman was
named in the warrant).

220

c.

Entry Into Building.

i.

Knock and Announce Rule.

RCW 10.31.040 provides:
To make an arrest in criminal actions, the officer may
break open any outer or inner door, or windows of a
dwelling house or other building, or any other
enclosure, if, after notice of his office and purpose, he
be refused admittance.
A.

B.

The rule exists to:

C

Reduce the potential for violence to all parties from

unannounced entry

Prevent unnecessary property damage

Protect the privacy rights of occupants.

Strict compliance with the statute is required unless exigent

circumstances are present or compliance with the dictates of
the rule would be futile. The validity of an entry under the
knock and announce rule depends upon the facts of a
particular case.
The rule requires that police must:

C.

(a)

Have a warrant.

(b)

Announce their identity. This is especially critical

when officers are in plain clothes.

(c)

Demand Admittance.

(d)

State the purpose of their demand.

(e)

Be explicitly or implicitly denied admittance.

Failure to expressly demand admittance. The failure to

expressly demand entrance may not always be fatal. When
the actions of the police effectuate the purpose of the knock
and announce rule the failure to specifically request entry will
not bar the admission of evidence. See, e.g., State v. Schmidt,
48 Wn. App. 639, 740 P.2d 351, review denied, 109 Wn.2d
1013 (1987) (the failure to demand admittance did not
increase the likelihood of physical destruction of property as
221

the door was not closed, and did not impact the
reasonableness of the intrusion as the deputies announcement
Sheriffs Office with a search warrant implied that they
intended to enter to search); State v. Lehman, 40 Wn. App.
400, 404, 698 P.2d 606 (1985) (a statement by police
identifying themselves and advising that they possess a search
warrant is implicitly a demand for admission into the house);
State v. Hilliard, 18 Wn. App. 614, 616, 570 P.2d 160 (1977)
(failure to demand admittance did not require suppression as
(1) there was an announcement of the presence of the officers
to the occupants; (2) the occupants communicated with the
uniformed officers through an open door, and (3) the officers
advised the occupants that they were under arrest for a felony
before entering).
D.

Objective evidence of refusal include attempts by the suspect

to close the door after becoming aware that the persons
seeking entry are police officers, or the suspect running back
inside the building.
No bright line rule exists for how long police need to wait
after knocking and announcing their purpose. Cases have
repeatedly held 10 seconds to be adequate. A five second
delay was approved where the police heard commotion inside
after knocking. As a general rule, officers should wait 30
seconds, unless there are affirmative indications that the
occupants are aware of the officer's presence, or other specific
facts demonstrating an unusual degree of danger to officers or
of destruction of evidence.
The reasonableness of the delay will depend upon two
primary factors: (1) how easily the sought evidence can be
destroyed; and (2) whether the suspects are likely to be armed
or dangerous. See generally United States v. Banks, 540 U.S.
31, 124 S. Ct. 521, 157 L. Ed. 2d 343 (2003). If the search
warrant is for controlled substances, 10 seconds may be
sufficient as drugs may be easily flushed down a toilet. If the
search warrant is for a grand piano or other less fungible
evidence, the wait should be longer.
Factors that may support a shorter wait time include:

Someone looking out of a window at the officers.

State v. Edwards, 20 Wn. App. 648, 581 P.2d 154
(1978).

Barking dogs that may have alerted the occupants to

the officers approach. State v. Schmidt, 48 Wn. App.
222

639, 646, 740 P.2d 351, review denied, 109 Wn.2d

1013 (1987).

E.

A relatively small building, indicating that a very

short time would be required to answer the officers
knock. State v. Schmidt, 48 Wn. App. 639, 646, 740
P.2d 351, review denied, 109 Wn.2d 1013 (1987) (a
shed vs/ a residence with multiple rooms).

A bystander announces the officers presence. See,

e.g., State v. Garcia-Hernandez, 67 Wn. App. 492,
837 P.2d 624 (1992) (as detectives exited their cars,
one officer heard someone yelling something).

Specific information that the suspect kept drugs rolled

into condoms and that the suspect had previously
disposed of heroin stored in that manner by
swallowing it when confronted by police. See, e.g.,
State v. Beason, 13 Wn. App. 183, 534 P.2d 44
(1975).

Exemptions from the rule.

1.

No Knock Warrants. An officer may be able to

obtain a "no knock" warrant based upon specific
information that the defendant may have weapons and
that the defendant has a history of violence. A
generalized statement of potential danger (i.e. drug
dealers are known to carry firearms) will not support
the issuance of a no knock warrant. See United
States v. Ramirez, 523 U.S. 65, 118 S. Ct. 992, 140 L.
Ed. 2d 191 (1998).
No knock warrants are disfavored (and possibly
prohibited) in Washington, and a challenge to the
entry will consider both the facts that were presented
to the magistrate who issued the no knock warrant
and the facts and circumstances that were actually
encountered during the service of the warrant. See
State v. Allyn, 40 Wn. App. 27, 29, 696 P.2d 45,
review denied, 103 Wn.2d 1039 (1985); State v.
Spargo, 30 Wn. App. 949, 639 P.2d 782 (1982); State
v. Jeter, 30 Wn. App. 360, 634 P.2d 312 (1981),
review denied, 96 Wn.2d 1027 (1982).
Timely and specific intelligence that residents of the
place to be searched keep weapons in the residence
and have a propensity to use them is required for a no
223

knock entry. Compare State v. Allyn, 40 Wn. App.

27, 29, 696 P.2d 45, review denied, 103 Wn.2d 1039
(1985) (the no knock entry was supported by (1) the
presence of multiple firearms at the target residence
mere days before the service of the warrant; (2)
statements made by both occupants of the target
residence , in the 18 days prior to the service of the
warrant, that they would like to torture or kill some
police officers; (3) the suspects arming himself with
a second handgun after providing his co-participant in
a prior drug delivery with a handgun that he told his
co-participant to use; and (4) suspects conviction one
year earlier of the federal crimes of conspiracy to
possess an unregistered firearm when that crime
concerned the bombing of a police car, police
officers garage and the Chelan County Courthouse),
with State v. Spargo, 30 Wn. App. 949, 639 P.2d 782
(1982) (the fact that the affiant had arrested the
suspect on a prior occasion for carrying a loaded
pistol in a car and the pistol was returned to the
suspect, coupled with another officers report that the
suspect had stated to a third person on prior occasions
that if any cops try to take him the cops will be
sorrow [sic] was too ambiguous, stale, and
inherently unreliable to support a no-knock entry).
Specific intelligence will not support a no knock entry
if the fears of danger are dispelled prior to entry. See,
e.g., State v. Johnson, 11 Wn. App. 311, 522 P.2d
1179 (1974) (forceable no-knock entry impermissible
when the officer in charge was able to observe [the
suspect] through the partially open door and was in a
peculiarly advantageous position to observe [the
suspects] reaction to compliance with the knock and
announce rule); State v. Hatcher, 3 Wn. App. 441,
475 P.2d 802 (1970) (forceable no knock entry was
improper when the officers were able to observe
through a window that none of the occupants was
doing anything suspicious).
2.

Use of Ruse. The general rule is that entry by ruse is

permissible if no force is used. See State v. Myers,
102 Wn.2d 548, 689 P.2d 38 (1984). Officers need
not announce their identity, authority, and purpose
when useing deception and no force. See State v.
Huckaby, 15 Wn. App. 280, 549 P.2d 35, review
denied, 87 Wn.2d 1006 (1976). The ruse used must
not, however, "shock fundamental fairness".
224

Case law has found the following ruses to be

acceptable:

3.

ii.

d.

Officers convinced defendant to open the door

to allow them to serve a search warrant for
drugs by claiming to have a fictitious arrest
warrant for the defendant's arrest for a traffic
offense.

Equivalent notice given. Officers were not required

to physically knock on the door where they had
already announced their identity and the reason for
their presence over the police car's public address
system. United States v. Combs, 394 F.3d 739 (9th
Cir. 2005).

Consent. The knock and announce rule is applicable whenever

police enter without valid permission, but it does not apply to
consensual entries. Such consent probably need not be preceded by
Ferrier warnings, but case law already establishes that an occupants
Yeah in response to a knock did not eliminate the officers duty to
comply with the knock and announce rule. See State v. Johnson, 104
Wn. App. 489, 505-06, 17 P.3d 3 (2001); State v. Sturgeon, 46 Wn.
App. 181, 730 P.2d 93 (1986). Finally, consent given by someone
who is not home (i.e. at the station house) will probably not excuse
compliance with the knock and announce rule if someone is at the
home when the warrant is served. Cf. State v. Leach, 113 Wn.2d 735,
782 P.2d 1035 (1989).

Who May Serve Warrant. As a general rule only those officers involved
in the investigation of the particular crime and/or officers from the local
jurisdiction if the officers who obtained the warrant are executing it outside
their territory (i.e. Kitsap County Sheriff Department obtained warrant being
executed in Pierce County) may participate in the service of a warrant. Police
officers from another jurisdiction cannot tag along with officers who are
executing a warrant in their jurisdiction. See State v. Bartholomew, 56 Wn.
App. 617, 784 P.2d 1276 (1990) (improper for police agents from Seattle to
tag along with officers from Tacoma who were serving a search warrant in
Tacoma in the hope that evidence of a crime committed in Seattle would be
visible). Reporters, television cameras, and other citizens may not
accompany officers in the execution of a search warrant upon a home,
business, etc. See Wilson v. Layne, 526 U.S. 603, 119 S. Ct. 1692, 143 L. Ed.
2d 818 (1999) (bringing reporters into home during attempted execution of
warrant violated Fourth Amendment). Disinterested citizens may, however,
assist the police in gathering bank records or other similar records pursuant
to a search warrant. State v. Kern, 81 Wn. App. 308, 914 P.2d 114, review
denied, 130 Wn.2d 1003 (1996) ( appropriate to delegate execution of the
search warrant for bank records to disinterested third persons (bank official)).
225

i.

Qualified person to collect blood. Most police officers are not

qualified to withdraw blood. An officer may (and should) delegate
the actual collection to one of the persons specified in RCW
46.61.506(5):
. . . the withdrawal of blood for the purpose of
determining its alcoholic or drug content may be
performed only by a physician, a registered nurse, a
license practical nurse, a nursing assistant as defined
in chapter 18.88A RCW, a physician assistant as
defined in chapter 18.73 RCW, an emergency medical
technician as defined in chapter 18.73 RCW, a health
care assistant as defined in chapter 18.135 RCW, or
any technician trained in withdrawing blood.
The inventory and the return of service must identify, by name, the
person who assisted in executing the search warrant for blood. The
return of service should identify the profession (physician, nurse,
etc.), licensure, and/or training of the person who withdrew the blood.
As a courtesy, you should provide the person who actually withdrew
the blood with a copy of the search warrant and the return of service.

ii.

Out-of-State Police Officers. When the crime occurred in another

state and officers from the jurisdiction where the crime occurred are
present in Washington, the search warrant should specifically
authorize such officers to accompany the Washington officers who
obtained the search warrant. The presence of the out-of-state officers
is needed to allow the prosecutor to establish the chain of custody
without having to call the Washington officers at trial

e.

Protective Sweeps. The concept of protective sweeps has generally not been
extended to the service of a search warrant. State v. Boyer, 124 Wn. App.
593, 102 P.3d 833 (2004). This is probably because a search warrant already
authorizes an officer to look in any container that is large enough to hold the
items being sought. This means that if the search warrant is for drugs or
anything else that is smaller than a human being, the officers serving the
warrant already have the necessary authority to check closets, under beds, and
other locations where a person might be concealed.

f.

Detention and Search of Individuals Inside the Residence

Once inside, police may search authorized portions of the premises,
occupants described in the warrant, and their personal effects. Individuals
present at the location to be searched may be detained and even handcuffed
while the search of the premises is conducted. The length of the detention
and any force used must, however, be reasonable under the circumstances.
A reasonableness inquiry includes the following factors:
226

the severity of the suspected crime

whether the person being detained is the subject of the

investigation

whether the person poses an immediate threat to the security

of the police or others

the type of contraband that is being sought

whether the person is actively resisting arrest

number of officers in relationship to the number of persons

present in the building

See Muehler v. Mena, 544 U.S. 93, 125 S. Ct. 1465, 161 L. Ed. 2d 299
(2005).
Officers encountering naked individuals may conduct an initial sweep of the
area for officer safety, provided they allow the naked individuals to cover
themselves as soon as possible. Los Angeles County v. Rettele, 550 U.S. 609,
127 S. Ct. 1989, 167 L. Ed. 2d 974 (2007).
Officers encountering children during the execution of a warrant should tread
carefully. See Avina v. United States, No. 11-55004, ___ F.3d ___ (9th Cir.
Jun. 12, 2012) (11-year-old and 14-year-old girls, who were handcuffed for
approximately 30 minutes and who had guns pointed at them while agents
executed a search warrant upon their residence, may proceed with their
excessive force claims; the girls parents claims were properly dismissed on
summary judgment); Tekle v. United States, 511 F.3d 839 (9th Cir. 2006)
(11-year-old barefoot boy, who was handcuffed for 10 to 15 minutes while
officers executed a search warrant and arrest warrant for his parents for
narcotics trafficking and tax-related offenses, may proceed upon his excessive
force claim; 20 officers were present, the child did not flee, and the child did
not resist the officers instructions).
Persons who are not named in the warrant may not be searched without some
independent facts tying those persons to illegal activity. See State v.
Broadnax, 98 Wn.2d 289, 654 P.2d 96 (1982).
Mere presence at the place being searched cannot justify a search, or even a
Terry pat down. There must be some additional circumstances indicating
illegal activity by that person to justify a search of a non-occupant. In order
to find probable cause based on association with persons engaging in criminal
activity, courts have focused on factors such as:
C

Whether the known criminal activity was contemporaneous with the

association; and
227

Whether the nature of the criminal activity is such that it could not
normally be carried on without the knowledge of all persons present.

Thus, a persons presence with other suspected of criminal activity together

with additional circumstances reasonably implying knowledge of, or
participation in, the criminal activity establishes probable cause to arrest.
State v. Dears, 40 Wn. App. 459, 698 P.2d 1109 (1985). This standard is
known as the presence plus rule. The plus can be provided by the
defendants conduct, such as grabbing a pocket. See, e.g., State v. Pimentel,
55 Wn. App. 569, 779 P.2d 268 (1989) (defendant who was one of seven
people detained inside a residence during the execution of a narcotics search
warrant and who reached for his shirt pocket properly had the pocket
searched as the movement aroused a suspicion that he was attempting to
destroy the heroin that was ultimately retrieved from his pocket.).
Generally, personal effects and clothing worn by persons present but not
named in the warrant cannot be searched pursuant to the search warrant. See
State v. Worth, 37 Wn. App. 889, 683 P.2d 622 (1984) (search of purse on
chair next to female occupant of residence was improper because female
occupant was not named in the warrant and the purse was an extension of
her person). The prohibition upon searching personal effects and clothing
of persons present but not named in the warrant will probably extend to items
that officers know or should know belong to such persons. Cf. State v.
Parker, 139 Wn.2d 486, 987 P.2d 73 (1999) (search of items located in car
of arrested driver is improper if the officer knows or should know that the
item belongs to one of the passengers). A generalized concern for officer
safety does not permit a search of belongings that are readily recognizable
as belonging to a visitor who is not named in the warrant. State v. Lohr, 164
Wn. App. 414, 263 P.3d 1287 (2011) (police improperly searched a purse that
was found at the premises for weapons, when the purse was readily
recognizable as belonging to a female visitor who was not named in the
warrant)..
g.

Use of Force to Overcome Resistance.

The Fourth Amendment permits the use of reasonable force to overcome a
defendants resistance to the execution of a warrant for the extraction of
blood. See, e.g., United States v. Bullock, 71 F.3d 171, 177 (5th Cir. 1995)
(suspects refusal to comply with a search warrant for blood and hair samples
created need for forceful execution but does not entitle him to exclusion of
the evidence sought); Hammer v. Gross, 932 F.2d 842, 845 (9th Cir. 1991)
(police may use force in some circumstances to extract a blood sample from
a resistant suspect); State v. Clary, 196 Ariz. 610, 2 P.3d 1255 (2000) (blood
alcohol sample). As a California court held,
absent a clear legislative mandate giving a defendant absolute
control of whether a blood alcohol test maybe obtained, the
lack of such evidence should not turn on the degree of a
228

defendants cooperation with a premium given to the more

obstreperous drunk driver who is more successful in forcibly
resisting the withdrawal of a blood ample.
Carleton v. Superior Court, 170 Cal. App. 3d 1182, 1191, 216 Cal. Rptr.
890 (Cal Ct. App. 1985).
h.

Paperwork
i.

Presenting the Warrant to the Occupant

If the occupant is present, the officer must show the occupant the
original warrant and must provide the occupant with a copy of the
warrant. There is no requirement that the officer show the occupant
the affidavit used to obtain the search warrant.
The warrant should generally be served upon any occupants of the
location to be searched at the "outset" of the search. Courts will not,
however, suppress the fruits of a search for a "several-minute" delay
if the delay is caused by the need to secure the residence and to
identify all occupants. State v. Aase, 121 Wn. App. 558, 89 P.3d 721
(2004). Failing to give the occupant a copy of the search warrant
until the search is concluded will not result in suppression of evidence
absent a showing of prejudice. State v. Ollivier, 161 Wn. App. 307,
254 P.3d 883 (2011), review granted, 173 Wn.2d 1014 (2012).

Officers confronted with occupants who do not speak English

may delay serving the warrant upon the occupants until a
translator can be brought to the scene. See, e.g., United States
v. Martinez-Garcia, 397 F.3d 1205 (9th Cir. 2005).

Officers confronted with a volatile methamphetamine lab may

delay presenting the search warrant to the occupant until the
fire/explosion hazard has been mitigated and/or all of the
occupants have been evacuated from the site. United States
v. Mann, 389 F.3d 869 (9th Cir. 2004), cert. denied sub nom,
161 L. Ed. 2d 537 (2005).

When multiple people are present at the location to be

searched, officers should show each of them the actual
warrant.

If no one is present when the search warrant is executed, a copy of the

warrant must be posted in a conspicuous place.
If no one is home when the warrant is executed, a copy of the warrant
must be left in a conspicuous place.

229

Failure to provide the occupant of the searched location with a written

copy of the warrant can turn a judicially authorized search into a
"warrantless search." See generally State v. Ettenhofer, 119 Wn.
App. 300, 79 P.3d 478 (2003).
ii.

Inventory of Items Seized

An inventory of all items seized must be completed prior to leaving
the premises. If the occupant is present, the occupant should sign the
inventory and a copy of the inventory should be left with the
occupant.
If no one is home when the warrant is executed, a copy of the
inventory must be left in a conspicuous place.

iii.

Return of Service
Immediately after serving the search warrant, a return of service form
must be completed. The return of service form and inventory should
be filed with the court that issued the warrant as soon as possible, and
generally within 3 days of the execution of the warrant. See CrR
2.3(d).

i.

Securing Premises While Obtaining Search Warrant. A residence may

be secured from the outside while officers seek a search warrant if the
probable cause for the search is developed at the scene. See Illinois v.
McArthur, 531 U.S. 326, 121 S. Ct. 946, 148 L. Ed. 2d 838 (2001); State v.
Ng, 104 Wn.2d 763, 771, 713 P.2d 63 (1985); State v. Solberg, 66 Wn. App.
66, 77-78, 831 P.2d 754 (1992), revd on other grounds, 122 Wn.2d 688,
861 P.2d 460 (1993). The period of time during which officers will bar entry
into the house while obtaining the warrant must be as short as possible,
preferably less than 2 hours.
While awaiting the search warrant, officers may not order individuals who are
inside the residence to exit the building. If the occupants voluntarily exit the
house, they may not be detained unless there is probable cause to arrest them
for a crime or there are some independent facts tying those persons to illegal
activity. See State v. Broadnax, 98 Wn.2d 289, 654 P.2d 96 (1982). Facts in
support of a Terry stop must give rise to believe that the individual, as
opposed to the place where he was found, is involved in criminal activity.
Further guidance can be obtained from cases governing the search of
unnamed individuals who are present when a warrant is executed.
Washington officers should obtain consent or at least give an officer-entry
warning before allowing a resident who has voluntarily exited the premises
to reenter the building prior during the wait for the warrant. The warning by
the officer should include a statement that the officer will not allow the
person to reenter the building without the officer at his or her side. The
230

officer will not enter any rooms that the resident does not enter. Nor will the
officer look into any closed containers, cabinets, or drawers that the resident
does not access while inside the building. In addition to this warning, a
prudent officer should obtain permission from the resident to accompany him
or her inside the building. Cf. State v. Chrisman, 100 Wn.2d 814, 676 P.2d
419 (1984) (officer who had arrested a student for minor in possession did
not have automatic authority as an incident of the arrest to accompany the
student into the students dorm room into which the officer allowed the
student to go to obtain identification).
Officers may not stop and identify every person who attempts to enter the
building while the search warrant is obtained. See State v. Crane, 105 Wn.
App. 301, 19 P.3d 1100 (2001).
j.

Expanding or Renewing the Search

When conducting the search, law enforcement should be thorough as this
may be the only chance to search the specific location. Law enforcement may
seize any evidence that is material and relevant to the case and is either
specifically mentioned in the warrant or falls within one of the categories of
evidence listed in the warrant.
Law enforcement may also seize any contraband that they find. The smartest
thing to do when an officer is executing a search warrant for possession of
stolen property and in the course of examining the building the officer
stumbles upon a marijuana grow is to obtain an additional search warrant
covering the new crime.
During the execution of the search warrant, if the officer discovers evidence
that provides probable cause to believe that additional evidence may be
located in a building (i.e. detached garage) or vehicle not covered by the
original warrant, the officer should obtain an additional search warrant
covering the new crime.
Once the officer concludes his or her processing of the scene, he may only
reenter the location to conduct a further search with a new search warrant.
Compare United States v. Squillacote, 221 F.3d 542, 557-58 (4th Cir. 2000),
cert. denied, 532 U.S. 971 (2001) (where the search could not have been
completed in a single day, the subsequent entries were not separate
searches requiring separate warrants, but instead were simply reasonable
continuations of the original search), with State v. Trujillo, 95 N.M. 535,
624 P.2d 44, 48 (1981) (citing cases from other jurisdictions in support of
the rule that a warrant is executed when a search is conducted, and its legal
validity expires upon execution, so that after execution, no additional
search can be undertaken on the same warrant).
An officer generally does not need an additional search warrant to examine
the contents of items that are properly seized in the execution of the warrant,
231

including, but not limited to cellular telephones. See, e.g., State v. White, 707
S.E.2d 841 (W. Va. 2011).
k.

Damage to Property from the Execution of a Search Warrant.

A trespass claim may be asserted against a city alleging that law enforcement
officers exceed the scope of their lawful authority to enter property to execute
a search warrant. To be successful, the plaintiff must establish that the
officers executing the search warrant unnecessarily damaged the property
while conducting their search, that is, that they damaged the property to a
greater extent than is consistent with a thorough investigation. Brutsche v.
City of Kent, 164 Wn.2d 664, 193 P.3d 110 (2008).
No compensation was owed to a property owner for damage to doors and
door jambs that was caused when law enforcement officers used a battering
ram to gain entry to a suspected methamphetamine laboratory. The battering
ram was utilized after the property owners son ran from an outdoor area into
the mobile home and attempted to barricade himself and another suspect in
the home by placing a dowel in the sliding glass door. The property owners
son ran from the officers into the mobile home despite an announcement,
repeated three times over the loud speaker from one of the vehicles, that the
police had arrived and had a search warrant. Id.
Police need not pay compensation for damage caused during the execution
of a search warrant under a taking of private property theory. See Brutsche
v. City of Kent, 164 Wn.2d 664, 193 P.3d 110 (2008) (father was not entitled
to compensation for the $4000 worth of damage to his property from the
proper execution of a search warrant for evidence of his sons offenses);
Eggleston v. Pierce County, 148 Wn.2d 760, 64 P.3d 618 (2003) (a mother,
whose house was rendered unstable and uninhabitable after police removed
two walls, pursuant to a search warrant, as evidence in her sons prosecution
for murder , was not entitled to compensation under Wash. Const. art I, 16).

5.

Administrative Search Warrants

The rules governing administrative search warrants are significantly different then
those that govern criminal investigations. The following brief summary should be
supplemented with consideration of the Washington State Attorney General Offices
Access to Property Workgroup, Access to Private Property by Administrative
Agencies Deskbook (June 2009). A copy of this Deskbook may be found on the
Washington Association of Prosecuting Attorneys website: www.waprosecutors.org.
a.

Definition. An administrative search warrant is an order allowing for

searches directed at fulfilling an inspection program that is designed to
prevent the unintentional development of conditions which are hazardous to
public health and safety. See generally, Camara v. Municipal Court, 387
U.S. 523, 535, 87 S. Ct. 1727, 18 L. Ed. 2d 930 (1967). In other words, these
are orders entered to allow various municipal inspectors to enforce building
232

codes, fire codes, and other health and safety regulations.

Administrative search warrants must be distinguished from administrative
subpoenas. Certain regulatory agencies, such as the Division of Financial
Institutions, have statutes that authorize them to require the production of any
book, paper, etc., that the director deems relevant or material to an inquiry
into a violation of the chapter that they are mandate to enforce. These
administrative subpoenas are not a substitute for a search warrant. Evidence
collected pursuant to these administrative subpoenas may not be utilized in
a criminal investigation or prosecution, unless the subpoena was issued by a
court upon a finding of probable cause. See State v. Miles, 160 Wn. 2d 236,
156 P.3d 864 (2007).
b.

When Must They Be Obtained. Anytime a code enforcement officer

wishes to make a non-consensual entry into a home or business, or beyond
the curtilege of private property to ascertain whether the structure or property
complies with various building, fire, zoning and health codes. Camara v.
Municipal Court, 387 U.S. 523, 535, 87 S. Ct. 1727, 18 L. Ed. 2d 930 (1967)
(private residences); See v. City of Seattle, 387 U.S. 541, 87 S. Ct. 1737, 18
L. Ed. 2d 943 (1967) (fire department inspection of commercial warehouse).

c.

Who May Issue. Washington state courts have no inherent authority to issue
administrative search warrants. State v. Landsen, 144 Wn.2d 654, 663, 30
P.3d 483 (2001); City of Seattle v. McCready, 124 Wn.2d 300, 309, 877 P.2d
686 (1994). Therefore, they must rely on an authorizing statute or court rule
for such authority. Until 2006, no court rule or state statute authorized the
issuance of administrative search warrants. See RCW 10.79.015, CrR 2.3(b),
and CrRLJ 2.3(b) provide for the issuance of warrants to search for evidence
of a crime. A search conducted pursuant to an administrative search warrant
that was issued by a court without express statutory or court rule authority to
issue the warrant is a violation of the Fourth Amendment and will result in
42 U.S.C. 1983 liability. See Bosteder v. City of Renton, 155 Wn.2d 18,
117 P.3d 316 (2005).
Beginning with the 2006 legislative session, a number of statutes have been
enacted that authorize courts to issue administrative search warrants. See,
e.g., RCW 49.17.070 (Washington Industrial Safety and Health Act); RCW
15.36.111 ( dairy farming and milk production); RCW 84.56.075 (distraint
or property); RCW 64.44.020 (health regulations related to hazardous
chemical contamination, a/k/a meth houses); RCW 59.18.150 (safety of rental
properties). Counties may also pass local ordinances that allow for the
issuance of administrative search warrants pursuant to Const. art. XI, 11.
Care should be taken to strictly comply with all of the statutory requirements.

d.

When May They Issue. Under Const. art. I, 7, an administrative search

warrant must be supported by probable cause to believe that a violation of a
building, fire, zoning, or other safety code violation that constitutes a civil
infraction. City of Seattle v. McCready, 123 Wash. 2d 260, 280, 868 P.2d
233

134 (1994). In addition, any special statutory restrictions must be satisfied.

See, e.g. RCW 64.44.020 (only permitting a warrant to issue if access to the
property has been denied).
The Fourth Amendment, however, allows for administrative search warrants
to issue upon less than probable cause. See, e.g., City of Seattle v. McCready,
131 Wn.2d 266, 272, 931 P.2d 156 (1997). In Camara v. Municipal Court,
387 U.S. 523, 87 S. Ct. 1727, 18 L. Ed. 2d 930 (1967), the Supreme Court
held that administrative warrants can be issued based on a less than
traditional probable cause standard. For purposes of administrative searches
conducted to enforce local building, health, or fire codes, the Court stated:
"'probable cause' to issue a warrant to inspect . . . exists if
reasonable legislative or administrative standards for
conducting an area inspection are satisfied with respect to a
particular dwelling. Such standards, which will vary with the
municipal program being enforced, may be based upon the
passage of time, the nature of the building (e. g., a multifamily apartment house), or the condition of the entire area,
but they will not necessarily depend upon specific knowledge
of the condition of the particular dwelling."
Camara, 387 U.S. at 538; 4 Wayne R. LaFave, Search & Seizure 10.1(b)
(3d ed. 1996).
e.

Who May Execute the Warrants. Generally, the code enforcement officer
should be the individual who executes the administrative search warrant. The
code enforcement officer may request police to accompany him or her if the
code enforcement officer anticipates that his or her safety or the safety of
others might be jeopardized in the execution of the administrative search
warrant.

f.

Gaining Entry to Execute the Administrative Search Warrant. An

administrative search warrant does not authorize the code enforcement officer
to batter down doors in order to gain entry. Camara v. Municipal Court, 387
U.S. 523, 540, 87 S. Ct. 1727, 18 L. Ed. 2d 930 (1967) ("Similarly, the
requirement of a warrant procedure does not suggest any change in what
seems to be the prevailing local policy, in most situations, of authorizing
entry, but not entry by force, to inspect."); State v. Thompson, 151 Wn.2d
793, 92 P.3d 228 (2004) (RCW 10.31.040 does not allow forcible entry into
dwellings to execute civil warrants). If a property owner refuses to comply
with a properly issued administrative warrant, the remedy is to obtain a show
cause contempt hearing. If, at the hearing, the property owner still refuses to
comply with the judicial order, coercive contempt sanctions, including
incarceration may be imposed as authorized by Chapter 7.21 RCW.

234

D.

EXCEPTIONS TO THE WARRANT REQUIREMENT

General Rule. A search and a seizure which is not pre-authorized by a neutral and detached
magistrate through the warrant process is per se unreasonable unless it falls within a carefully
delineated exception. There are some well delineated exceptions to the warrant requirement.
The burden of establishing a valid exception rests upon the prosecution.
1.

Consent.

a.

General Rule. The government has the burden of proving a voluntary consent to
search. oluntariness is determined by a totality of the circumstances. A consent to
search should be upheld where the consent is voluntarily given and that the defendant
had authority to give consent to search. The burden on the State is to demonstrate
that the consent was voluntary and not the product of coercion by clear and
convincing evidence. In addition, a consent search may not exceed the scope for
which the consent was given.

b.

Mere acquiescence to an officer's entry is not consent and is not an exception

to our state's constitutional protection of the privacy of the home. State v.
Schultz, 170 Wn.2d 746, 248 P.3d 484 (2011).

Voluntariness. A totality of the circumstances test is used to determine the

voluntariness of a consent to search. Factors to look at include (a) whether Miranda
warnings have been given; (b) whether the defendant has been told he has the right
to refuse to consent; (c) whether a written waiver of rights has been used; and, (d)
the experience of the defendant with the criminal justice system.
Consent will virtually never be found to be voluntary where it is obtained only after
an officer has indicated that if consent is not given a warrant will be obtained or that
a refusal to consent will result in a search incident to arrest. See State v. ONeill, 148
Wn.2d 564, 62 P.3d 489, 503-04 (2003).
Under Const. art. I, 7, when the goal of the police is to search for contraband
without first obtaining a warrant, consent to search a residence requires that prior to
the person consenting, s/he must be advised that she can refuse to consent, that s/he
can revoke consent at any time, and that s/he can limit the scope of consent to certain
portions of the home. See State v. Ferrier, 136 Wn.2d 103, 118-19, 960 P.2d 927
(1998). Most jurisdictions have added a fourth statement to create what has come to
be known as Ferrier warnings:

235

Consent to Search Warning

1. You have the right to refuse to consent.
2. If you consent to the search, you have the right to withdraw the consent
at any time.
3. You have the right to limit the scope of the consent to certain areas of
the premises or vehicle.
4. Evidence found during the search may be used in court against you or
any other person.

The case that announced the requirement for Ferrier warnings indicated that its
holding only applied to homes, but subsequent case law has extended the rule to hotel
rooms. See generally State v. Kennedy, 107 Wn. App. 972, 29 P.3d 746 (2001). In
addition, the November 1999, decision of State v. Parker, 139 Wn.2d 486, 987 P.2d
73 (1999), indicates that the right to be free from unreasonable governmental
intrusion into ones private affairs encompasses automobiles and their contents.
The Washington Supreme Court reaffirmed this position in State v. Snapp, 174
Wn.2d 177, 187, ___ P.3d ___ (2012) (A privacy interest in vehicles and their
contents is recognized under article I, section 7.). It is, therefore, strongly
recommended that Ferrier warnings be given when consent to search a vehicle is
being sought.
Failure to give the right to refuse warning will not preclude a finding that consent
was properly tendered in certain circumstances. See State v. Thang, 145 Wn.2d 630,
41 P.3d 1159 (2002) (entry to serve an arrest warrant on a guest); State v. Williams,
142 Wn.2d 17, 11 P.3d 714 (2000) (entry to serve an arrest warrant on a guest;
opinion indicates that Ferrier warnings need not be given when officers enter a house
to inspect an alleged break-in, vandalism, and other routine responses); State v.
Bustamante-Davila, 138 Wn.2d 964, 983 P.2d 590 (1999) (entry to serve
presumptively valid deportation order); State v. Overholt, 147 Wn. App. 92, 193
P.3d 1100 (2008), review denied, 165 Wn.2d 1047 (2009) (suspect displayed
evidence to officers, without the officers asking for consent to search); State v.
Dodson, 110 Wn. App. 112, 124, 39 P.3d 324 (2002)), review denied, 147 Wn.2d
1004 (2002) (to inquire into the whereabouts of a suspect and to request permission
to search outbuildings for a stolen 3-wheel vehicle); State v. Johnson, 104 Wn. App.
409, 16 P.3d 680 (2001) (consent from individual who is already in custody); State
v. Leupp, 96 Wn. App. 324, 980 P.2d 765 (1999), review denied, 139 Wn.2d 1018
(2000) (sweep for injured persons when responding to a 911 hang-up call).
Ferrier warnings need not be given when officers request consent to enter a home for
some legitimate, non-search, investigatory purpose, such as interviewing a witness
or suspect. If, after the officer enters the residence circumstances change and the
officer wishes to conduct a search, the officer must obtain a search warrant. See State
v. Khounvichai, 149 Wn.2d 557, 564-66, 69 P.3d 862 (2003).

236

Ferrier warnings need not be given when officers have a search warrant in hand, but
still decide to seek consent to search from the buildings occupants. See State v.
Johnson, 104 Wn. App. 489, 17 P.3d 3 (2001) (police officers seeking consent to
search a private dwelling are not required to inform the resident that consent may be
lawfully refused, limited, or revoked if the officers already have probable cause to
arrest the resident and have in their possession, but not disclosed to the resident, a
valid search warrant or what they in good faith believe to be a valid search warrant).
Ferrier warnings are not required when the officer is in fresh pursuit of the suspect
and the officer does not enter into the home or any other building on the property
with the intent of seeking consent to search. State v. Overholt, 147 Wn. App. 92,
193 P.3d 1100 (2008), review denied, 165 Wn.2d 1047 (2009).
Ferrier warnings need not be provided to a property owner who is being asked to
grant permission for officials to enter his property in order to monitor the property
owners compliance with a conditional land use permit. Bonneville v. Pierce County,
148 Wn. App. 500, 202 P.3d 309 (2008), review denied, 166 Wn.2d 1020 (2009).
c.

Authority to Consent. Only the defendant can consent to a search if the defendant
is the sole owner or has exclusive possession of the premises. A party having equal
use of the object, or equal right to occupation of the premises, may ordinarily give
consent to the officers entry and search that is effective against non-present
cohabitants privacy interest.
i.

Multiple People Present. If two or more individuals who share control over
certain premises, such as roommates, are present when authority to search is
requested, each individual must separately consent to the search or the search
will be illegal as to the non-consenting individual. State v. Leach, 113 Wn.2d
735, 782 P.2d 1035 (1989). The evidence found, however, will be admissible
as to the consenting individual and as to casual visitors. See, e.g., State v.
Walker, 136 Wn.2d 678, 965 P.2d 1079 (1998) (evidence obtained in
violation of the husband's constitutional rights was still admissible against his
wife); State v. Libero, COA No. 41420-1-II, ___ Wn. App. __, ___ P.3d
____ (Jun. 5, 2012) (while one tenant's consent to search was invalid as to
another tenant, the tenant's consent was valid as to the visitor).
In order for the Leach rule to apply, both individuals must be "co-occupants".
To qualify as a co-occupant, it must be shown that each person has equal
control over the premises. See State v. Thompson, 151 Wn.2d 793, 806, 92
P.3d 228 (2004) (adult son, who lived in a travel trailer on his parent's
property, was not a co-occupant with his parents in the boathouse which was
located on another part of his parent's property for which the son did not pay
rent and over which he never exercised exclusive control). Equal control
does not require legal ownership or actual possession. See State v. White, 141
Wn. App. 128, 168 P.3d 459 (2007) (neighbors consent to search the
defendants mothers property was ineffectual as the defendant had equal
access to his mothers property and he objected to the polices warrantless
entry into the building on his mothers property; both neighbor and defendant
237

had keys to the defendants mothers property, neither lived on the property,
and both had permission from the defendants mother to access the property);
State v. Williams, 148 Wn. App. 678, 201 P.3d 371, review denied, 166
Wn.2d 1020 (2009) (consent to enter and search hotel room from the person
who paid for the room was ineffectual as to defendant, who was traveling
with the person who paid for the room, as both individuals had stored items
in the hotel room).
A.

What is present?
Present is defined as being in one place and not elsewhere: being
within reach, sight, or call or within contemplated limits. State v.
Morse, 156 Wn.2d 1, 14 n. 4, 123 P.3d 832 (2005), quoting
Websters Third New International Dictionary at 1793 (1993).
Officers must make an effort to ascertain whether a co-occupant is
present before acting upon consent:
A person is not absent just because the police fail to
inquire, are unaware, or are mistaken about the
persons presence within the premises. If the police
choose to conduct a search without a search warrant
based upon the consent of someone they believe to be
authorized to so consent, the burden of proof on issues
of consent and the presence or absence of other
cohabitants is on the police.
Morse, 156 Wn.2d at 15.
The Washington Supreme Court recognizes that the question of
presence does not lend itself to bright line rules, but it is
unsympathetic about the problems that law enforcement may face:
We recognize that issues of "common authority" and
"presence" will not always be simple and
straightforward. It may be difficult to determine, for
example: (1) whether a child has "common authority"
over her parent's home sufficient to authorize that
child to consent to a warrantless search, (2) whether a
farmer operating a tractor on his back forty is
"present" when the police arrive at the front door of
his farmhouse, or (3) whether an employee at a factory
has authority to consent for an employer who is on the
factory's campus, but in a another building at the time.
However, such difficulties may be avoided by the
police by obtaining either a search warrant or the
consent of the person whose property is to be
searched.

238

State v. Morse, 156 Wn.2d at 15 n. 5.

The only clear guidance from the Washington Supreme Court is that
an individual who is in a bedroom that is located approximately 10
feet from the entrance to the apartment is present for the purposes
of obtaining a valid consent to search. Morse, 156 Wn.2d at 14 n. 4.
B.

Consent to Enter. Case law prior to Morse indicated that a cooccupant had the authority, even if other co-occupants are present, to
allow an officer into those portions of a premise into which customers
or guests are customarily received without the permission of the other
individuals who share control. See State v. Hoggatt, 108 Wn. App.
257, 30 P.3d 488 (2001). Whether this case survives Morse is
uncertain.
It is clear, however, that a co-occupants invitation to enter is
ineffectual as to a co-occupant who is present and who is expressly
objecting to the officers entry. Georgia v. Randolph, 547 U.S. 103,
164 L. Ed.2d 208, 126 S. Ct. 1515 (2006). Law enforcement may
not remove the potentially objecting tenant from the premises for the
sake of avoiding a possible objection. Id., at 164 L. Ed. 2d at 22627.
I.

Mere Acquiescence. Mere acquiescence to an officer's entry

is not consent and is not an exception to our state's
constitutional protection of the privacy of the home. State v.
Schultz, 170 Wn.2d 746, 248 P.3d 484 (2011).

II.

Emergency Doctrine Still Exists. Police may still enter the

house without a warrant when there are objective grounds to
believe that there is reason to fear for the safety of the
occupant issuing the invitation or of someone else inside.
See, e.g., Brigham City v. Stuart, 547 U.S. 398, 126 S. Ct.
1943, 164 L. Ed. 2d 650 (2006) (warrantless entry into house
after police observed, through a window, a juvenile punch
another person in the face), State v. Johnson, 104 Wn. App.
409, 16 P.3d 680 (2001) (entry into house in DV situation
justified under the emergency exception); State v. Raines, 55
Wn. App. 459, 778 P.2d 538 (1989), review denied, 113
Wn.2d 1036 (1989) (police officers responding to a domestic
violence report have a duty to ensure the present and
continued safety and well-being of the occupants of a
home);. State v. Lynd, 54 Wn. App. 18, 771 P.2d 770 (1989)
(entry into house over batterers objections justified under the
emergency exception).

239

As stated by the United States Supreme Court in Georgia v.

Randolph, 164 L. Ed. 2d at 224-25:
No question has been raised, or reasonably
could be, about the authority of the police to
enter a dwelling to protect a residence from
domestic violence; so long as they have good
reason to believe such a threat exists, it would
be silly to suggest that the police would
commit a tort by entering, say, to give a
complaining tenant the opportunity to collect
belongings and get out safely, or to determine
whether violence (or threat of violence) has
just occurred or is about to (or soon will)
occur, however much a spouse or other cotenant objected.
III.

Look the Gift Horse in the Mouth. In Georgia v.

Randolph, 547 U.S. 103, 164 L. Ed.2d 208, 224, 126 S. Ct.
1515 (2006), the Court indicated that the consenting co-tenant
acting on his own initiative may be able to deliver evidence
to the police. This is problematic in Washington as the
burden of proving that the police did not turn the consenting
co-tenant into an agent is high. Also, if the consenting cotenant is married to the objecting co-tenant or is in a civil
union with the objecting co-tenant, the spousal testimonial
privilege will preclude the government from calling the
consenting co-tenant to the stand at trial or in response to a
suppression motion. See generally RCW 5.60.060(1).
The better practice is to submit the information provided by
the consenting co-tenant to a neutral and detached magistrate
in order to obtain a search warrant. Georgia v. Randolph,
164 L. Ed. 2d at 224. This works even if the consenting cotenant is married to the objecting co-tenant, as out-of-court
statements made by one spouse or partner to a civil union
regarding another spouse may be relied upon in an affidavit
for search warrant, in determining probable cause, and in
determining whether the corpus delicti has been established.
See State v. Bonaparte, 34 Wn. App. 285, 660 P.2d 334,
review denied, 100 Wn.2d 1002 (1983); State v. Diana, 24
Wn. App. 908, 604 P.2d 1312 (1979); State v. Osborne, 18
Wn. App. 318, 569 P.2d 1176 (1977).
A co-occupant does have the authority, even if other cooccupants are present, to allow an officer into those portions
of a premise into which customers or guests are customarily
received without the permission of the other individuals who
240

share control. See State v. Hoggatt, 108 Wn. App. 257, 30

P.3d 488 (2001).

C.

ii.

An officer may rely upon a co-tenants consent to

remove firearms from the home of a suspect who has
been arrested for a domestic violence assault, when
the officers actions are being taken for a noninvestigative, community caretaking purpose. See
generally Feis v. King County Sheriffs Dept., 165
Wn. App. 525, 267 P.3d 1022 (2011), review denied,
173 Wn.2d 1036 (2012).

Consent to Search a Vehicle. Where individuals who have equal

right of access and authority over a vehicle are present, consent need
only be obtained from one individual. See State v. Cantrell, 124
Wn.2d 183, 875 P.2d 1208 (1994). This consent, however, will
probably not justify a search of the possessions (i.e. purses, jackets,
gym bags), that the officer knows or should know belongs to
someone other than the person who gave the consent. See State v.
Parker, 139 Wn.2d 486, 987 P.2d 73 (1999). Consent from one
individual will probably not be sufficient as to an express objection
from the other individual. Cf. Georgia v. Randolph, 547 U.S. 103,
164 L. Ed.2d 208, 126 S. Ct. 1515 (2006).

Third Person Consent. When consent is sought from someone other than
the defendant, the courts look to two factors, both of which must be satisfied,
in order for the consent to be valid.
C

The consenting party must be able to permit a search in his own right.
In Washington this means that the consenting party must have the
actual, not just apparent, authority to consent to the search. See State
v. Morse, 156 Wn.2d 1, 123 P.3d 832 (2005).

It must be reasonable to find that the defendant assumed the risk that
a co-occupant might permit a search.

These factors will be reviewed against an objective standard. An officers

subjective belief made in good faith about the scope of the consenting partys
authority to consent cannot be used to validate a warrantless search under
Const. art. I, 7. State v. Morse, 156 Wn.2d 1, 12, 123 P.3d 832 (2005).
There are no post-Morse cases yet that discusses when a consenting party
may tender a valid consent to search. Pre-Morse cases generated the
following general rules that may serve as a starting point in the officers quest
for a valid consent to search:

241

A host generally has the authority to consent to a search of his or her

home, including areas where a guest is staying. A hosts consent to
a search would not, however, allow an officer to open a guests
locked bag. See, e.g., State v. Thang, 145 Wn.2d 630, 41 P.3d 1159
(2002).

A spouse has joint control and equal right to occupancy of the

premises, subject of course to a DV order or other court order
restricting access. A spouse may consent to a search of the house and
generally any evidence located may be used against either spouse.

Parents can generally consent to a search of a childs room where the

child is essentially dependent on the parent. If the child is
independent of the parent and/or paying rent, a parent may lack the
authority to give a valid consent. See, e.g., State v. Summers, 52 Wn.
App. 767, 764 P.2d 250 (1988), review denied, 112 Wn.2d 1006
(1989).

A business owner may consent to a search of his business, but this

consent may not be effective as to an employee's desk, computer, or
locker if the desk, computer, or locker are reserved for the employee's
exclusive use. See, e.g., United States v. Hand, 516 F.2d 472 (5th
Cir. 1975) .

A government employer generally may not grant consent to a search

of the employee's work area. See United States v. Blok, 188 F.2d
1019, 1021 (D.C. Cir. 1951) (concluding that a government
supervisor cannot consent to a law enforcement search of a
government employee's desk); United States v. Taketa, 923 F.2d 665,
673 (9th Cir. 1991); United States v. Kahan, 350 F. Supp. 784, 791
(S.D.N.Y. 1972), rev'd in part on other grounds, 479 F.2d 290 (2d
Cir. 1973), rev'd with directions to reinstate the district court
judgment, 415 U.S. 239 (1974). The rationale for this result is that
the Fourth Amendment cannot permit one government official to
consent to a search by another. See Blok, 188 F.2d at 1021
("Operation of a government agency and enforcement of criminal law
do not amalgamate to give a right of search beyond the scope of
either.")

A child of sufficient age and maturity such that s/he is not overly
influenced by police presence may give a valid consent to search
those portions of the house to which the child generally enjoys access.
Minimum age in Washington is 12 years old. See RCW
13.40.140(10). Children cannot generally consent to search of a
parents bedroom or home office.

242

A houseguest generally cannot provide valid consent to the search of

a hosts home. If, however, the houseguest has been left in sole
possession of the house (i.e. house sitter) the consent may be valid.
See State v. Ryland, 120 Wn.2d 325, 840 P.2d 197 (1992).

A landlord has no authority to consent to a search while the tenancy

is still valid. A general authority to enter an apartment to inspect or
repair does not give the landlord authority to consent to a search by
police. When the lease expires, however, the tenant assumes the risk
that the landlord will exercise the right to joint control and permit a
search. See State v. Christian, 95 Wn.2d 655, 628 P.2d 806 (1981).
Tread carefully here, as courts generally will act to protect tenants
unless there is evidence that the tenant agreed to be out of the
residence on the date the lease expires, or there is evidence that the
tenant has abandoned the property, or the landlord has obtained an
order of eviction.

A rental car company has no authority to consent to a search of a

vehicle while the rental agreement is still in effect. If the rental car
company has not taken steps to recover (repossess) the car after the
rental agreement has expired, then the rental company cannot consent
to a search of the vehicle. See United States v. Henderson, 241 F.3d
638 (9th Cir. 2000).

A motel owner has no authority to consent to a search of a guests

room while the tenancy is still valid. If the motel owner has accepted
late payment and/or tolerated overtime stays in the past, the motel
owner cannot give consent once the tenancy has expired. State v.
Davis, 86 Wn. App. 414, 419, 937 P.2d 1110, review denied, 133
Wn.2d 1028 (1997). A limited exception will apply if the motel
owner has clearly indicated that the authorized overtime stay is of
limited duration. See United States v. Dorais, 241 F.3d 1124 (9th
Cir. 2001) (defendant had no expectation of privacy in hotel room at
12:40 p.m. where hotel's 10 a.m. reminder of the checkout time, and
the housekeeper's noon visit, put defendant on notice that any
extension past noon would be of limited duration).

A repairman or contractor may not consent to a search of the home

where they are working. State v. Eisfeldt, 163 Wn.2d 628, 185 P.3d
580 (2008).
In deciding whether a third person has the authority to consent to a
search on a particular occasion, the following factors should be
considered:

243

Residence:
1.

Does the address on the person giving consents drivers

license (or other ID) match the residence?

2.

Do records on the person giving consent from DOL match the

residence?

3.

Does the person giving consent have a key or other access

device (alarm code, access code, garage door opener)?

4.

Does the person giving consent have mail with the listed
address on it?

5.

Is the name of the person giving consent on the mailbox?

6.

Does the consenting person know the layout of the inside of

the house?

7.

Is the person tending consent already in the home?

8.

Does the person tendering consent have his or her own room?

9.

Do the neighbors (or landlord) of the residence know the

person who is giving consent?

10.

Can the person who is consenting to the search give a

coherent description of his or her present connection to the
residence?

Vehicle:
1.

Is the person who is consenting to the search driving the car?

2.

Do DOL records match up?

In general:
1.

What is the persons motive for giving the officer consent?

2.

Has the consenting person lied to the officer?

3.

Did the consenting person sign the consent form listing them
as the owner?

4.

Does the consenting persons criminal history include any

crimes of dishonesty?
244

d.

5.

If any of the above factors are not established, does the

consenting persons explanation for it make sense? (example:
different name on mailbox because just moved 2 days ago,
coupled with signs of a recent move)

6.

Focus should be on the persons current connection with the

residence or car. If the situation is ambiguous, the officer
must continue to make inquiries until the officer is convinced
the person has authority to consent.

Scope of Consent. A consent search is limited to those areas for which consent is
granted. Consent may be withdrawn at any time. If an officer acts in a manner that
prevents the consenting individual from monitoring the search, the officers actions
might be found to have coerced the individual into believing that he cannot withdraw
his consent. If coercion is found, the fruits of the search will be suppressed. United
States v. McWeeney, 454 F.3d 1030 (9th Cir. 2006).
An officer who encounters a locked container should separately request consent to
search the container, as a general consent to search the location where the container
is found will not be extended to the locked container. See, e.g. State v. Monaghan,
165 Wn. App. 782, 266 P.3d 222 (2012) (drivers consent to search the passenger
compartment and the trunk did not extend to the warrantless search of the locked
container found in the trunk).
When a person gives consent to search an area under joint control, such as a living
room, the consent may be ineffectual as to items that belong to someone else who
resides at the place being searched or who is a guest at the place being searched. See,
e.g., State v. Rison, 116 Wn. App. 955, 69 P.3d 362 (2003), review denied, 151
Wn.2d 1008 (2004) (tenant's consent to search the apartment did not authorize the
police to search a closed eyeglass case belonging to a guest); United States v. Davis,
332 F.3d 1163 (9th Cir. 2003) (lessee's consent to a search of the apartment did not
provide officer's with the authority to search the lessee's roommate's boyfriend's gym
bag which was located under the bed of the room where the boyfriend sometime
slept); Trulock v. Freeh, 275 F.3d 391, 403 (4th Cir. 2001) (although a third party
may have had authority to consent to a general search of a jointly-used computer, that
authority did not extend to another user's password-protected files).
Factors to consider in determining whether a particular item may be searched
pursuant to consent given by one who has joint authority over an area include:

Does the officer know or have reason to know that the closed container to be
searched belongs to someone other than the person who provided the consent
to search?

Is there a monogram or luggage tags on the container which indicate that it

belongs to someone else?

245

Does the consenting person indicate that the container belongs to someone
else?

Would a reasonably respectful housemate/host/spouse feel comfortable

opening the container without the express permission of the owner?

Did the container's owner manifest a desire to keep the container private?

Keeping the container close to the owner

Telling other people to not enter the container

Trying to remove the container from the house/apartment/car when

police are present

A persons consent to a search of their body for narcotics reasonably includes the
groin area. United States v. Russell, 664 F.3d 1279 (9th Cir. 2012). The person
being searched, of course, may verbally withdraw consent as to his or her groin area
or by actively shielding the groin area from the officers search. See, e.g., United
States v. Sanders, 424 F.3d 768, 776 (8th Cir. 2005) (granting a motion to suppress
where the suspect consented to a search of his person but then withdrew consent by
actively shielding his groin area from the officers search).
e.

Prior Consents. The general rule is that an individual can withdraw consent at any
time. This rule, however, may not be applicable where the consent to search is
tendered as part of a pre-trial release order, furlough order, electronic home detention
("EHD") program agreement or similar document. In such cases, the individual who
consented to the search probably must return to court to rescind his or her consent.

f.

In State v. Cole, 122 Wn. App. 319, 93 P.3d 209 (2004), the defendant signed
an EHD program agreement, which included a consent to search, when her
roommate entered the EHD program. The court held that the fruits of a
warrantless search of the residence that was conducted while the EHD was
in full force were admissible at trial.

Special Limitations to Consent.

A suspect may voluntarily consent to a blood test for alcohol or drugs, but only in
cases where the implied consent statute is inapplicable. See State v. Avery, 103 Wn.
App. 527, 13 Wn. P.3d 226 (2000).

2.

Open View.
Open view is the first cousin of plain view. Open view occurs when an observation is
made from outside a constitutionally protected area while at a location where the observer
has a right to be. An example of an open view search is an aerial overflight of a field
looking for marijuana. The observation of contraband from a lawful vantage point, however,
does not justify the warrantless physical intrusion of police officers into a constitutionally
246

protected area to seize the evidence. See, e.g., State v. Jones, 163 Wn.2d 354, 259 P.3d 351
(2011), review denied, 173 Wn.2d 1009 (2012) (an officer's observations of pills in the
defendant's vehicle was not a search, but the observations did not provide a basis for the
warrantless entry into the vehicle to collect the pills). Instead, an officer must take his or her
open view observations to a magistrate for issuance of a search warrant State v. Swetz, 160
Wn. App. 122, 134-35, 247 P.3d 802 (2011); State v. Lemus, 103 Wn. App. 94, 11 P.3d 326
(2000); State v. Ferro, 64 Wn. App. 181, 182, 823 P.2d 526 (1992), review denied 119
Wn.2d 1005 (1992). Entry into the constitutionally protected area, pending the arrival of a
search warrant, must be authorized by some other exception to the warrant requirement. See,
e.g., State v. Gibson, 152 Wn. App. 945, 219 P.3d 964 (2009) (officer, who observed
chemicals and other methamphetamine manufacturing supplies through the windows of a
vehicle, following the arrest of the vehicle, lawfully entered the vehicle solely to secure the
hazardous items, prior to obtaining a search warrant for the vehicle).
Binoculars and flashlights that merely enhance an officers own senses will not render an
open view illegal. See State v. Rose, 128 Wn.2d 388, 909 P.2d 280 (1996) (held illumination
through uncurtained window of the interior of a mobile home by a flashlight at night satisfied
the open view doctrine); State v. Manly, 85 Wn.2d 120, 124, 530 P.2d 306, cert. denied, 423
U.S. 855 (1975) (view through open window enhanced by binoculars). An officers
utilization of a preexisting crack in a wall or knothole will not render an open view illegal.
See State v. Bobic, 140 Wn.2d 250, 996 P.2d 610 (2000) (police officer peering through a
pre-existing peephole in a storage unit from an adjacent empty storage unit). The use of a
device that detects heat or something else that would not be detectable by the ordinary
senses, however, is improper without a warrant. See, e.g., State v. Young, 123 Wn.2d 173,
867 P.2d 593 (1994) (infrared heat detector); State v. Dearman, 92 Wn. App. 630, 962 P.2d
850 (1998), review denied 137 Wn.2d 1032 (1999) (trained narcotic dog).
While an open view does not become illegal solely because an officer is at the location to
deliberately look for evidence of a crime, the entry onto the property will be found to be
improper if the officer is not conducting a care-taking function such as investigating an
abandoned car, if the officer makes no attempt to contact the resident of the house, if the
officer has entered the curtilage solely to collect information for a search warrant and/or if
the officer enters the property at an unduly late or early hour. See, e.g., State v. Ross, 141
Wn.2d 304, 4 P.3d 130 (2000); State v. Maxfield, 125 Wn.2d 378, 397-99, 886 P.2d 123
(1994).
A.

Curtilage. Is the area of a property to which extends the intimate activity associated
with the 'sanctity of a man's home and the privacies of life.'" Oliver v. United States,
466 U.S. 170, 180, 80 L. Ed. 2d 214, 104 S. Ct. 1735 (1984) (quoting Boyd v. United
States, 116 U.S. 616, 630, 29 L. Ed. 746, 6 S. Ct. 524 (1886)). To determine whether
an area is part of the curtilage, we look at four factors which indicate how intimately
the area is tied to the home itself: (1) the area's proximity to the home, (2) whether
the area is included within an enclosure surrounding the home, (3) whether the area
is being used for the intimate activities of the home, and (4) the steps taken by the
resident to protect the area from observation by passersby. United States v. Dunn, 480
U.S. 294, 301, 94 L. Ed. 2d 326, 107 S. Ct. 1134 (1987).

247

It is permissible for officers to approach a home to contact the inhabitants. The

constitutionality of entries into the curtilage hinge on whether the officers actions
are consistent with an attempt to initiate consensual contact with the occupants of the
home. United States v. Perea-Rey, No. 10-50632, ___ F.3d ___ (9th Cir. May 31,
2012). In making contact, an officer need not approach a specific door if there are
multiple doors accessible to the public. United States v. Titemore, 335 F. Supp. 2d
502, 505-06 (D. Vt. 2004), aff'd, 437 F.3d 251 (2d Cir. 2006) ("the law does not
require an officer to determine which door most closely approximates the Platonic
form of 'main entrance' and then, after successfully completing this metaphysical
inquiry, approach only that door. An officer [initiating] a 'knock and talk' visit may
approach any part of the building . . . where uninvited visitors could be expected.").
Once an attempt to initiate a consensual encounter with the occupants of a home
fails, the officers should leave and either get a warrant or return at a later time when
the occupants may reasonably be expected to be at home. United States v. PereaRey, No. 10-50632, ___ F.3d ___ (9th Cir. May 31, 2012).
Observations made by an officer when he drove to the defendants home in the middle of the
day to interview the defendant regarding a theft reported by his neighbor were inadmissible
under the open view doctrine, where the defendant had manifested a desire for privacy by
securing his rural property, which was only reachable by a private easement road and
primitive driveway, with an unlocked gate and No Trespassing and Private Keep Out
signs. State v. Jesson, 142 Wn. App. 852, 177 P.3d 139, review denied, 164 Wn.2d 1016
(2008).
While it is not improper for an officer to request permission from a defendants neighbor to
enter onto the neighbors property so as to get closer to the defendants property, care must
be taken to remain on the neighbors property. See, e.g., State v. Littlefair, 129 Wn. App.
330, 119 P.3d 359 (2005) (an officers observations collected at night while the officer was
on property that he believed belonged to the neighbor were suppressed as the officer had
unintentionally, but surreptitiously, strayed onto the defendants property without a warrant
for the sole purpose of looking for marijuana)
3.

Plain View.
The elements of a plain view search are that the officer has a prior lawful justification for the
intrusion into the constitutionally protected area; that the item(s) seized were immediately
recognized as contraband or as having some evidentiary value; and that the discovery of the
incriminating evidence must be inadvertent. In a recent United States Supreme Court case,
however, the Court held that inadvertence is no longer a requirement for the plain view
exception. Horton v. California, 496 U.S. 128, 110 L. Ed.2d 112, 110 S. Ct. 2301 (1990).
Washington courts seem to be following the federal law. State v. Goodin, 67 Wn. App. 623,
627-28, 838 P.2d 135 (1992), review denied 121 Wn.2d 1019 (1993); State v. Hudson, 124
Wn.2d 107, n.1, 874 P.2d 160 (1994); State v. Fowler, 76 Wn. App. 168, 883 P.2d 338
(1994), review denied 126 Wn.2d 1009 (1995). The classic example of a plain view
occurs where an officer is serving a search warrant for stolen television sets and discovers
marijuana plants.

248

The Washington Court of Appeals indicates that plain view involves three stages: viewing,
reaching and seizing: (1) The officer must view the item to be seized without intruding
unlawfully on the defendant's privacy; (2) the officer must reach the item without intruding
unlawfully on the defendant's privacy; and (3) the officer must seize the item (a) without
intruding unlawfully on the defendant's privacy (as opposed to the defendant's possession),
and (b) with probable cause to believe the item is contraband or evidence of a crime. See
State v. Hoggatt, 108 Wn. App. 257, 270, 30 P.3d 488 (2001).
C

Plain view will not allow an officer to move an item such as a TV set to observe the
serial number. See Arizona v. Hicks, 480 U.S. 321, 325, 107 S. Ct. 1149, 94 L. Ed.
2d 347 (1987); State v. Murray, 84 Wn.2d 527, 534, 527 P.2d 1303 (1974), cert.
denied, 421 U.S. 1004 (1975).

Plain view will not allow an officer to seize a video tape if the exterior of the tape
does not indicate that the tape may be evidence of a crime. See State v. Johnson, 104
Wn. App. 489, 502, 17 P.3d 3 (2001).

a.

Computers
The application of plain view to computer contents is in a state of flux. Two separate
rules15 have been announced by the various Federal Circuit Courts of Appeal. The
current positions are summarized here, beginning with the most restrictive:
i.

Special Subjective Test. In the Tenth Circuit, the usual objective test for
admitting plain view evidence has been replaced by a subjective test designed
to narrow the scope of plain view: Evidence outside the scope of a warrant
is permitted in plain view only if the agent was subjectively looking for
evidence within the scope of the warrant. See United States v. Carey, 172
F.3d 1268 (10th Cir. 1999).
The Seventh Circuit seems to accept the Tenth Circuits inadvertence
standard for plain view (or arguably takes a third approach, that the test is
whether the agent knew or should have known that the file opened was
outside the scope of the warrant). See Untied State v. Mann, 592 F.3d 779
(7th Cir. 2010). The Seventh Circuit, however, rejects the Ninth Circuits
position, stating that:
Although the Ninth Circuit's rules provide some guidance in
a murky area, we are inclined to find more common ground
with the dissent's position that jettisoning the plain view
doctrine entirely in digital evidence cases is an "efficient but

15

A third more restrictive rule was adopted by the Ninth Circuit in its 2009 opinion in United States v.
Comprehensive Drug Testing, Inc., 579 F.3d 989 (9th Cir. 2009). This rule required compliance with a complex set
of prophylactic procedures designed to avoid admission of plain view evidence altogether. The Court, however, retreated
from this position in its 2010 opinion. See United States v. Comprehensive Drug Testing, Inc., 621 F.3d 1162 (9th Cir.
2010).

249

overbroad approach." Id. at 1013 (Callahan, J., concurring in

part and dissenting in part). As the dissent recognizes, there
is nothing in the Supreme Court's case law (or the Ninth
Circuit's for that matter) counseling the complete
abandonment of the plain view doctrine in digital evidence
cases. Id. We too believe the more considered approach
"would be to allow the contours of the plain view doctrine to
develop incrementally through the normal course of fact
based case adjudication." Id. We are also skeptical of a rule
requiring officers to always obtain pre-approval from a
magistrate judge to use the electronic tools necessary to
conduct searches tailored to uncovering evidence that is
responsive to a properly circumscribed warrant. Instead, we
simply counsel officers and others involved in searches of
digital media to exercise caution to ensure that warrants
describe with particularity the things to be seized and that
searches are narrowly tailored to uncover only those things
described.
United State v. Mann, 592 F.3d 779, 785-86 (7th Cir. 2010).
ii.

Usual Test. The Fourth Circuit expressly rejects the Tenth Circuits plain
view rule, stating that:
Williams, relying on the Tenth Circuit's opinion in United
States v. Carey, advances an argument that the plain-view
exception cannot apply to searches of computers and
electronic media when the evidence indicates that it is the
officer's purpose from the outset to use the authority of the
warrant to search for unauthorized evidence because the
unauthorized evidence would not then be uncovered
"inadvertently."
This argument, however, cannot stand against the principle,
well-established in Supreme Court jurisprudence, that the
scope of a search conducted pursuant to a warrant is defined
objectively by the terms of the warrant and the evidence
sought, not by the subjective motivations of an officer.
While Williams relies accurately on Carey, which effectively
imposes an "inadvertence" requirement, such a conclusion is
inconsistent with Horton. Inadvertence focuses incorrectly on
the subjective motivations of the officer in conducting the
search and not on the objective determination of whether the
search is authorized by the warrant or a valid exception to the
warrant requirement

250

In this case, because the scope of the search authorized by the

warrant included the authority to open and cursorily view
each file, the observation of child pornography within several
of these files did not involve an intrusion on Williams'
protected privacy interests beyond that already authorized by
the warrant, regardless of the officer's subjective motivations.
At bottom, we conclude that the sheer amount of information
contained on a computer does not distinguish the authorized
search of the computer from an analogous search of a file
cabinet containing a large number of documents. As the
Supreme Court recognized in Andresen, "[T]here are grave
dangers inherent in executing a warrant authorizing a search
and seizure of a person's papers that are not necessarily
present in executing a warrant to search for physical objects
whose relevance is more easily ascertainable." 427 U.S. at
482 n.11. While that danger certainly counsels care and
respect for privacy when executing a warrant, it does not
prevent officers from lawfully searching the documents, nor
should it undermine their authority to search a computer's
files. See United States v. Giberson, 527 F.3d 882, 888 (9th
Cir. 2008) (holding that "neither the quantity of information,
nor the form in which it is stored, is legally relevant in the
Fourth Amendment context"). We have applied these rules
successfully in the context of warrants authorizing the search
and seizure of non-electronic files, see Crouch, 648 F.2d at
933-34, and we see no reason to depart from them in the
context of electronic files.
Thus, the warrant in this case, grounded on probable cause to
believe that evidence relating to the Virginia crimes of
threatening bodily harm and computer harassment would be
found on Williams' computers and digital media, authorized
the officers to search these computers and digital media for
files satisfying that description, regardless of the officers'
motivations in conducting the search. If, in the course of
conducting such a search, the officers came upon child
pornography, even if finding child pornography was their
hope from the outset, they were permitted to seize it as direct
evidence of criminal conduct and, indeed, bring additional
charges based on that evidence. See Phillips, 588 F.3d 218,
2009 WL 4061558, at *5.
United States v. Williams, 592 F.3d 511, 522-23 (4th Cir. 2010).
It is anticipated that the United States Supreme Court will ultimately resolve this
multi-circuit split. In the meantime, officers should consult their departments legal
advisor and the local prosecuting attorney prior to conducting any search of a
251

computer.
4.

Search Incident to Arrest.

The law regarding searches incident to arrest underwent a profound upheaval with the
issuance of the United States Supreme Courts decision in Arizona v. Gant, 556 U.S. 332,
129 S. Ct. 1710, 173 L. Ed. 2d 485 (2009). After a period of uncertainty, the Washington
Supreme Court expressly held that Const. art. I, 7, does not allow an officer to conduct a
warrantless search of a vehicle when the officer has reason to believe that evidence related
to the crime of arrest is present in the vehicle. See State v. Snapp, 174 Wn.2d 177, ____ P.3d
____ (2012). Whether search of items incident to arrest of a person will be similarly
restricted will be determined by the Washington Supreme Court in State v. Byrd, No. 863997. Argument in Byrd case was held in the Washington Supreme Court on May 15, 2012.
Officers, prosecutors, and the courts will grapple with the implications of Gant and Snapp
for years to come. The information that follows is the authors best guess of what Gant and
Snapp allows in combination with Washingtons unique Article I, 7 jurisprudence. As
always, a prudent officer should discuss this information with their departments legal
advisor and with their local prosecuting attorney.
a.

Actual, Lawful Custodial Arrest Required.

A search incident to arrest is triggered by an actual, lawful custodial arrest. Merely
having probable cause to make the arrest is insufficient. State v. ONeill, 148 Wn.2d
564, 62 P.3d 489, 501 (2003). An actual, lawful custodial arrest requires probable
cause, a warrant or compliance with either the common law rules governing
warrantless arrests or RCW 10.31.100, and a sufficient show of authority to convince
a reasonable person that he or she is not free to leave.
Arrest for Miranda purposes and arrest for search incident to arrest are different
and distinct concepts. An individual may be in custody such that their statements
will be deemed inadmissible absent a knowing and intelligent waiver of their
Miranda warnings and yet not be sufficiently in custody to allow for a search incident
to arrest.
i.

Non-custodial Arrests. A non-custodial arrest occurs where the defendant

is issued a citation for a criminal offense at the scene of a stop. Pursuant to
State v. ONeill, 148 Wn.2d 564, 62 P.3d 489, 501 (2003), no warrantless
search may be made in these cases unless the defendant is actually taken into
physical custody prior to the search and prior to the officer exercising his or
her discretion to book or to issue a citation. See State v. Pulfrey, 154 Wn.2d
517, 111 P.3d 1162 (2005).
A.

Intent of Officer
The courts will independently determine whether a defendant has been
placed into custody. The subjective intent of the officer, as well as the
objective facts will both be considered. Telling a defendant that he is
252

under arrest is insufficient where the officer placed the unhandcuffed

defendant with his cell phone in the back of the officer's patrol car
while the officer conducted a search of the defendant's vehicle, where
the officer did not intend to take the defendant to jail unless the officer
found evidence of a felony. State v. Radka, 120 Wn. App. 43, 83 P.3d
1038 (2004). But see State v. Gering, 146 Wn. App. 564, 192 P.3d
935 (2008) (officers subjective knowledge that the Spokane County
Jail was on emergency status on the day of the arrest and that the jail
would not accept for booking a DWLS charge was irrelevant as the
determination of custody hinges upon the manifestation of the
arresting officer's intent, and this officer removed the suspect from a
store, handcuffed him, and did not tell the defendant prior to searching
him that the defendant was free to leave prior to conducting the
search.).
ii.

b.

Non-booking Arrests. A non-booking arrest occurs where a defendant is

detained for some period of time, but the officer does not plan on booking the
defendant into the jail due to population restrictions at the jail. If the officers
conduct in detaining the defendant would result in a reasonable person feeling
that he or she were not free to leave and if the officer has not told the
defendant that the defendant is not under arrest prior to conducting a search,
then pre-ONeill cases indicate that a warrantless search incident to arrest may
be conducted. See generally State v. Gering, 146 Wn. App. 564, 192 P.3d 935
(2008) (search incident to arrest conducted after the efendant was seized in a
store and handcuffed was lawful even though the arresting officer knew that
the jail would not accept the defendant due to population restructions); State
v. Craig, 115 Wn. App. 191, 61 P.3d 340 (2002) (search incident to arrest
lawful where defendant who was arrested for DWLS was transported from the
scene of the stop to a police station for administrative booking); State v.
Balch, 114 Wn. App. 55, 55 P.3d 1199 (2002) (search incident to arrest
conducted after the defendant was handcuffed and placed in the arresting
officers vehicle was lawful even though the arresting officers superior officer
ordered the defendant released after the search was conducted); State v.
Clausen, 113 Wn. App. 657, 56 P.3d 587 (2002) (search incident to arrest was
lawful even though the jail would not accept defendant for booking due to
population restrictions when the officer arrived with the defendant at the jail).
Whether these cases will apply if a defendant was not removed from the scene
of the stop to another location is uncertain. Your departments policies should
be reviewed with your departments legal advisor and the local prosecuting
attorney.

Scope of Search. The area to be searched pursuant to an actual, lawful custodial

arrest must be within the defendant's zone of control.
i.

Persons. An arrestee has a greatly diminished expectation of privacy due to

his or her status as a prisoner. An unwarranted search incident to a custodial
arrest may extend to the arrestees person. See, e.g., Thornton v. Untied
States, 541 U.S. 615, 626, 124 S. Ct. 2127, 158 L. Ed. 2d 905 (2004) (Scalia,
253

J., concurring) (Authority to search the arrestee's own person is beyond

question); State v. Whitney, 156 Wn. App. 405, 232 P.3d 582, review denied,
170 Wn.2d 1004 (2010) (Gant does not apply to a search of a person, upon the
persons arrest).
A search incident to the arrest of a person also extends to the area within the
immediate control of the arrestee. An area or item is within an arrestees
immediate control if the area is one from which he may gain possession of a
weapon or destructible evidence. Arizona v. Gant, 556 U.S. 332, 129 S. Ct.
1710, 1716, 173 L. Ed. 2d 485 (2009); Chimel v. California, 395 U.S. 752,
89 S. Ct. 2034, 23 L. Ed. 2d 685 (1969).
A search incident to the arrest of the person may include those items that are
immediately associated with the person. Such items include wallets, purses,
and waist-fanny packs. See, e.g. State v. Smith, 119 Wn.2d 675, 835 P.2d
1025 (1992) (search of fanny pack that defendant was wearing when the
officer tackled him); State v. Fladebo, 113 Wn.2d 388, 779 P.2d 707 (1989)
(defendants purse) ; State v. Johnson, 155 Wn. App. 270, 229 P.2d 824,
review denied, 170 Wn.2d 1006 (2010) (purse that driver removed from
vehicle and was holding at the time of arrest.). An officer can, however, lose
the ability to search such items incident to arrest by placing the item in the
arrested persons vehicle while handcuffing the person. United States v.
Maddox, 614 F.3d 1046 (9th Cir. 2010) (the officer illegally retrieved the
defendants cell phone and key chain, that the officer removed from the
defendant and tossed into the defendants vehicle while handcuffing the
defendant; once defendant was handcuffed Gant barred a search of the cell
phone and key chain because the defendant posed no risk and there were no
grounds to believe the vehicle contained evidence of the crime of arrest).
Courts are currently struggling with whether the controlling principles laid out
by the United States in Arizona v. Gant apply to the search of a purse or other
container incident to the arrest of the containers owner. Some courts hold
that Gant is limited to vehicle searches. See, e.g., United States v. Brewer,
624 F.3d 900, 905-06 (8th Cir. 2010), cert. denied, 131 S. Ct. 1805 (2011)
(declining to apply Gant to a search of an arrestee's person); United States v.
Perdoma, 621 F.3d 745, 751-52 (8th Cir. 2010), cert. denied, 131 S. Ct. 2446
(2011) (declining to apply Gant to a search of a bag recovered from an area
within the arrestee's immediate control); People v. Diaz, 51 Cal. 4th 84, 96 n.
9, 244 P.3d 501, 119 Cal. Rptr. 3d 105(2011), cert. petition filed (Gant not
relevant or applicable to the search of an item versus a vehicle); Smallwood
v. State, 61 So. 3d 448 (Fla. App. 2011) (refusing to extend Gant to a cell
phone found on the arrestee's person). Other courts disagree. See, e.g., United
States v. Shakir, 616 F.3d 315, 318 (3d Cir.), cert. denied, 131 S. Ct. 841
(2010) ("Because Gant involved an automobile search, and because it
interpreted Belton, another automobile case, the Government contends that the
rule of Gant applies only to vehicle searches. We do not read Gant so
narrowly. The Gant Court itself expressly stated its desire to keep the rule of
Belton tethered to the justifications underlying the Chimel exception, and
254

Chimel did not involve a car search." (internal citation and quotation marks
omitted)); In re Tiffany O., 217 Ariz. 370; 174 P.3d 282 (2007) ( A finding
that the juvenile was delinquent based on her possession of a pipe that she
used or intended to use to smoke marijuana was improper because the juvenile
court erred when it admitted the pipe into evidence. There was no objective
basis on which to justify the additional search of her purse once the officer had
seized it.).
There are numerous reasons to treat vehicles differently from an arrestees
purses and other containers. The automobile can be left at the scene of the
arrest and/or towed to a different location. The purse that a defendant is
carrying at the time of arrest will have to be transported to the jail if the
defendant is booked. At some point, whether the defendant is booked or
released at the scene, the purse has to be returned to the suspect. This means
the suspect will have access to any weapon in the purse while still in contact
with a police officer or jail employee.
Despite these differences, Division Three of the Court of Appeals recently
ruled that a purse cannot be searched incident to arrest if the defendant cannot
obtain access to the purse in order to obtain a weapon or to destroy evidence.
State v. Byrd, 162 Wn. App. 612, 258 P.3d 686, review granted, 173 Wn.2d
1001 (2011). The Byrd decision is currently binding on all Washington
superior, district and municipal courts.

Whether an arrest will authorize a warrantless search of a cell phone

or computer is undecided at this time. Some courts hold that cell
phones and computers may be treated the same as any other personal
article. See, e.g., United States v. Curtis, 635 F.3d 704, 712-13 (5th
Cir. 2011) (a police officer is authorized to search the electronic
contents of a cell phone recovered from the area within an arrestee's
immediate control); United States v. Murphy, 552 F.3d 405, 411 (4th
Cir. 2009) ( upholding warrantless search incident to arrest, refusing
to distinguish cell phones based on their large storage capacity
because of difficulty quantifying that term in any meaningful way);
People v. Diaz, 51 Cal. 4th 84, 244 P.3d 501, 508 (Cal. 2011)
(warrantless search, incident to a lawful arrest, of a cell phone with
limited storage capacity does not become constitutionally unreasonable
simply because other cell phones may have a significantly greater
storage capacity); Fawdry v. State, No. 1D10-0896, ___ So.3d ___
(Fla. App. May 13, 2011) (search of a cell phone found in defendant's
possession after an arrest pursuant to an unrelated warrant was valid
under the Fourth Amendment because it was a search incident to arrest
and a cell phone merely acts as a case (i.e. closed container) containing
personal effects);
While other courts have indicated that because cell phones can contain
large amount of information and search of contents is not necessary to
preserve safety of police or to prevent destruction of evidence, cell
255

phones are not analogous to physical containers or items such as

wallets and diaries for purposes of search incident to arrest exception.
See, e.g,, State v. Smith, 124 Ohio St. 3d 163, 2009 Ohio 6426, 920
N.E.2d 949, 954 (Ohio 2009), cert. denied, 131 S. Ct. 102 (2010) (a
cell phone is not a closed container for purposes of a Fourth
Amendment analysis; a cell phone may not be searched under the
incident-to-arrest exception to the warrant requirement; the fact that a
cell phone may automatically delete data like call logs does not
provide exigent circumstances for a warrantless search)
Some courts have sought a middle ground allowing some warrantless
searches of phones incident to the arrest of a person. In Hawkins v.
State, 307 Ga. App. 253, 704 S.E. 2d 886, 891-92 (Ga. Ct. App. 2010),
the Georgia Court of Appeals indicated that
Electronic "containers," on the other hand including
small electronic "containers," such as cell phones, that
frequently are transported in vehicles often will
contain the most sensitive kinds of personal
information, in which individuals may reasonably have
a substantial expectation of privacy and for which the
law offers heightened protection. Indeed, it is easy to
imagine that cell phones with text messaging or e-mail
functionality including the cell phone in this case
may contain a significant number of the electronic
equivalent of private papers . . . Moreover, such cell
phones may very well contain privileged electronic
communications, including communications between
lawyers and clients, doctors and patients, and spouses.
Given the volume and diverse nature of data that may
be contained in a cell phone or other mobile electronic
data storage device, we think courts generally should,
as one prominent commentator has put it, treat such a
device "like a container that stores thousands of
individual containers in the form of discrete files."
Kerr, "Searches and Seizures in a Digital World," 119
HARV. L. REV. 531, 555 (2005). Just because an
officer has the authority to make a search of the data
stored on a cell phone (that is, just because he has
reason to "open" the "container") does not mean that he
has the authority to sift through all of the data stored on
the phone (that is, to open and view all of the
sub-containers of data stored therein). Instead, his
search must be limited as much as is reasonably
practicable by the object of the search. See Ross, 456
U. S. at 824 (IV). Although it may not always be
possible at the outset of a search to immediately
256

identify the specific data that is the object of the search

without examining something more, it more often than
not will be possible to narrow in some meaningful way
the sub-containers that might reasonably contain the
object of the search. Where the object of the search is
to discover certain text messages, for instance, there is
no need for the officer to sift through photos or audio
files or Internet browsing history data stored on the
phone.
In United States v. Quintana, 594 F. Supp. 2d 1291 (M.D. Fla. 2009),
the federal district court found a cell phone may not be searched
incident to arrest unless officers have reason to believe it contains
evidence related to the crime.
In United States v. Flores-Lopez, 670 F.3d 803 (7th Cir. 2012), the
Court held that a warrantless search of the cell phone incident to arrest
did not violate the Fourth Amendment where the officer limited the
scope of the search to determining the cell phones phone number.)
The United States Supreme Court has not specifically addressed this
issue yet. The Supreme Court, however, has noted in the employee
search context that special rules may need to be adopted for dealing
with modern communication devices:
The Court must proceed with care when considering
the whole concept of privacy expectations in
communications made on electronic equipment owned
by a government employer. The judiciary risks error by
elaborating too fully on the Fourth Amendment
implications of emerging technology before its role in
society has become clear. See, e.g., Olmstead v.
United States, 277 U.S. 438, 48 S. Ct. 564, 72 L. Ed.
944 (1928), overruled by Katz v. United States, 389
U.S. 347, 353, 88 S. Ct. 507, 19 L. Ed. 2d 576 (1967).
In Katz, the Court relied on its own knowledge and
experience to conclude that there is a reasonable
expectation of privacy in a telephone booth. See id., at
360-361, 88 S. Ct. 507, 19 L. Ed. 2d 576 (Harlan, J.,
concurring). It is not so clear that courts at present are
on so sure a ground. Prudence counsels caution before
the facts in the instant case are used to establish
far-reaching premises that define the existence, and
extent, of privacy expectations enjoyed by employees
when using employer-provided communication
devices.

257

Rapid changes in the dynamics of communication and

information transmission are evident not just in the
technology itself but in what society accepts as proper
behavior. As one amici brief notes, many employers
expect or at least tolerate personal use of such
equipment by employees because it often increases
worker efficiency. See Brief for Electronic Frontier
Foundation et al. 16-20. Another amicus points out that
the law is beginning to respond to these developments,
as some States have recently passed statutes requiring
employers to notify employees when monitoring their
electronic communications. See Brief for New York
Intellectual Property Law Association 22 (citing Del.
Code Ann., Tit. 19, 705 (2005); Conn. Gen. Stat.
Ann. 31-48d (West 2003)). At present, it is uncertain
how workplace norms, and the law's treatment of them,
will evolve.
Even if the Court were certain that the O'Connor
plurality's approach were the right one, the Court
would have difficulty predicting how employees'
privacy expectations will be shaped by those changes
or the degree to which society will be prepared to
recognize those expectations as reasonable. See 480
U.S., at 715, 107 S. Ct. 1492, 94 L. Ed. 2d 714. Cell
phone and text message communications are so
pervasive that some persons may consider them to be
essential means or necessary instruments for
self-expression, even self-identification. That might
strengthen the case for an expectation of privacy. On
the other hand, the ubiquity of those devices has made
them generally affordable, so one could counter that
employees who need cell phones or similar devices for
personal matters can purchase and pay for their own.
And employer policies concerning communications
will of course shape the reasonable expectations of
their employees, especially to the extent that such
policies are clearly communicated.
A broad holding concerning employees' privacy
expectations vis-a-vis employer-provided technological
equipment might have implications for future cases
that cannot be predicted. It is preferable to dispose of
this case on narrower grounds.
City of Ontario v. Quon, ___ U.S. ___, 130 S. Ct. 2619, 2629-30, 177
L. Ed. 2d 216 (2010).

258

A prudent officer will proceed with caution in this area. S/he will treat
a password protected phone or computer as a locked container that
may not be searched absent a warrant or valid consent. See State v.
Stroud, 106 Wn.2d 144, 720 P.2d 436 (1986), overruled on other
grounds by State v. Valdez, 167 Wn.2d 761, 777, 224 P.3d 751 (2009).
An officer who views relevant evidence on a visible screen or monitor
may use those observations to obtain a search warrant.
The search of an item that was immediately associated with the arrest person
must be conducted promptly upon arrest. Compare United States v.
Chadwick, 433 U.S. 1, 97 S. Ct. 2476, 53 L. Ed. 2d 538 (1977) (search of
luggage or other personal property could not be justified as a search incident
to arrest when the search occurred more than an hour after the arrest), with
New York v. Belton, 453 U.S. 454, 101 S. Ct. 2860, 69 L. Ed. 2d 768 (1981)
(a search of the defendants jacket that followed immediately upon arrest
was valid as a search incident to a lawful custodial arrest). See also State v.
Smith, 119 Wn.2d 675, 683, 835 P.2d 1025 (1992) (surveying case law that
finds a search conducted within 17 minutes of arrest to be reasonable, but that
a delay of 30 to 45 minutes is unreasonable).
Evidence properly seized at the scene pursuant to the arrest of the defendant
may lawfully be photocopied or subjected to forensic testing at a later time.
See, e.g., United States v. Rodriguez, 995 F.2d 776, 778 (7th Cir. 1993) (where
address book had been lawfully seized from defendant during search incident
to arrest, "photocopying the contents of the address book was within the
permissible scope of the search as an attempt to preserve evidence"); United
States v. Fortna, 796 F.2d 724, 738 (5th Cir. 1986), cert. denied, 479 U.S. 950
(1986) (where initial examination of documents was clearly proper,
photocopying of those documents "merely memorialized the agents'
observations and provided a means to verify any subsequent recounting of
them") (citing United States v. White, 401 U.S. 745, 28 L. Ed. 2d 453, 91 S.
Ct. 1122 (1971)); Wright v. State, 276 Ga. 454, 579 S.E.2d 214, 222 (2003)
(Development of the film was simply an examination of the camera (i.e.,
container) found incident to the arrest, and is akin to a laboratory test on any
lawfully seized object.); State v. Riedel, 259 Wis. 2d 921, 656 N.W.2d 789,
794 (2002) (the examination of evidence seized pursuant to the warrant
requirement or an exception to the warrant requirement is an essential part of
the seizure and does not require a judicially authorized warrant). Accord State
v. Cheatam, 150 Wn.2d 626, 81 P.3d 830 (2003) (officers could subject
evidence that was placed in jails property room upon the defendants arrest
to forensic testing without a search warrant).
An arrest will not by itself allow for a strip search. See State v. Rulan C., 97
Wn. App. 884, 970 P.2d 821 (1999); State v. Audley, 77 Wn. App. 897, 894
P.2d 1359 (1995). A strip search can occur without the removal of all
clothing. See Edgerly v. City and County of San Francisco, 495 F.3d 645 (9th
Cir. 2007) (the officers conduct in having the suspect drop his trousers and
manipulate his boxer shorts to allow for a visual inspection constituted a strip
259

search).

Any warrantless strip search must strictly comply with RCW

10.79.130. This statute permits warrantless strip searches of arrestees
at local detention facilities in four situations: (1) a person may be strip
searched where there is a reasonable suspicion to believe that a strip
search is necessary to discover weapons, criminal evidence,
contraband, or other things that constitute a threat to the security of a
local detention facility; (2) a person arrested for a violent offense, an
offense involving escape, burglary or use of a deadly weapon or a drug
related offense may be strip searched solely on the basis of the nature
of the crime for which he or she is arrested; (3) a strip search may be
conducted where there is probable cause to believe that it is necessary
to discover criminal evidence that does not constitute a threat to the
security of the facility; and (4) a strip search may be conducted where
there is a reasonable suspicion to believe that it is necessary to
discover a health condition requiring immediate medical attention.
A strip search conducted under these circumstances should be
reasonable under the Fourth Amendment. See generally Florence v.
Board of Freeholders, ___ U.S. ___, 132 S. Ct. 1570, 182 L. Ed. 2d
566 (2012) (every person arrested and held temporarily, who will be
placed among other prisoners at the facility, can be subjected to a
routine strip search, so long as it involves only a visual inspection
without touching or abusive gestures).

ii.

Places. The area of a house or other building that made be searched incident
to an individuals arrest is extremely limited. Specifically, anything beyond
the defendants lunge zone is prohibited.
The scope of the search may not be expanded by allowing the defendant to
move about. See, e.g., State v. Kull, 155 Wn.2d 80, 118 P.3d 307 (2005)
(officer who arrested defendant in the laundry room on a misdemeanor warrant
violated the defendants right to privacy when they accompanied her and her
friend into her bedroom so the defendant could retrieve her purse which held
her bail money; cocaine located on top of the defendants dresser and in her
purse was suppressed); State v. Chrisman, 100 Wn.2d 814, 676 P.2d 419
(1984) (campus police officer who arrested an underage college student for the
offense of minor in possession of alcohol violated the students privacy rights
by entering the students dorm room after the officer who accompanied the
student into the dorm room to retrieve his identification noticed what the
officer believed to be marijuana).

iii.

Vehicles. If a person is arrested in a vehicle, the passenger compartment can

only be searchedincident to the arrest of the driver or a passenger if the
arrestee is unsecured and within reaching distance of the passenger
compartment at the time of the search. Arizona v. Gant, 556 U.S. 332, 129
S. Ct. 1710, 173 L. Ed. 2d 485, 496 (2009); State v. Snapp, 174 Wn.2d 177,
260

___ P.3d ____ (2012).

The unsecured exception will rarely apply. Gant, 173 L. Ed. 2d at 496 n. 4.
This exception requires more arrestees than officers and/or handcuffs and/or
patrol cars. See, e.g., United States v. Davis, 596 F.3d 813, 817 (8th Cir.
2009) (vehicle lawfully searched following the arrest of the driver, as three
passengers, all of whom had been drinking, were not in secure custody and
they outnumbered the two officers at the scene). An officer who leaves a
suspect unrestrained and nearby just to manufacture authority to search, will
see evidence suppressed as a violation of the Fourth Amendment. See
Thornton v. United States, 541 U.S. 615, 627, 124 S. Ct. 2127, 158 L. Ed. 2d
905 (2004)(Scalia, J., concurring) (Indeed, if an officer leaves a suspect
unrestrained nearby just to manufacture authority to search, one could argue
that the search is unreasonable precisely because the dangerous conditions
justifying it existed only by virtue of the officer's failure to follow sensible
procedures. (emphasis in the original)). An officer who leaves a suspect
unrestrained just to manufacture authority to search, will see evidence
suppressed as a violation of Const. art. I, 7. See, e.g., State v. Radka, 120
Wn. App. 43, 83 P.3d 1038 (2004) (defendant was not arrested for purposes
of searching a vehicle incident to arrest where the officer placed the
unhandcuffed defendant and his cell phone, in the back of the officers patrol
car after telling the defendant he was under arrest).
Some post-Gant federal court decisions have indicated that the unsecured
exception applies when an officer will be releasing an offender at the scene,
instead of booking the offender. The rationale utilized by these federal courts
is inconsistent with prior article I, 7 case law. The Washington constitution
requires any search incident to arrest to be conducted after the offender is
actually arrested and before the officer makes the decision to release the
offender at the scene. See State v. Pulfrey, 154 Wn.2d 517, 111 P.3d 1162
(2005) (a search incident to arrest must be made prior to the officer exercising
his or her discretion to book the suspect or to release the suspect with a
citation); State v. ONeill, 148 Wn.2d 564, 62 P.3d 489, 501 (2003) (no
warrantless search may be made in these cases unless the defendant is actually
taken into physical custody prior to the search).
In Washington, an officer who will be releasing a defendant at the scene may
enter the vehicle to search for weapons under the following circumstances:

After obtaining a knowing, intelligent, and voluntary consent to search

the vehicle.
Consent searches present some problems. The Fourth Amendment
does not require that a lawfully seized driver be advised that he is "free
to go" after the traffic citation is issued, before his consent to search
will be recognized as voluntary. The Fourth Amendment also does not
require an officer, prior to requesting consent to search, to have any
articulable facts that the driver is engaged in criminal conduct or that
261

the car contains contraband. Ohio v. Robinette, 519 U.S. 33, 117 S.
Ct. 417, 136 L. Ed. 2d 347 (1996). 2d 347 (1996).
The Washington Constitution, however, prohibits an officer from
extending a traffic stop for an infraction in order to request consent to
search the vehicle when the officer does not have a reasonable
suspicion that evidence of a crime will be found in the vehicle. See
generally, State v. Armenta, 134 Wn.2d 1, 948 P.2d 1280 (1997); State
v. Veltri, 136 Wn. App. 818, 150 P.3d 1178 (2007); State v. Cantrell,
70 Wn. App. 340, 853 P.2d 479 (1993), rev'd in part on other
grounds, 124 Wn.2d 183 (1994); State v. Tijerina, 61 Wn. App. 626,
811 P.2d 241, review denied, 118 Wn.2d 1007 (1991).

Pursuant to Michigan v. Long, 436 U.S. 1032, 103 S. Ct. 3469, 77 L.

Ed. 2d 1201 (1983). Michigan v. Long permits an officer to search
a vehicles passenger compartment when he has reasonable suspicion
that an individual, whether or not the arrestee, is dangerous and
might access the vehicle to gain immediate control of weapons.
See Gant, 129 S. Ct. at 1721. Accord State v. Afana, 169 Wn.2d 169,
184-85, 233 P.3d 879 (2010) (J. Johnson, Justice, concurring) (officer
may search for weapons in passenger compartment of vehicle if he has
reasonable suspicion that the suspect is dangerous and may gain
access to a weapon in the vehicle); State v. Larson, 88 Wn. App.
849, 853-54, 946 P.2d 1212 (1997) (Under the Washington
Constitution, a valid Terry stop may include a search of the interior of
the suspects vehicle when the search is necessary to officer safety. A
protective search for weapons must be objectively reasonable, though
based on the officers subjective perception of events.) .

In Washington, at least, the unsecured exception is not triggered by the

presence of an unsecured and non-arrested vehicle occupant. See State v.
Afana, 169 Wn.2d 169, 178-79, 233 P.3d 879 (2010). In Washington, an
officer who is confronted with additional vehicle occupants may only gain
access to the vehicles interior with proper consent, to conduct a Michigan v.
Long sweep for weapons, or pursuant to a search warrant.
A.

Proximity to Vehicle at Time of Arrest.

The Gant or Snapp weapons exception does not apply unless the
arrestee was in the vehicle at the time of arrest or the arrestee has just
recently exited the car at the time of the arrest. State v. Rathbun, 124
Wn. App. 372, 101 P.3d 119 (2004); State v. Turner, 114 Wn. App.
653, 59 P.3d 711 (2002); State v. Wheless, 103 Wn. App. 749, 14 P.3d
184 (2000); State v. Porter, 102 Wn. App. 327, 6 P.3d 1245 (2000).
Whether a vehicle can be searched when a former occupant is arrested
outside the vehicle will be determined under the totality of the
circumstances. The question to be answered is whether a vehicle that
the arrestee has recently occupied is within the area of the arrestee's
262

immediate control at the time the police initiate the arrest. Id. While
an arrestee's status as a recent occupant may turn on his temporal or
spatial relationship to the car at the time of the arrest and search, it
certainly does not turn on whether he was inside or outside the car at
the moment that the officer first initiated contact with him. See
Thornton v. United States, 541 U.S. 615, 124 S. Ct. 2127, 159 L. Ed.
2d 905 (2004).

B.

Police may not search a vehicle without a warrant incident to

the drivers arrest, when before the officer places the driver
under arrest but after the officer contacts the driver, the driver
exists the vehicle and locks the door. State v. Quinlivan, 142
Wn. App. 960, 176 P.3d 605 (2008).

What May Be Searched

When a warrantless passenger search is authorized, prior Washington
law limited the search to the vehicles passenger compartment. A
prudent officer who is conducting a warrantless search pursuant to the
Gant/Snapp weapons exception should limit the search to the areas
authorized by pre-Gant case law.
The passenger compartment is construed "as including all space
reachable without exiting the vehicle." State v. Johnson, 128 Wash.2d
431, 909 P.2d 293 (1996) (sleeping compartment in the cab of a
tractor-trailer); State v. Vrieling, 144 Wn.2d 489, 28 P.3d 762 (20001)
(the living quarters of a motor home that is stopped while moving
down the road); State v. Mitzlaff, 80 Wn. App. 184, 907 P.2d 328
(1995), review denied, 129 Wn.2d 1015 (1996) (trunk area of hatch
back automobile and rear section of a station wagon). The engine
compartment of a vehicle, notwithstanding fact that release latch was
located in the passenger compartment, may not be searched. State v.
Mitzlaff, 80 Wn. App. 184, 907 P.2d 328 (1995), review denied, 129
Wn.2d 1015 (1996).

Many modern vehicles have rear seats the flip down, allowing
access to the trunk from inside the car. A recent unpublished
opinion from Division III of the Court of Appeals held that
officers may not search the trunk area of such a car even where
the defendant placed his backpack in the trunk area from inside
the car after the officer stopped the defendant's vehicle. See
State v. King, No. 21925-9-III, 2004 Wash. App. Lexis 400
(March 18, 2004), petition for review denied. The Ninth
Circuit, on the other hand, compares such a compartment to a
glove box and allows the space to be searched to the same
extent as a glove box. See United States v. Mayo, 394 F.3d
1271 (9th Cir.), cert. denied, 125 S. Ct. 1749 (2005). Officers
should consult with their department's legal advisor and/or
263

their local prosecutor to determine whether searches may be

conducted of these rear glove-box-like areas.
The search of the vehicle presumptively includes all unlocked
containers. Locked containers, including a glove box, cannot be
legally searched without a search warrant unless exigent circumstances
exist. State v. Stroud, 106 Wn.2d 144, 720 P.2d 436 (1986),
overruled on other grounds by State v. Valdez, 167 Wn.2d 761, 224
P.3d 751 (2009). The arrestee must remain at the scene of the arrest,
in the patrol car is fine, while the search takes place. No search,
however, may occur if the defendant exits his car and locks the vehicle
prior to the officer physically seizing him or her. See State v. Perea,
85 Wn. App. 339, 932 P.2d 1258 (1997).
This bright line rule was blurred by the Washington Supreme Court
in 1999. Please note that reasonable prosecuting attorneys differ on
what the rules are following the Supreme Courts November 4, 1999,
plurality decision in State v. Parker, 139 Wn.2d 486, 987 P.2d 73
(1999). You should check with your county prosecuting attorney to
determine which approach they feel comfortable taking.
In State v. Parker, 139 Wn.2d 486, 987 P.2d 73 (1999), the
Washington State Supreme Court consolidated three cases. In each
case, the defendants were passengers in vehicles where the drivers
were lawfully arrested. In one case the jacket of the nonarrested
passenger was searched. In the other two cases, the purses of the
nonarrested passengers were searched. The Court held that,
the arrest of one or more vehicle occupants does not,
without more, provide the authority of law under
article I, section 7 of our state constitution to search
other, nonarrested vehicle passengers, including
personal belongings clearly associated with such
nonarrested individuals. In determining whether an
item within a vehicle is clearly and closely
associated with a nonarrested passenger, [the following
rule is adopted].
a straightforward rule allowing police officers to
assume all containers within the vehicle may be validly
searched, unless officers know or should know the
container is a personal effect of a passenger who is not
independently suspected of criminal activity and where
there is no reason to believe contraband is concealed
within the personal effect prior to the search.
Parker, 987 P.2d at 83.

264

Pursuant to Stroud, officers may lawfully search a

vehicle passenger compartment incident to the arrest of
the driver. Pursuant to our rationale above, officers
may assume all containers in the vehicle are lawfully
subject to search. If however, officers know or should
know certain containers within the vehicle belong to
nonarrested occupants, such containers may not be
searched absent an independent, objective basis to
believe the containers hold a weapon or evidence.
Parker, 987 P.2d at 84.
[Note: In arriving at their holding in Parker, the Court
considered officer safety concerns. It is precisely
because the privacy interest of a nonarrested individual
remains largely undiminished that full blown
evidentiary searches of nonarrested individuals are
constitutionally invalid even where officers may
legitimately fear for their safety. (emphasis added).
Parker, 987 P.2d at 81.]
Cases decided since Parker was issued establish that:

An officer may frisk a vehicle passenger and the passengers

belongings if the officer is able to point to specific, articulable
facts giving rise to an objectively reasonable belief that the
passenger could be armed and dangerous. See State v.
Horrace, 144 Wn.2d 386, 399, 28 P.3d 753 (2001).

An officer may search items that have been abandoned or

disclaimed by the non-arrested passengers. See State v.
Reynolds, 144 Wn.2d 282, 27 P.3d 200 (2001) (officer
properly searched coat placed on the ground under the
passenger side of the vehicle which the passenger claimed was
not his).

An officer may investigate items where there is genuine

confusion over whether it belongs to a non-arrested passenger.
See State v. Jackson, 107 Wn. App. 646, 27 P.3d 689 (2001)
(officer properly checked pockets of jacket found in car
without first showing the jacket to the arrested driver, where
the arrested driver indicated that the non-arrested passenger
had nothing in the car and that the brown leather jacket was the
drivers and the passenger said it was his).

A question left unanswered by the Supreme Courts Parker decision

is whether a vehicle that is not owned, entirely or in part, by an
arrested passenger may be searched incident to the arrest of the
265

passenger or whether a search incident to such a passenger is limited

to the items clearly and closely associated with the passenger and the
lunge-zone. Compare State v. Chelly, 94 Wn. App. 254, 380-81,
970 P.2d 376, review denied, 138 Wn.2d 1009 (1999), and State v.
Cass, 62 Wn. App. 793, 795, 816 P.2d 57 (1991), review denied, 118
Wn.2d 1012 491 (1992), with State v. Parker, 987 P.2d at 80-81 (the
privacy right of the driver is independent of the right of the passenger).
Division One of the Court of Appeals recently held that evidence
officers found in that portion of the passenger compartment that the
arrested back seat passenger could reach immediately before his arrest
was lawfully seized. State v. Bello, 142 Wn. App. 930, 176 P.3d 554
(2008).
C.

Use of Canines
Once the vehicle has been secured by the arresting officer, it is
questionable whether the defendant may be detained at the scene to
allow for a K-9 unit to arrive at the scene. What is clear in light of
Snapp is that the K-9 may not enter the vehicle absent a warrant or
consent from the driver and/or vehicles owner. Whether the K-9 may
examine the exterior of the vehicle without a warrant is currently
unknown. .
Prior Washington case law is inconsistent regarding whether a K-9's
sniff of an exterior constitutes a search that requires a warrant.
Compare State v. Stanphill, 53 Wn. App. 623, 769 P.2d 861 (1989) (no
warrant required for a canine to smell a package at post office); State
v. Boyce, 44 Wn. App. 724, 723 P.2d 28 (1986) (no warrant required
for a canine to smell a safety deposit box at bank); State v. Wolohan,
23 Wn. App. 813, 598 P.2d 421 (1979), review denied, 93 Wn.2d 1008
(1980) (no warrant required for a canine to smell a parcel in bus
terminal), with State v. Dearman, 92 Wn. App. 630, 962 P.2d 850
(1998), review denied, 137 Wn.2d 1032 (1999) (Const. art. I, 7
requires a warrant before a narcotics dog may sniff along the exterior
seam of a garage). The issue will ultimately turn upon whether dogs
are more similar to flashlights than to thermal imaging detectors.
The olfactory abilities of dogs have been recognized throughout
recorded history. Dogs have long been used in law enforcement to
track criminals. They have also been used to track fugitives of all
kinds, whether soldiers, rebels, or escaped slaves. See State v. Hall,
4 Ohio Dec. 147 (Com. Pleas 1896) (discussing history of tracking by
bloodhounds). The citizens of Washington Territory and early
Washington State were doubtless aware of these facts. They knew that
dogs could be used to discover things and people that were hidden.
They knew that this ability had historically been used as an instrument
of government by beneficent and tyrannical rulers alike. Had the
people considered this to be a threat to their privacy or liberty, they
266

would have taken steps to protect themselves against it, whether by

statute or case law.
There is, however, no evidence of any such protection for a century
after the Washington Constitution was adopted. There are and have
been numerous statutes dealing with dogs. Some protect the dogs
themselves against cruelty. See RCW ch. 16.52. Some protect the
right of handicapped individuals to the assistance of service dogs. See
RCW ch. 70.84. Some protect the public against dangerous dogs or
those that carry communicable diseases. See RCW ch.16.08, 16.70.
Some deal with licensing of dogs and regulation of stray dogs. See
RCW 25.27.010(7), ch. 16.10, ch. 36.49. Some deal with the
protection of wildlife against dogs and the use of dogs in hunting.
RCW 77.12.315, 77.15.240. There is, however, not a single statute
that seeks to protect citizens from the use of dogs olfactory abilities.
Nor is there any early case law recognizing such protection. Until
1979, it does not appear that anyone even suggested that the use of a
dogs nose constituted an invasion of privacy. That year, the Court of
Appeals held in Wolohan that the use of a dog to smell luggage in a
public place did not violate any legitimate expectation of privacy.
During the next 10 years, the court twice reached similar conclusions,
in Boyce and Stamphill. It was not until 1998 that a court first reached
a contrary conclusion in Dearman -- almost 20 years after the issue
was first raised in Washington, and almost 100 years after the
Washington constitution was drafted.
This history demonstrates that protection against a dogs sense of
smell is not part of the privacy interests which citizens of this state
have held safe from governmental trespass absent a warrant.
Rather, dogs have long been a routine and legitimate tool of law
enforcement. The citizens of Washington have apparently believed
that the natural and inherent limitations on a dogs abilities constitute
a sufficient protection for their privacy.
Dogs are entirely different from modern surveillance tools, such as
thermal imagers. Thermal imagers, GPS, and other such technologies
are new, sophisticated, and available to few people. They are also
subject to further innovation that could render them even more
sophisticated.
The association between people and dogs is older than recorded
history. Dogs are widely available to Washington citizens. Although
dogs can be trained to respond to different odors, their inherent
abilities have not changed and are not likely to. The information that
a dog can obtain is extremely limited:
The use of trained dogs to detect the odor of marijuana
267

poses no threat of harassment, intimidation, or even

inconvenience to the innocent citizen. Nothing of an
innocent but private nature and nothing of in
incriminating nature other than the narcotics being
sought can be discovered through the dogs reaction to
the odor of the narcotics.
Wolohan, 23 Wn. App. at 820, quoting People v. Campbell, 67 Ill. 2d
308, 367 N.E.2d 949, 953-54 (1977), cert. denied, 435 U.S. 942
(1978).
In each of these respects, a dog more closely resembles the flashlight
that was considered in State v. Rose, 128 Wn.2d 388, 909 P.2d 280
(1996):
A flashlight is an exceedingly common device; few
homes or boats are without one. It is not a unique
intrusive device used by police officers to invade the
privacy of citizens, and is far different from the device
at issue in [Young]. In Young, we held that the use of
an infrared device to detect heat patters in the home,
which could not be detected by the naked eye or other
senses, and which could in effect enable the officer to
see through the walls of the home, was a particularly
intrusive method of viewing which went well beyond
more enhancement of normal senses. A flashlight, in
contrast, does not enable an officer to see within the
walls or through drawn drapes. Instead, it is a device
commonly used by people in this state. . .
Rose, 128 Wn.2d at 399.
Similarly, dogs are commonly used by many Washington citizens,
both for their sense of smell and for other purposes. They do not allow
anyone to see though walls. They do enhance the senses (as a
flashlight does), but only by allowing the dogs natural sense of smell
to be substituted for the handlers. Like a flashlight, the common use
of a dogs natural senses does not constitute an intrusive method of
viewing that invokes constitutional protections.
D.

What May Be Seized

Once an officer is lawfully in the vehicle, the officer may seize any
items that the officer recognizes as contraband or as having evidentiary
value. See Discussion of Plain View elsewhere in these materials.

268

E.

Suggestions for Processing Vehicles Pursuant to Snapp

These suggestions are the personal opinion of the author. They do not
represent the official position of the Washington Association of
Prosecuting Attorneys, of any prosecutors office, or of the State of
Washington. These suggestions are not intended to be relied upon to
create a right or benefit, enforceable at law by a party in any criminal
or civil litigation. Police officers are encouraged to discuss these
suggestions with their departments legal advisor and with their local
prosecutors.
i.

Always Consider the Appropriateness of a Terry Sweep of

the Vehicle for Weapons.
Under the Washington Constitution, a valid Terry stop may
include a search of the interior of the suspects vehicle when
the search is necessary to officer safety. A protective search for
weapons must be objectively reasonable, though based on the
officers subjective perception of events. State v. Larson, 88
Wn. App. 849, 853-54, 946 P.2d 1212 (1997). This principle
survives the recent United States Supreme Court case of
Arizona v. Gant, 556 U.S. 332, 129 S. Ct. 1710, 173 L. Ed. 2d
485 (2009). See Gant, 129 S. Ct. at 1721 (listing Michigan v.
Long, 463 U.S. 1032, 103 S. Ct. 3469, 77 L. Ed. 2d 1201
(1983), which permits an officer to search a vehicle's passenger
compartment when he has reasonable suspicion that an
individual, whether or not the arrestee, is "dangerous" and
might access the vehicle to "gain immediate control of
weapons, as an established exceptions to the warrant
requirement that authorizes an officer to enter a vehicle);
United States v. Goodwin-Bey, 584 F.3d 1117 (8th Cir. 2009)
(In reexamining the search incident to arrest exception to the
warrant requirement, Gant left [the Michigan v. Long]
exception untouched.).
In a no-arrest situation, where a contact will conclude with the
driver and/or the passengers returning to the vehicle, the
officer should consider whether sufficient objective facts
support a frisk for weapons. See Arizona v. Gant, 556 U.S.
332, 129 S. Ct. 1710, 1724, 173 L. Ed. 2d 485 (2009) (Scalia,
J., concurring) ("In the no-arrest case, the possibility of access
to weapons in the vehicle always exists, since the driver or
passenger will be allowed to return to the vehicle when the
interrogation is completed.).
Factors that will support a frisk of the passenger
compartment in the area immediately adjacent to the suspect:

269

ii.

Driver or passengers furtive movements as if placing

a weapon under the seat (i.e. bending down). See State
v. Horrace, 144 Wn.2d 386, 395-96, 28 P.3d 753
(2001); State v. Kennedy, 107 Wn.2d 1, 726 P.2d 445
(1986); State v. Larson, 88 Wn. App. 849, 946 P.2d
1212 (1997).

Prior contacts with suspect or one of the other vehicle

occupants. See State v. Collins, 121 Wn.2d 168, 173,
847 P.2d 919 (1993) (the fact that the officer had two
months previously arrested the suspect and at that time
discovered the suspect to be in possession of a holster
and bullets provides a reasonable basis to believe the
suspect is presently armed and dangerous).

Visible weapon, weapons case (i.e. knife sheath), or

ammunition. See State v. Collins, 121 Wn.2d 168,
173, 847 P.2d 919 (1993) (the fact that the officer had
two months previously arrested the suspect and at that
time discovered the suspect to be in possession of a
holster and bullets provides a reasonable basis to
believe the suspect is presently armed and dangerous).

Credible report from citizen that an occupant in the

vehicle had pointed a gun at the citizen. State v.
Glenn, 140 Wn. App. 627, 166 P.3d 1235 (2007).

Conduct Through Searches of the Arrested Person

A search of the person incident to arrest remains unchanged.
Such a search should not be limited to an examination for
weapons or contraband. The search should include an
examination for evidence related to each and every crime of
arrest.

Example: In DUI cases look for evidence of receipts

from bars, restaurants, and other places that serve
alcohol.

Example: In false name cases look for any credit

cards, ID cards, passports, etc., that have a name on
them.

During the search incident to arrest, carefully consider the

items that you uncover. Ask yourself if the evidence you
uncover supports probable cause to believe that evidence
related to another crime may be present in the vehicle.

270

iii.

Carefully Examine the Vehicles Interior Through the

Windows
If an officer can safely walk around the vehicle, the officer
should examine the interior of the vehicle through every
available window. In making this examination, the officer
may use a flashlight. See State v. Rose, 128 Wn.2d 388, 909
P.2d 280 (1996) (held illumination through uncurtained
window of the interior of a mobile home by a flashlight at
night satisfied the open view doctrine); State v. Manly, 85
Wn.2d 120, 124, 530 P.2d 306, cert. denied, 423 U.S. 855
(1975) (view through open window enhanced by binoculars).
An officer, however, should not enter the vehicle through any
door or open window during this examination.
The officer should carefully note everything he or she
observes. Particular attention should be paid to items that
relate to the crime of arrest. Detailed notes should be made
regarding such items, their location, and their appearance.

Example: Six pack of Heineken beer, with one can

missing, observed in open paper sack in the rear
passenger seat well, immediately behind the drivers
seat. Open can of Heineken beer in the dashboard cup
holder. Condensation apparent on this beer can.

When feasible, an officer should photograph, from outside the

car, the evidence the officer observes through the vehicles
windows.
While neither the photographs nor an officers observations of
items made through a vehicles windows while the officer is
outside the vehicle are searches, an officer may not enter the
vehicle without a warrant or consent to collect the evidence.
See State v. Jones, 163 Wn. App. 354, 259 P.3d 351 (2011),
review denied, 173 Wn.2d 1009 (2012) (an officers
observations of pills in the defendants vehicle was not a
search, but the observations did not provide a basis for the
warrantless entry into the vehicle to collect the pills).
iv.

Ask the Arrestee About the Contents of His or Her Vehicle

and About Any Items of Interest Discovered During the
Vehicle Walk-around and the Search of the Arrestee
If the arrested person agrees to answer questions after being
fully advised of his or her Miranda rights, inquire whether the
vehicle contains any items that relate to the crime of arrest or
to another crime. Also inquire whether the vehicle contains
271

anything that may harm the person who will ultimately remove
the vehicle from the location of the stop.
Carefully consider whether the arrested persons statements
arise to probable cause to believe that evidence related to any
crime may be present in the vehicle.
v.

Do Not Ask the Arrestee if He or She Wishes to Have

Something that is Contained in the Vehicle Brought to the
Jail with Him or Her
When every vehicle was subject to search incident to arrest,
many officers got into the habit of asking the arrested person
if there was anything in the vehicle that the arrested person
wished to have brought to the jail. This question was
frequently answered in the affirmative, accompanied by
requests for purses, wallets, cell phones, and keys. A real
concern exists that post-Gant/post-Snapp, such a question will
be deemed an improper attempt to expand the area an officer
may access incident to arrest. Cf. State v. Kull, 155 Wn.2d
80, 118 P.3d 307 (2005) (officer who arrested defendant in the
laundry room on a misdemeanor warrant violated the
defendants right to privacy when they accompanied her and
her friend into her bedroom so the defendant could retrieve her
purse which held her bail money; cocaine located on top of the
defendants dresser and in her purse was suppressed); State v.
Chrisman, 100 Wn.2d 814, 676 P.2d 419 (1984) (campus
police officer who arrested an underage college student for the
offense of minor in possession of alcohol violated the students
privacy rights by entering the students dorm room after the
officer who accompanied the student into the dorm room to
retrieve his identification noticed what the officer believed to
be marijuana).
Post-Gant and Snapp, officers should let the arrested person
initiate any discussion regarding the possibility of bringing any
of the vehicles contents with him or her to jail. If the arrestee
does request that a purse, wallet, or other item be fetched from
the vehicle, the officer will need to obtain the arrestees
informed consent prior to entering the vehicle to obtain the
object. Information that the officer will want to convey to the
arrestee includes: (1) the officer will have to enter the vehicle
to obtain the item; (2) that while the officer will limit his entry
into the vehicle to the path necessary to fetch the item, the
officer will seize any evidence or contraband that the officer
observes along that path; (3) that any item the officer retrieves
from the vehicle will be subject to a search; and (4) that any
evidence discovered by the officer may be used against the
272

arrested person in a court of law. If the arrestee agrees to these

terms, the officer should document the consent and what
actions the officer took based upon that consent.

vi.

Example Ms. Naughty asked me if it was possible to

have her purse brought with her to the police station.
I explained that she would not be allowed to enter her
car to fetch the purse, but that she could give me
permission to enter the car to retrieve the purse. I
explained that, if retrieved, the purse would be subject
to a search and that any drugs, weapons, or other
evidence I discovered while in the car to retrieve her
purse, would be seized and might be used against her
at trial. Ms. Naughty stated she understood these
conditions, and that she still wanted me to fetch her
purse. I asked Ms. Naughty where her purse was
located. She indicated that the purse was on the rear
passenger seat. I entered Ms. Naughtys vehicle
through the drivers door as the rear doors of the
vehicle were locked. Immediately upon entering the
vehicle, I observed ......

Consider the Appropriateness of a Search Warrant

Search warrants are available for all crimes, felonies and
misdemeanors. Obtaining a search warrant, however, can
remove an officer from patrol for a significant period of time
and can entail the cost of an impound. The time and cost
factor must be weighed against the currently available
evidence of the crimes of arrest and the likelihood that the
vehicle contains evidence of other crimes.
If seizing the evidence observed through the windows of the
vehicle walk-around will not increase the strength of the case,
an officer should probably forego seeking a search warrant and
should simply proceed with determining the final disposition
of the vehicle.

Example In a DUI arrest, the seizure of beer cans,

open liquor bottles, and other similar items that will
not be subjected to forensic examination is unnecessary
when photographs of the items were taken during the
vehicle walkaround or when the officer includes a
detailed description of the items in his or her report.

If seizing evidence observed through the windows of the

vehicle will increase the strength of the case and/or statements
made by the arrested person, items observed from the exterior
273

of the vehicle, odors, and other information provides probable

cause to believe that the vehicle contains evidence of any
crime, then an officer should obtain a warrant. This probable
cause is different from the probable cause to make an arrest.
See generally United States v. OConnor, 658 F.2d 688, 693
n.7 (9th Cir. 1981) (Probable cause to arrest concerns the
guilt of the arrestee, whereas probable cause to search an item
concerns the connection of the items sought with crime and the
present location of the items.; probable cause to search or
seize may exist even though probable cause to arrest does not).

If the anticipated search does not extend beyond the

passenger compartment and the trunk, an officer may
wish to obtain and execute the warrant at the roadside.
If the initial search gives rise to a need to perform
forensic tests or to remove door panels, etc., the
vehicle can then be transported to a secure police
impound yard or forensic facility.

If the search cannot be conducted at the roadside, the

vehicle may be seized and held for the time reasonably
required to obtain a warrant. The seizure of the vehicle
extends to all items located in the vehicle. See, e.g.,
State v. Campbell, 166 Wn. App. 464, 272 P.3d 859
(2012) (officers, who had probable cause to search a
vehicle and who seized the car while waiting for the
warrants arrival, properly barred the passenger from
retrieving her purse, which she had left in the vehicle,
until after the warrant was executed).
The seizure of the vehicle for a search warrant does not
authorize an officer to seize the occupants. Cf. State
v. Broadnax, 98 Wn.2d 289, 654 P.2d 96 (1982) (an
occupant of a house for which a warrant is being
sought may not be detained upon leaving the house
unless there is probable cause to arrest them for a
crime or there are some independent facts tying the
departing occupant to illegal activity). Facts in support
of a Terry stop must give rise to believe that the
individual, as opposed to the place where he was
found, is involved in criminal activity

A search warrant may only be obtained for (1) evidence of a

crime; (2) contraband, the fruits of crime, or things otherwise
criminally possessed; (3) weapons or other things by means of
which a crime has been committed or reasonably appears about
to be committed; and (4) person for whose arrest there is
probable cause, or who is unlawfully restrained. A search
274

warrant may only authorize an officer to seize items related to

those offenses for which there is probable cause. In executing
a search warrant, however, an officer is not required to ignore
evidence of other crimes that the officer encounters. If an
officer encounters such evidence, he or she can return to the
judge and request an expansion of the search warrant and/or
seize the items under the plain view exception to the warrant
requirement.
Therefore, in deciding whether to seek a search warrant, an
officer should take into account his or her suspicions that a
vehicle contains evidence related to crimes, other than the
crimes of arrest.

Example Possibility that drugs may be in the vehicle

of a person who is arrested for DUI and who is
exhibiting signs of recent drug use.

An officers subjective belief that evidence of additional

crimes may be in the vehicle, will not invalidate a search
conducted pursuant to a warrant that was issued for other
offenses for which the officer had probable cause. The
Washington Supreme Court has already rejected the
applicability of Ladson pretext doctrine to search warrants:
Lansden's primary claim is that the initial
warrant issued to search for code violations
was a pretext to enable law enforcement
personnel to search the defendant's property for
evidence of drugs. Lansden analogizes to this
Court's line of pretext traffic stop cases, where
minor traffic infractions led to searches for
drugs or other criminal activity.
Lansden argues that the reasoning of State v.
Ladson, a pretext case in the context of a traffic
stop, applies to the case before us. The Ladson
court concluded that there is "a constitutionally
protected interest against warrantless traffic
stops or seizures on a mere pretext to dispense
with the warrant when the true reason for the
seizure is not exempt from the warrant
requirement." State v. Ladson, 138 Wn.2d 343,
358, 979 P.2d 833 (1999). Where a valid
warrant is issued, the result reached in Ladson
is not applicable, as the search in Ladson was
warrantless.

275

The defendant also cites to State v.

Bartholomew, 56 Wn. App. 617, 784 P.2d
1276 (1990), for the proposition that even
when the police have a valid warrant,
unauthorized law enforcement personnel may
not be present to search and arrest for their own
purposes. In the case before us, the search
warrant was directed "to the Sheriff of Yakima
County, State of Washington, his deputies or to
any peace officer of the State of Washington
duly authorized to enforce or assist in enforcing
any law thereof." CP at 51. Even though the
police may have suspected drug activity at
Pence Road, there is no evidence that the
officers who executed the warrant failed to
conform with its directive.
We decline to apply a pretext analysis to
searches pursuant to a valid warrant.
State v. Lansden, 144 Wn.2d 654, 662, 30 P.3d 483 (2001).
Any officer, who obtains a search warrant for a vehicle for
evidence related to a relatively minor offense, must strictly
conform his or her behavior to the terms of the search warrant.
A cautious police officer may wish to limit an initial search
warrant to the passenger compartment of a vehicle, and seek an
expansion of the warrant to include hidden compartments or
the trunk if evidence is observed during the execution of the
limited search warrant that will support entry into these
additional areas of the vehicle.
Any search warrant will involve a commitment of resources,
including tow truck fees and the diversion of manpower from
other tasks. In some jurisdictions, line officers need to obtain
approval for search warrants from supervising officers.
vii.

Follow Departmental Policy Regarding the Final

Disposition of the Vehicle
Once an officer decides that a search warrant will not be
sought, the officer should follow departmental policy regarding
the final disposition of the vehicle. Evidence and contraband
observed during an impound inventory or while moving the
vehicle to a location where it will not impede traffic, may be
seized pursuant to the plain view exception to the warrant
requirement.

276

An officer should not use an impound as a pretext to

collect evidence. See generally State v. Houser, 95
Wn.2d 143, 155, 622 P.2d 1218 (1980) (we recognize
the possibility for abuse and have required that the
State show that the [inventory] search was conducted
in good faith and not as a pretext for an investigatory
search); State v. Gluck, 83 Wn.2d 424, 428-29, 518
P.2d 703 (1974) (inventory searches must be
conducted in good faith to be justified). A prudent
officer who unexpectedly discovers evidence of a
crime during an impound inventory will cease the
impound inventory and will obtain a search warrant
prior to looking for additional evidence.

When an vehicle is being released to a passenger or to

someone else identified by the arrestee, an officer should
advise that person that the vehicle has not been searched and
that contraband or weapons may be present. The officer
should ensure that the person who is collecting the vehicle
knows they are taking the vehicle as is. The officer should
document that this exchange occurred.
5.

Inventory Searches.
a.

Vehicles. When a vehicle is impounded, an inventory search pursuant to department

policy may be conducted. Evidence seized may be used in a criminal prosecution.
Probable cause is not needed for this exception. The search must be reasonable and
the impound must not be a pretext for an evidentiary search. See State v. Simpson, 95
Wn.2d 170, 622 P.2d 1199 (1980). If a vehicle is impounded for evidentiary purposes
only, a search warrant, based on probable cause, is needed.
A locked automobile trunk may not be opened even if it may be opened without a key
from an accessible area of the passenger compartment. See State v. White, 135 Wn.2d
761, 958 P.2d 982 (1998). Locked or closed containers should be inventoried as a
sealed unit absent exigent circumstances. See generally State v. Houser, 95 Wn.2d
143, 622 P.2d 1218 (1980). These same restrictions apply to inventory searches of
items other than vehicles. See generally, State v. Dugas, 109 Wn. App. 592, 36 P.3d
577 (2001).
Reasonable Alternative Rule. Washington cases generally limit impounds and
impound searches to those occasions when there is no reasonable alternative to an
impound. See State v. Williams, 102 Wn.2d 733, 689 P.2d 1065 (1984). The
legislature has enacted statutes to dispense with the reasonable alternative rule with
respect to certain types of offenses, but whether such statutes are constitutional under
Art. 1, 7, is still an open question. See In re Impoundment of Chevrolet Truck, 148
Wn.2d 145, 60 P.3d 53 (2002) (avoiding the constitutional issue by striking down a
mandatory Washington State Patrol regulation on statutory grounds).

277

Under the reasonable alternative rule, police may not impound a vehicle if:

The owner is present, the owner does not wish to have the vehicle impounded,
the vehicle may be lawfully parked at the scene, and the owner is willing to
sign a liability waiver.

The owner is present, the owner does not wish to have the vehicle impounded,
and the owner is willing to let a sober, licensed driver remove the vehicle from
the scene. The sober, licensed driver must either be at the scene or able to
respond to the scene in a reasonable period of time.

An inventory may be conducted, over the defendants objections, once alternatives to

impound have been explored without success. See, e.g., State v. Tyler, 166 Wn. App.
202, 269 P.3d 379 (2012), review granted, ___ Wn.2d ___ (Jun. 5, 2012) (vehicle
stopped on a narrow and very busy portion of the highway, registered owner of the
vehicle was incarcerated, the passenger had a suspended license, and several phone
calls did not produce anyone who could come to the scene to remove the vehicle,
which contained expensive, unsecured stereo equipment). A defendants prior denial
of consent to search the vehicle will not preclude an inventory of its contents once
impound becomes necessary. Id.
Exceptions to the Reasonable Alternative Rule
i.

Vehicle is evidence of a crime. As evidence of a crime if there is probable

cause to believe it is stolen or has been used in a felony. Also if the officer has
probable cause to believe the serial numbers in the vehicle have been altered
or destroyed. See RCW 46.12.310. (Under these circumstances, a warrant
should be obtained prior to searching the contents of the vehicle).
A vehicle may be seized and sealed while a warrant is being obtained if the
officer has probable cause to believe the car contains contraband or evidence
of a crime. Seizure only authorized for the time reasonably necessary to
obtain a search warrant and to conduct the search. See State v. Huff, 64 Wn.
App. 641, 826 P.2d 698 (1992).

ii.

Vehicle is subject to forfeiture. A vehicle may be impounded when it is

subject to statutory forfeiture. (Example: RCW 69.50.505). See generally
Frost v. Walla Walla, 106 Wn.2d 669, 724 P.2d 1017 (1986).

iii.

Community Caretaking. Vehicle threatened by vandalism or theft of

contents. In State v. Sweet, 44 Wn. App. 226, 721 P.2d 560 (1986), the court
upheld the inventory search of a vehicle where the arrestee was unconscious,
items of value were visible in the vehicle, and the vehicle was in an area of
high crime.

iv.

Exigent Circumstances. A vehicle may be impounded to prevent flight by

a suspect. See State v. Burgess, 43 Wn. App. 253, 716 P.2d 948 (1986)
(officer's flattened the tires).
278

v.

Statute Authorizes Impoundment

As part of the police function of enforcing traffic regulations, if the driver has
committed a traffic offense for which the Legislature has authorized
impoundment. If the statute is mandatory, then the officer does not have to
provide the driver with an opportunity to remove personal property from the
vehicle before the inventory is conducted. See United States v. Penn, 233 F.3d
1111 (9th Cir. 2000). If, however, the statute merely indicates that an officer
may impound the vehicle, an officer must exercise discretion when deciding
to impound the vehicle. See, e.g. State v. Coss, 87 Wn. App. 891, 943 P.2d
1126 (1997), review denied, 134 Wn.2d 1028 (1998). This means that if
passengers are present, the officer must first inquire whether any of the
passengers are willing to move the car and whether the person who steps
forward is validly licensed. A police officer may, nonetheless, impound a
vehicle if that appears the best method of preventing a reoccurrence of the
illegal conduct. See, e.g., State v. Peterson, 92 Wn. App. 899, 964 P.2d 1231
(1998).
State statutes authorizing impoundment are either discretionary or mandatory.
A local jurisdiction may adopt an ordinance that mandates impoundment when
a state statute does not so require. The validity of such an ordinance is
uncertain. Compare City of Kent v. Mann, 161 Wn. App. 126, 253 P.3d 409
(2011), with In re 1992 Honda Accord, 117 Wn. App. 510, 71 P.3d 226
(2003).
When a vehicle is impounded pursuant to a statute, evidence discovered
during an inventory search may be inadmissible under the Fourth Amendment.
See United States v. Cervantes, No. 09-50521, ___ F.3d ___ (9th Cir. May 16,
2012) (inventory search will violate the Fourth Amendment even though the
driver was driving on a suspended license if the government presents no
evidence that the impoundment served any caretaking function). A prudent
officer should note all valid community caretaking functions that are present
at the time of the impound. Valid caretaking functions include ensuring free
flow of traffic, removing public safety threats, protecting the owner's property,
protecting police from the owner charging them with having stolen, lost, or
damaged the owner's property. Id. Legislative findings may also be
considered in establishing that the statute serves a valid community caretaking
function. See, e.g., RCW 46.55.330 (findings in support of the mandatory 12
hour DUI impound).
A.

Discretionary Statutes
Currently the legislature has authorized impound in RCW 46.55.113
when:

the driver of a vehicle is arrested for a violation of RCW

46.20.342 or 46.20.345 (specific restrictions if the vehicle is a
commercial vehicle)
279

a police officer finds a vehicle standing upon the roadway in

violation of any of the provisions of RCW 46.61.560

a police officer finds a vehicle unattended upon a highway

where the vehicle constitutes an obstruction to traffic or
jeopardizes public safety

a police officer finds an unattended vehicle at the scene of an

accident or when the driver of a vehicle involved in an
accident is physically or mentally incapable of deciding upon
steps to be taken to protect his or her property

whenever the driver of a vehicle is arrested and taken into

custody by a police officer

whenever a police officer discovers a vehicle that the officer

determines to be a stolen vehicle

whenever a vehicle without a special license plate, placard, or

decal indicating that the vehicle is being used to transport a
person with disabilities under RCW 46.16.381 is parked in a
stall or space clearly and conspicuously marked under RCW
46.61.581 which space is provided on private property without
charge or on public property

upon determining that a person is operating a motor vehicle

without a valid and, if required, a specially endorsed driver's
license or with a license that has been expired for ninety days
or more

when a vehicle is illegally occupying a truck, commercial

loading zone, restricted parking zone, bus, loading,
hooded-meter, taxi, street construction or maintenance, or
other similar zone where, by order of the director of
transportation or chiefs of police or fire or their designees,
parking is limited to designated classes of vehicles or is
prohibited during certain hours, on designated days or at all
times, if the zone has been established with signage for at least
twenty-four hours and where the vehicle is interfering with the
proper and intended use of the zone

when a vehicle with an expired registration of more than

forty-five days is parked on a public street

RCW 46.32.060 allows an officer to impound a vehicle that is found to be so

defective that it is considered unsafe to operate until the defective equipment
is corrected

280

RCW 46.55.085 authorizes the impound of an unauthorized vehicle left within

a highway right of way. Generally, the officer must first attach a notice and
wait 24 hours to see if the vehicle has been removed before the impound is
allowed.
B.

Mandatory Statutes
Promoting Prostitution. A vehicle must be impounded when used
in the commission of commercial sexual abuse of a minor, promoting
commercial sexual abuse of a minor, or promoting travel for
commercial sexual abuse of a minor, and the owner of the vehicle is
arrested . A vehicle may be impounded when used in the commission
of patronizing a prostitute, promoting prostitution in the first degree,
promoting prostitution in the second degree, and promoting travel for
prostitution. See RCW 9A.88.140.
DUI and Physical Control. Laws of 2011, ch. 167, Haileys Law,
codified at RCW 46.55.350-.370, requires an officer to impound a
vehicle when a driver is arrested for a violation of RCW 46.61.502 or
RCW 46.61.504. This law does not apply to individuals arrested for
vehicular assault, vehicular homicide, negligent driving in the first
degree, Minor DUI, or CMV .04 arrests.

If the arrested driver is a registered owner of the vehicle, the

vehicle is subject to a twelve-hour hold. The 12 hour period
begins when the impounded vehicle arrives at the registered
tow truck operators storage facility.

If there is a second registered owner of the vehicle, the

non-arrested legal or registered owner may redeem the
vehicle as soon as the vehicle arrives at the registered
two truck operators storage facility.

If the arrested driver is not the registered owner of the vehicle,

the vehicle may be redeemed by the vehicles registered owner
as soon as it arrives at the registered tow truck operators
storage facility.
.

If the arrested driver was operating a commercial

vehicle or farm transport vehicle and the arrested
driver is not the owner of the vehicle, the police officer
must attempt to contact the owner of the vehicle before
the vehicle may be impounded. If the owner can arrive
at the scene is a reasonable period of time, the officer
may release the vehicle to the owner.

281

If the owner was in the vehicle while the driver

was operating the vehicle while intoxicated, the
officer may not release the commercial vehicle
or farm transport vehicle to the owner.

An officer is not required to wait with the vehicle for the tow
truck operator to arrive if: (i) the officer has waited 30 minutes
after the police contacted the police dispatcher requesting a
registered two truck operator and the responding tow truck has
not arrived; or (ii) the police officer is presented with exigent
circumstances such as being called to another incident or due
to limited available resources being required to return to patrol.

Wrongful Impoundment. Any person who feels that an officer improperly

impounded a vehicle is entitled to a hearing in district court to contest the validity of
the impound. RCW 46.55.120(2)(b). "... the person or agency who authorized the
impoundment shall be liable for any towing, storage, or other impoundment fees..."
RCW 46.55.120(3)(c). The process for redeeming an impounded vehicle contained
in RCW 46.55.120 is not the exclusive remedy for a person whose vehicle is
unlawfully impounded. A person whose vehicle is unlawfully impounded may bring
a conversion action against the authority that authorized the impoundment. Potter v.
Washington State Patrol, 165 Wn.2d 67, 196 P.3d 691 (2008). A person whose
vehicle is unlawfully impounded may obtain suppression of any evidence located by
the officer during the inventory search. United States v. Maddox, 614 F.3d 1046 (9th
Cir. 2010).
b.

6.

Persons. An inventory search may also be made of a person who is booked into jail.
South Dakota v. Opperman, 428 U.S. 364 (1976). If the suspect is eligible for bail,
the suspect must be given an opportunity to post the bail prior to the inventory search
or the inventory search will be unlawful. State v. Smith, 56 Wn. App. 145 (1989);
RCW 10.31.030. This restriction only applies to people who were not immediately
searched incident to arrest.

Emergency Doctrine.
The need to protect or preserve life, avoid serious injury or protect property in danger of
damage justifies an entry that would otherwise be illegal absent an emergency. Police officer
owe other duties to the public such as rendering aid to individuals in danger and protecting
their property and premises. The officers motivation for the entry is the linchpin in the
assertion of the emergency doctrine. It is important to remember, however, that while an entry
may be justified under the emergency doctrine, a warrant will generally need to be obtained
prior to further investigation or seizure of evidence.
The emergency doctrine does not require probable cause but must be motivated by the
perceived need to render aid or assistance. Police are acting under their general or community
caretaking role in emergency action, not in their evidence gathering role. Washington cases
have generally held that for a search or entry to come within the emergency exception, the
court
282

must be satisfied that the claimed emergency was not simply a pretext for
conducting an evidentiary search and instead was "actually motivated by a
perceived need to render aid or assistance." To that end, the State must show
that: (1) the searching officer subjectively believed an emergency existed; and
(2) a reasonable person in the same circumstances would have thought an
emergency existed.
State v. Lynd, 54 Wn. App. 18, 21, 771 P.2d 770 (1989) (citation omitted). There must also
be a reasonable basis for associating the need for assistance with the place that is entered.
State v. Menz, 75 Wn. App. 351, 354, 880 P.2d 48 (1994), review denied, 125 Wn.2d 1021
(1995); State v. Gocken, 71 Wn. App. 267, 277, 857 P.2d 1074 (1993), review denied, 123
Wn.2d 1024 (1994). Satisfaction of these three factors will address the concern that the
claimed emergency was not simply a pretext for conducting an evidentiary search and instead
was actually motivated by a perceived need to render aid or assistance. Lynd, 54 Wn. App.
at 21.
The Washington Supreme Court recently distilled the case law into a five-part test, requiring
the government to show that:
(1)

the officer subjectively believed that someone likely needed assistance for health or
safety concerns;

(2)

a reasonable person in the same situation would similarly believe that there was need
for assistance;

(3)

there was a reasonable basis to associate the need for assistance with the place being
searched.

(4)

there is an imminent threat of substantial injury to persons or property;

(5)

state agents must believe a specific person or persons or property are in need of
immediate help for health or safety reasons; and

(6)

the claimed emergency is not a mere pretext for an evidentiary search.

State v. Schultz, 170 Wn.2d 746, 754-55, 248 P.3d 484 (2011).
While the United States Supreme Court recently held that for Fourth Amendment purposes,
the officers subjective motivation is irrelevant in determining whether a warrantless entry
under the emergency doctrine was reasonable, Brigham City v. Stuart, 547 U.S.398, 126 S.
Ct. 1943, 164 L. Ed. 2d 650 (2006), an officers subjective motivation is an issue under
Const. art. I, 7. See generally State v. Schultz, 170 Wn.2d 746, 754, 248 P.3d 484 (2011).
An officers subjective belief of an emergency and actions taken in good faith based upon that
relief will not satisfy Const. art. I, 7. Schultz, 170 Wn.2d at 760-61.
When making an emergency entry, police should announce their identity at the doorway and
again upon entering those areas of the building where occupants are present. Officers do not,
however, need to wait to see whether the occupants will refuse them entry into the building
283

before entering. Brigham City v. Stuart, 547 U.S. 398, 126 S. Ct. 1943, 164 L. Ed. 2d 650
(2006).
While many examples of emergency doctrine entries/searches are contained in the community
caretaking portion of these materials, certain categories of cases merit additional discussion.
a.

Domestic Violence Exigencies. It is essential when responding to a report of

domestic violence to establish actual contact with the victim. Contact is necessary to
establish that the victim is safe, to discharge the officers statutory obligations, and to
obtain a complete report. See, e.g., State v. Raines, 55 Wn. App. 459, 778 P.2d 538
(1989), review denied, 113 Wash.2d 1036 (police officers responding to a domestic
violence report have a duty to ensure the present and continued safety and well-being
of the occupants of a home). While in most cases the victim will be easily
accessible, a suspect will occasionally try to block the officers access to the victim
by claiming that the victim has left or the 911 call was accidently made by a child. In
such circumstances, special rules apply to the entry into the house.
In January of 2011, the Washington Supreme Court considered the legality of a
warrantless emergency entry in a domestic violence incident in State v. Schultz, 170
Wn.2d 746, 248 P.3d 484 (2011). Although the Court recognize[d] that domestic
violence presents unique challenges to law enforcement and courts, and stated that
the likelihood of domestic violence may be considered by courts when evaluating
whether the requirements of the emergency aid exception to the warrant requirement
have been satisfied,Schultz, 170 Wn.2d at 750, it held that the officers did not have
enough facts to justify an entry based upon the emergency aid exception to the warrant
requirement. The facts that were known to the officers at the time of the entry were
as follows: Police received a phone call from a resident of an apartment complex
about a yelling male and female. Responding officers overheard a man and a woman
talking with raised voices. They specifically overheard the man say that he wanted
to be left alone and needed his space. When the officers knocked on the apartment
door, a female answered. She appeared agitated and flustered. When she was asked
where the male occupant of the apartment was, the female denied that anyone else was
there. The officer told the female that the officer had heard a male voice in the
apartment. The female called for the male, who emerged from a nearby bedroom. The
female then stepped back, opened the door wider, and the officer followed the female
inside. The officers did not notice that the females neck was red and blotchy until
after they had enter the apartment.
The Court indicated what additional information could have supported a warrantless
entry:
if the officers could not have ascertained the location of the man
whose voice they had heard, they would have been entitled to make
further inquiries and perhaps enter the home to verify that he was safe.
But [the male] appeared before the officers entered. Certainly other
facts such as past police responses to the residence, reports of threats,
or any other specific information to support a reasonable belief that
domestic violence had occurred or was likely to occur, or that the
284

circumstances were volatile and could likely escalate into domestic

violence, may have justified entry. But upon the record before us, we
conclude that the warrantless entry into [the females] home and
subsequent search violated her constitutionally protected right of
privacy within her home.
Schultz, 170 Wn.2d at 761.
The above factors generally appear in the following pre- State v. Schultz cases that
upheld entry under the emergency doctrine in the domestic violence context:
C

In State v. Jacobs, 101 Wn. App. 80, 2 P.3d 974 (2000), officers responded to
a residence that had been the scene of prior domestic violence incidents
involving the individual who made several 911 calls. The individual who
made the calls indicated he had been beaten up. This individual displayed
suspicious behavior, constantly changing his story regarding who had
assaulted him and who was currently in the house. The responding officer had
extensive experience dealing with domestic violence situations and knew that
it was not uncommon for domestic violence victims to protect the perpetrator,
either out of fear or misguided loyalty. The responding officer could not
ensure that the residence did not contain additional victims or a person who
might pose a threat to the already contacted victim without conducting a quick
sweep.

In State v. Lynd, 54 Wn. App. 18, 771 P.2d 770 (1989), an officer responded
to a 911 hand-up call at defendants residence. The line was busy when the
officer returned the call. Upon arriving at the residence, defendant was
loading things into a car and the officer noticed a cut on his face. Defendant
said he had pushed and slapped his wife who went to her mothers home down
the street. The officer requested permission to enter, but the defendant
refused. Officer entered without consent and noticed evidence of a struggle.
Officer did not locate victim, but noticed marijuana growing. The officer
testified that she was concerned about the victims safety based upon
defendants injuries, statement and his reluctance to allow entry. Held: Entry
was permitted under the emergency exception to the warrant requirement.
Court rejects the argument that the officer should have pursued other less
intrusive means to check on the victims safety such as calling to her from the
door, looking in the windows or checking the victims mothers residence.

In State v. Menz, 75 Wn. App. 351, 353, 880 P.2d 48 (1994), review denied,
125 Wn.2d 1021 (1995, an anonymous caller reported domestic violence at a
specific address. The caller said that he thought the participants were Debbie
and Dale and that a 10 year old also resided in the house. The caller was
unsure about the presence of weapons. Upon arrival at the residence, the
officers noticed that the front door was open, the TV and lights were on,
however there were no cars in the driveway. There was no response when the
officers knocked and announced their presence three times so the officers
entered out of concern for the occupants. They discovered marijuana plants
285

and subsequently obtained a search warrant and seized the plants. Held: Entry
was permitted under the emergency exception.

In State v. Raines, 55 Wn. App. 459, 778 P.2d 538 (1989), review denied, 113
Wash.2d 1036 (1990), a neighbor reported hearing victim tell defendant not
to hit 7 year old son. Upon arrival, the police noticed a man peering out the
window. The victim answered the door and advised that defendant was not
at home and that there was no problem. There were no signs of injury or
disturbance, but the police were familiar with defendant and his violent
temper, as well as victims inconsistent stories from past contacts. Victim
stepped back to let officers enter, but she shut the bedroom door indicating her
desire that the officers not enter that room. The officers entered the bedroom
and found contraband. Holding: The emergency exception justified the initial
entry, as well as entry into the bedroom where defendant and cocaine were
located. The court focused on the following factors to establish the existence
of an emergency: 1) defendants prior history of violence; 2) no obligation to
believe the victim when she said there was no problem based upon her past
efforts to protect him; 3) the fact that the occupants appeared unharmed..did
not guarantee that the disturbance had cooled to the point where their
continued safety was assured; 4) consideration of why defendant concealed
himself and did not come forward; 5) officers did not know defendants
condition and state of mind until they could see and talk to him; 6) the
specific threat indicated by the caller; and 7) the possible inability of obtaining
a telephonic warrant due to the late hour.

In State v. Johnson, 104 Wn. App. 409, 16 P.3d 680 (2001), officers
responded to a DV call. The call came from a relative outside the house who
reported that the victim had locked herself in the bathroom. As the first officer
approached the house, a man stepped outside. This man was extremely slow
to respond to an inquiry of whether anyone was in the house. Eventually the
man, who had a bloody cut on his wrist, smelled of marijuana, and appeared
to be under the influence of marijuana indicated that his girlfriend was in the
bathroom. In the meantime, another officers knock on the door was answered
by a woman who was shaking and had blood on her lip. The woman started
to exit the house, but the officer told her to stay and he walked inside. The
officer was found to have entered the house to protect the woman and other
potential victims, to keep the man and woman separate for safety, and to
ensure an orderly investigation. The Court indicated that an officer does not
have to question the one known victim before entering to search for other
victims.

In United States v. Black, 482 F.3d 1035 (9th Cir.), cert. denied, 128 S. Ct.
612 (2007), the police were dispatched to the defendants apartment after they
received a 911 call from the defendants girlfriend who reported the defendant
had beaten her up that morning in the apartment and had a gun. Toward the
end of her 911 call, the defendants girlfriend told the dispatcher that she
intended to return to the apartment with her mother in order to retrieve her
clothing and that the two women would wait outside the apartment, in a white
286

Ford pickup truck, for police to arrive. When the first officer arrived at the
apartment a few minutes later there were no signs of the defendants girlfriend,
her mother, or the truck. The first officer contacted his backup to request that
the backup stop by the grocery store from which the defendants girlfriend
made the 911 call. The backup officer checked the store for signs of the
defendants girlfriend but, finding none, he continued to the apartment. The
two officers then knocked on the front door but received no response. They
then contacted the apartment manager in an attempt to gain access to the
building. In the meantime, one officer circled the building to inspect the
backyard area. There, he discovered an individual who matched the
defendants physical description. The individual identified himself and
admitted that he knew the police were investigating a domestic violence call.
He denied knowing the whereabouts of his girlfriend and also denied that he
lived in the apartment. When the defendant became agitated, one of the police
officers patted him down for weapons and searched his pockets with the
defendant's consent, which yielded the key to the apartment. Using the key, the
officer entered and made a quick sweep of the apartment to see if anyone was
there. No one was present, but the officer noticed a gun on the bed. Without
touching the gun, he exited, arrested the defendant as a felon in possession of
a firearm, and sought a warrant for the gun. The entry into the apartment was
justified because the officers feared that the defendants girlfriend could have
been inside the apartment, badly injured and in need of medical attention.
This was a lawful "welfare search" where rescue was the objective, rather than
a search for a crime.

In State v. Williams, 148 Wn. App. 678, 201 P.3d 371, review denied, 166
Wn.2d 1020 (2009), a police officer responded to a 911 call about a
disturbance at a local hotel. As he pulled into the parking lot, a man
approached the officer and said that his nephew was being violent with him
and that he wanted his nephew removed from his hotel room. The man added
that his nephew was on parole for a crime committed in California. The officer
called for back up, and then walked with the man to his hotel room. One of
the officers knocked on the door. An individual, later identified as the
nephew, Williams, opened the door. Williams's left hand was behind the
partially-opened door and not visible to the officers. The officers asked
Williams to show his hand. The officers heard the sound of an object dropping
behind the door and Williams brought his left hand into view. Williams then
backed up, and the officers and Williams uncle walked into the hotel room.
The officers had Williams sit down. They asked Williams his name, and he
gave an incorrect one. While the officers were trying to identify Williams, one
of the officers observed drug paraphernalia, and what he believed to be rock
cocaine in a partially opened dresser drawer. At some point during this
process, the first officer at the scene walked outside the hotel room with
Williams uncle. The uncle told the officer that Williams had assaulted him
and had broken his jaw. The Court held that the warrantless entry into the
hotel room was not justified under these facts because the officers never
manifested any concern that somebody inside the hotel room was in immediate
danger. The uncle never stated that any person other than Williams was in the
287

hotel room or had traveled with them to the hotel. Moreover, unlike a larger
residence in which victims could be located far from the front door, much of
the hotel room was visible to the officers when Williams opened the door.
b.

On-Going Violence
An officer who observes violence inside a building through a window or open
doorway may make a warrantless entry into the building. The officer need not delay
entry until she is able to ascertain that one of the occupants needs medical treatment.
See . Brigham City v. Stuart, 547 U.S. 398, 126 S. Ct. 1943, 164 L. Ed. 2d 650
(2006) (The role of a peace officer includes preventing violence and restoring order,
not simply rendering first aid to casualties; an officer is not like a boxing (or hockey)
referee, poised to stop a bout only if it becomes too one-sided.).

c.

Burglary in Progress Cases

A recurring theme in emergency cases involves officers responding to a suspected
burglary in progress. To sustain an entry under this theory, the officer must possess
both a subjective belief that a burglary is being committed and there must be an
objective basis for believing that a burglary is in progress.
Factual examples of when the emergency doctrine was found to apply or to not apply
in the burglary in progress context include:
C

In State v. Morgavi, 58 Wn. App. 733, 794 P.2d 1289 (1990), police searched
a residence after seeing a broken garage door open back door to house, open
side door to garage, and a car in the driveway with its windows rolled down.
The court concluded there was insufficient evidence that a burglary had
occurred, and thus there were no exigent circumstances warranting a search.

In State v. Muir, 67 Wn. App. 149, 835 P.2d 1049 (1992), officers responded
to a citizen report of individuals entering a residence that the citizen knew to
be empty, prowl around, and load things into a car. Officers arrived at the
residence in time to contact the burglars in the driveway in possession of bolt
cutters, a recently cut padlock, and other items. As one officer Mirandized the
suspects the other officer went to the residence to see whether there was a
forced entry. As this officer walked by the car he noted a strong odor of
marijuana. The officers checked the front door to the house, which was
locked, and went to the back where there was a garage that was connected to
the house. The officer entered this area, noted an odor of marijuana and
searched further. As soon as the officer saw the marijuana, he stopped the
search, sealed the house, and obtained a search warrant. The court held that
the officers knowledge of recently committed burglary of empty home to
which officer had responded did not give rise to "emergency" or "exigent
circumstances" justifying warrantless search of home because the officer knew
that the resident was at work, there was no reason to believe that anyone was
still in the house, and the officers leaving the house to obtain the warrant
indicated that he was not responding to an emergency.
288

In State v. Campbell, 15 Wn. App. 98, 547 P.2d 295 (1976), the defendant's
neighbor summoned the police after observing a burglary in progress and
watching a suspect flee the scene. Upon arrival, the police spoke with the
neighbor and discovered a broken window and wide-open door at the
burglarized apartment. The officer immediately entered the apartment,
without benefit of a warrant, "to investigate the recent crime, to look for
possible participants in the burglary, to search for evidence of the burglary,
and to aid any victims...." During the search, 7 marijuana plants were
discovered. Division One of this Court found this search to be valid,
concluding that it met the emergency or exigent circumstances exception,
indicating that [i]t is reasonable for officers, responding to a request for
police assistance and with probable cause to believe that an open, unsecured
dwelling has been recently burglarized, to immediately enter the dwelling
without a warrant for the limited purposes of investigating the crime,
rendering aid to any possible victims of the felony, protecting the occupant's
property, and searching for remaining suspects.

In State v. Bakke, 44 Wn. App. 830, 723 P.2d 534 (1986), the defendant's
neighbor summoned the police to respond to a burglary in progress. The
neighbor had seen two juveniles running from the back door of the defendant's
home. Upon arrival, the police spoke with neighbors and discovered that the
window in the back door to the defendant's house had been broken and that the
hole was large enough to accommodate a juvenile's body. The police also
noted that fresh muddy footprints extended from the back door, through an
enclosed porch to an interior door that had been broken from its jam. Without
a warrant, the officers entered the house "to locate any suspects and secure the
safety of the house and its contents." They found no suspects but saw two
marijuana plants and some growing paraphernalia. Based on those facts, they
obtained a warrant to search the house further. During the follow-up search,
they found several marijuana plants and a grow light. The appellate court
found that the entry was justified by the emergency doctrine.

In State v. Swenson, 59 Wn. App. 586, 799 P.2d 1188 (1990), the police
responded to an early morning report from Swenson's neighbor that Swenson's
front door was ajar. When the police arrived, they spoke to the neighbor, who
indicated that the house appeared to be unoccupied. Approaching the house,
the officers heard a dog barking and noticed that there was no vehicle in the
driveway. At the front door, the police called into the house, but received no
response. They then drew their weapons and conducted a room by room
search. During the search, they discovered drugs and drug paraphernalia
belonging to Swenson. This search was held to not be justified under the
emergency doctrine because the police did not have any cause to believe that
the house was occupied, did not receive a call reporting an injured person, did
not find signs of forced entry, and did not employ less intrusive investigative
measures to determine whether their suspicions were well-founded. Evidence
of a "door left open late on a summer night" was not sufficient to justify the
entry.

289

d.

In State v. Ibara-Raya, 145 Wn. App. 516, 187 P.3d 301 (2008), review
granted, 165 Wn.2d 1036 (2009), an early morning warrantless entry into a
house was improper as there was no evidence of immediate risk to health or
safety. The officers went to the house in response to a 2:27 a.m. 911 call from
a neighbor, who complained of noise coming from a nearby house in Walla
Walla that looked vacant during the day. The incident was dispatched as
noise coming from a vacant house. When officers arrived at the house, they
saw lights on and heard party noise but reported nothing exceptional.
Although a truck in the driveway came back as stolen out of California, the
lights in the houses living room went off when officers knocked on the front
door, and two men were seen through a window leaving a room and opening
the back door, these facts, taken together, do not support a protective sweep
of the house.

Medical Emergencies. The medical emergency exception allows a police officer to

enter a dwelling without a warrant for purposes of rendering emergency aid and
assistance to a person he reasonably believes is in need of such assistance. But the
State must prove that (1) "the officer subjectively believed that someone likely needed
assistance for health or safety reasons; (2) a reasonable person in the same situation
would similarly believe that there was a need for assistance; and (3) there was a
reasonable basis to associate the need for assistance with the place searched."
Further, the officer must " 'be able to point to specific and articulable facts' " and
reasonable inferences drawn therefrom, that provide reasonable justification for the
warrantless entry.
The medical emergency doctrine will not apply once it becomes obvious that the
person is deceased. Accordingly, a warrantless search conducted inside a private
residence for the purpose of locating a photo identification for the suicide victim was
illegal because the evidence seized was not in plain view, the area searched was
beyond the immediate area of the suicide victim's body, and the victim's need for
emergency medical assistance had ended prior to the start of the search. State v.
Schroeder, 109 Wn. App. 30, 32 P.3d 1022 (2001).
Factual examples of when the emergency doctrine was found to apply or to not apply
in the medical emergency context include:
C

In State v. Davis, 86 Wn. App. 414, 937 P.2d 1110, review denied, 133
Wn.2d 1028 (1997), officers were summonsed to a motel by the motel
manager because (1) the dead bolt to the defendants standard motel room
was activated from the inside; (2) the occupant did not respond to repeated
telephone calls and knocks at the door throughout the late morning and early
afternoon of October 26; and (3) it was after check-out time. The officer, who
on an earlier occasion had entered an unresponsive motel guest's room and
found the guest in need of medical attention due to a drug overdose, used the
pass key to enter the room in order to determine whether the occupant was in
need of immediate medical attention. This entry was found to be proper.

290

In State v. Angelos, 86 Wn. App. 253, 936 P.2d 52 (1997), review denied,
133 Wn.2d 1034 (1998), an officer accompanied emergency medical
technicians into the living room of the defendant who called 911 to report that
she had overdosed. When the officer learned that there were three children
present in the home after the defendant had been transported to the hospital,
he asked the 12-year-old daughter to look and see if any drugs had been left
around. When the defendants daughter reported that she found something in
thebathroom, the officer went to the bathroom where he found an line of
cocaine beside the sink. The court upheld the search under the medical
emergency exception.

In State v. Gocken, 71 Wn. App. 267, 857 P.2d 1074 (1993), review denied,
123 Wn.2d 1024 (1994), an officer arrived at 72-year-old Ann Compton's
condominium in response to a call from her friend Norma Haskell who had
been unable to reach Compton for some time. Officer Brunette was aware
that Compton was elderly and had mental health problems because she had a
reputation at the police station for making "crazy" calls complaining that
people from federal and local agencies were watching her. When no one
responded after Officer Brunette knocked on Compton's door and announced
that he was from the police, he decided to perform a routine health and safety
check to see if Compton might have been injured and in need of assistance.
He entered the condominium without a warrant through an unlocked window.
He found the home very neat and orderly except for an unkempt bedroom
with men's effects. He also saw a large door at the end of the hallway which
he assumed was a closet. The door was locked but there was nothing unusual
about it. When Officer Brunette initially entered the condominium, he had
been aware that he might smell a dead body because Haskell was concerned
that Compton had been injured.
Eight days later, on June 24, Officer Brunette responded to a second dispatch
to Compton's condominium, assuming it would involve another health and
safety check. Haskell was outside waiting with another woman. Because
nothing around the condominium appeared unusual, Brunette did not enter it.
He did not write a report for either of the two visits because he considered
them only routine health and safety checks, not criminal investigations.
At about the same time, Diana Berthon, Compton's niece, also became worried
about Compton because she had not seen her for several weeks. On June 21,
Berthon went to Compton's home and found a note signed "Ann" indicating
she would be back Monday, June 25, but the note was not in Compton's
handwriting. Berthon called the police and was advised that she should file
a missing person report if Compton had not returned by Monday. Because
Berthon could not reach Compton on Monday, she filed the report with the
police. Officer Victor Shively, who was not aware of Officer Brunette's
previous visits, accompanied Berthon to Compton's condominium at 10 a.m.
to do a health and safety check. Shively had met Compton once and
remembered making a police call to her condominium about 2 years earlier.
At the condominium, Berthon looked through a window and said she thought
291

furniture was missing. She convinced Officer Shively that he should enter the
condominium to see if Compton was sick or injured. She also mentioned that
Compton had a roommate. Shively knocked and announced who he was and,
after receiving no response, entered through the front window. He let Berthon
in through a sliding glass door. Berthon confirmed that furniture was
missing, but at that point Officer Shively did not consider that fact suspicious.
There were also beer cans, food, and garbage strewn around the living room
and kitchen. Berthon began noticing a strong odor in the hallway and walked
toward the closed door which she identified as her aunt's bedroom. She
mentioned that Compton had had a dog that was put to sleep. Compton had
been unable to part with it, and Berthon wondered if the smell might be the
dog's body. She tried to open the door, but it was locked. She also noticed
that the edges of the door were sealed with masking tape and a towel lay
across the base of the doorway. Officer Shively recognized the odor as that
ofdecaying flesh and immediately escorted Berthon out of the condominium.
The Court held that the entry by Officer Shively was clearly justified by the
emergency doctine.
C

In State v. Cahoon, 59 Wn. App. 606, 799 P.2d 1191 (1990), review denied,
116 Wn.2d 1014 (1991), two EMTs and one paramedic responded to the
defendants home due to a request for an ambulance. One of the EMTs was
also an off-duty police officer. The defendant, who was found lying in the
yard, indicated that she had consumed crank. The EMTs had been taught the
importance of obtaining the drug ingested and transporting it to the hospital,
to aid the physicians in rendering medical care. Consequently, the EMTs
asked the defendant where the drug was located and searched several cabinets
in the kitchen based upon her information. During the search marijuana and
cocaine were found in different cabinets. Upon discovering the drugs, the
police officer/EMT called the sheriff's office.
A search warrant was
ultimately obtained based upon the EMT/police officers observations.he court
upheld the entry into the house, the warrantless search, and the search pursuant
to the warrant under the emergency doctrine.

In State v. Loewen, 97 Wn.2d 562, 647 P.2d 489 (1982), an officer, who
followed an accident victim who was unable to identify herself due to her
injuries to the hospital, searched the victims tote bag for identification. The
court held that this search did not fall within the medical emergency doctrine
because the nurse who assisted the officer in the search was equivocal about
the need to identify the victim at that time and the officer, not the nurse,
initiated the search.

In State v. Gibson, 104 Wn. App. 792, 17 P.3d 635 (2001), the court held that
the police, who were responding to a report that a babysitter was smoking
marijuana, had grounds to make a warrantless entry into the house when the
woman who answered the door appeared to be under the influence of drugs.
The entry was permitted to allow police to check on the welfare of the children
and to let them to check on the womans welfare after she had been out of
their sight in another room for 3-5 minutes.
292

e.

In State v. Hos, 154 Wn. App. 238, 225 P.3d 389 (2010), a warrantless entry
was upheld under the community caretaking/emergency doctrine. The police
officer was at the residence at the request of a CPS worker, who needed to
interview the defendant about a CPS referral regarding her daughter. The
police officers loud knocks received no answer. Looking through a window
near the front door, the officer observed the defendant sitting on a couch just
a few feet from the door with her eyes closed and her head resting on her
chest. Neither the officer nor the CPS worker could tell whether the defendant
was breathing, and she appeared to be either unconscious or dead. When the
defendant did not rouse in response to the officers pounding on the window,
the officer opened the unlocked front door, and yelled the defendants name.
When he received no response, he entered the house, announcing Sheriffs
Office. As he approached the defendant, she slowly raised her head and
looked around bleary eyed. Next to the defendant on the couch, was a butane
torch of the type that methamphetamine users commonly use. The officer
explained why he was there, and upon noticing that the defendants pockets
were quite full of items, asked her if there was anything in her pockets that
the officer should be concerned about. The defendant responded by emptying
her pockets. When she stood to accomplish this, the officer observed a
methamphetamine pipe through an opening in her coat pocket. This led to the
defendants arrest for use of drug paraphernalia.

Fire/Explosion
I.

Meth Lab Odor. The chemicals used to cook methamphetamine are

extremely volatile and dangerous. See, e.g. United States v. Bradley, 321 F.3d
1212 (9th Cir. 2003). Many meth labs are located in residential
neighborhoods.

Building. In State v. Downey, 53 Wn. App. 543, 768 P.2d 502

(1989), two officers were dispatched to the defendants home to
investigate a report of a strong ether odor. The officers noticed an
ether odor 150 to 200 feet from the defendant's residence. This odor
increased in intensity as the officers moved closer to the defendants
home. The officers contacted the police narcotics unit for advice on
how to proceed. They were cautioned that ether is highly volatile and
explosive in concentrated form, and were instructed to leave the
residence and contact the fire department's hazardous materials squad
if the smell of ether overpowered someone, or if open chemicals were
found. The officers entered the residence without a warrant to
determine whether and why ether was inside the building and to ensure
that no one was inside. One officer was able to enter only a few feet
into the residence before the ether odor made him nauseous and
interfered with his breathing. This officer then left the building and
called the hazardous materials unit. The other officer went further and
located a lab. This officer called narcotics detectives who obtained a
search warrant. The court held that while the mere odor of ether is
insufficient to establish an emergency, the overpowering odor of ether
293

in the present case justified the warrantless entry.

Courts will carefully scrutinize the officers behavior in deciding
whether the officers were truly responding to a perceived emergency
or were merely investigating a methamphetamine laboratory.
Compare State v. Link, 136 Wn. App. 685, 150 P.3d 610 (2007)
(officer who went to apartment to investigate whether a
methamphetamine laboratory was being operated inside unlawfully
entered without a warrant where he let the 4-year-old and 7-year-old
children enter the apartment from which emanated a strong odor of
acetone and the officer testified that he was concerned for the
children's safety because acetone is highly flammable, but he that his
primary intention when he entered the apartment was to investigate the
possible methamphetamine laboratory) with State v. Smith, 137 Wn.
App. 262, 153 P.3d 199 (2007) (officers responding to a tip that a
stolen semi-truck containing two 1,000 gallon tanks filled with
anhydrous ammonia could be found at a particular address made a
lawful emergency entry into the residence upon noting a partially
concealed semi-truck that returned as stolen, although two individuals
were observed in an upstairs window and a dog barked no one
answered the officers knocks, and the officers observed a gun case
through the windows. The officers limited their emergency entry to a
sweep for people and for any firearm that might be used to puncture
the anhydrous ammonia tanks. The officers then secured a warrant
before searching for the meth lab.
The emergency exception to the warrant requirement does not apply
when an officer, after being notified that muriatic acid and a gasser
is present in a trailer on the property, called for a Clandestine Lab
Team to conduct the search instead of personally and immediately
securing the premises. State v. Leffler, 142 Wn. App.175, 165 P.3d
386 (2007).

Automobiles. In State v. Ferguson, 131 Wn. App. 694, 128 P.3d

1271 (2006), the trooper, in rural Ferry County, discovered the
following while conducting an inventory search of a vehicle: (1) a
palm scale ; (2) a knife showing a reddish, thick, phosphorous-like
residue; (3) a coffee pot with burnt residue on the bottom; (4) an open
grocery bag with cartons of about 100 match book covers neatly
stacked, with the matches removed and the phosphorous strikers
remaining; (5) a bag of rock salt; (6) miscellaneous glassware; (7) a
blue plastic tub with the lid ajar on the back seat containing a glass
bottle with tubing extending from the top; and (8) a jar containing a
substance that later tested as ephedrine. The trooper also detected a
chemical odor coming from the car. From his training, the trooper
knew these items were components consistent with red phosphorous
methamphetamine manufacturing in a rolling meth lab. At that point,
the trooper attempted to get a warrant to search the trunk, but due to
294

the large number of pending warrant applications was unable to obtain

the warrant at that time. The trooper, aware that flammable gas is used
in cooking meth, and wanting to assure that any gas that was present
was properly secure and safe to transport, opened the trunk using the
inside trunk latch. Upon observing a can of white gas, plastic
containers, and a Coleman stove, the trooper immediately shut the
trunk and called a local task force for assistance. After the task force
properly secured the flammable items, the car was towed and a search
warrant was later obtained. The Court of Appeals held that the State
met its burden of demonstrating by a preponderance of the evidence
that a valid manifest necessity existed for a warrantless limited search
of the car trunk-to remove or insure the safeness of the suspected
hazardous materials before towing.
II.

Other Toxic Chemicals.

In State v Smith, 165 Wn.2d 511, 199 P.3d 386 (2009), a warrantless entry into
a house was held to be justified under the officer and public safety prong of
the exigent circumstances exception to the warrant requirement. The
officers who made the warantless entry were on the property seeking a stolen
tanker truck that was known to contain 1,000 gallons of anhydrous ammonia.
The officers were aware that anhydrous ammonia is extremely toxic, and is
one of the most potentially dangerous chemicals used in agriculture.
Anhydrous ammonia can cause severe chemical burns in victims exposed to
it in small amounts. The tanker truck was located fewer than 75 feet from a
house that was purportedly vacant. Two officers approached the truck wearing
protective gear. These officers secured the truck and verified that the valves
were not leaking.
While the tanker was being secured, 10 other officers surrounded the house,
knocked on the door, and announced their presence. While securing the house
one officer saw through a window what appeared to be a rifle located in
the living room area of the first floor next to a mattress. The officers also saw
in the yard between the truck and the house a propane tank with a modified
and discolored valve, which Detective Gonzalez [sic] recognized by training
and experience to be consistent with the storage of anhydrous ammonia. This
weapon vanished from the window after two people who left the house
informed the officers that no one else was present.
Aware of the explosion that could be caused by a bullet penetrating the
propane tank or the grave risk to health that would be caused by a bullet
penetrating the anhydrous ammonia tank, four officers entered the house to
perform a safety sweep. During the sweep, they searched in places where
a person could be hiding, but did not look in other spaces, such as drawers.
During this search, the officers seized a 16-gauge shotgun from a second floor
crawl space. The officers also noticed items consistent with the manufacture
of methamphetamine. No one was inside the house. The officers exited the
house, sought a search warrant, and then reentered the house to dismantle the
295

methamphetamine laboratory.
The officers actions at the scene prior to the obtaining of the search warrant
were held by the court to be consistent with their stated purpose of preventing
the risks to themselves and the public.
III.

Fire Scene.
Fire fighters may enter a building without a warrant in order to extinguish a
fire. This entry may include a search of rooms or locations not immediately
located with the blaze to ensure that the fire has not spread there, to ventilate
the building, or to search for the cause of the fire. Fire fighters may seize
evidence, such as marijuana plants, that are in plain view. See State v. Bell,
108 Wn.2d 193, 737 P.2d 254 (1987). Police officers who are informed of
the existence of the contraband do not need a warrant to aid the fire fighters
in seizing the contraband and in removing the contraband from the house.
The chief of every organized fire department in the state of Washington has
the authority to enter upon and examine any building or premises where any
fire has occurred in order to determine the source of the fire. RCW 48.48.030;
RCW 48.48.060; RCW 52.12.031(7). This authority, however, must be
exercised in a timely manner. A warrantless entry to investigate the cause of
a fire that results in the total destruction of the dwelling is reasonable if made
shortly after the fire is extinguished. Such an investigation must be limited
to such facilities as the heating, ventilation, gas and electrical systems, and
locations where combustibles have been accumulated; a general rummaging
through the surviving personal effects of the householder is prohibited.
Evidence regarding the origin of a fire may possibly be seized without a
warrant during the investigation that occurs during and immediately after a fire
is extinguished. The propriety of a warrantless seizure will depend upon
whether the investigation indicates that the fire was an arson. If the evidence
indicates that the fire was accidental or an act of nature (i.e. lightening), the
warrantless, nonconsensual seizure of items, such as space heaters, located
where the fire began is improper.

f.

Death Scenes
While responding to a homicide or serious assault scene, police may:
C

Make warrantless entry where they reasonably believe a dead body or injured
person will be found. Since there is always an outside chance that the
suspected dead body may still be alive.

Examine the body itself.

Search the premises for other victims or the killer.

296

Seize any evidence in plain view while inside the residence pursuant to any of
the above permissible activities.

Mincey v. Arizona, 437 U.S. 385, 98 S. Ct. 2408, 57 L. Ed. 2d (1978).

While responding to a homicide or serious assault scene, a search warrant or consent
is generally required once exigent circumstances cease to exist. For this reason, police
generally must have a warrant to collect trace evidence, take photographs and
measurements, and otherwise process the scene. Flippo v. West Virginia, 528 U.S. 11,
120 S. Ct. 7, 145 L. Ed. 2d 16 (1999).
g.

Juvenile Parties
The combination of underage children and alcohol will generally not provide a
sufficient basis for a warrantless entry into a building. Absent some basis to believe
that one or more of the children requires immediate medical treatment, a warrant will
be needed. See, e.g., United States v. Furrow, 229 F.3d 805 (9th Cir. 2000).
A homeowner may not be arrested for obstructing an officer based upon his refusing
a warrantless entry to an officer who was pursuing minor who was observed
consuming alcohol because there were no exigent circumstances which justified any
exceptions to requirement of search warrant. State v. Bessette, 105 Wn. App. 793, 21
P.3d 318 (2001).

h.

Burning Marijuana
While the odor of marijuana will provide probable cause for a search, the odor of
marijuana does not present exigent circumstances that will permit a warrantless search
of a motor vehicle. State v. Tibbles, 169 Wn.2d 364, 236 P.3d 885 (2010). The same
rule should apply to a home.

7.

Miscellaneous Exceptions.
a.

Hot Pursuit. Fresh or hot pursuit has been defined as "pursuit without unreasonable
interruption" or "the immediate pursuit of a person who is endeavoring to avoid
arrest." Exigent circumstances or emergent circumstances need be present to justify
a search made in hot pursuit. The government must show that a warrant could not be
obtained under the circumstances. The amount of time it takes to get a warrant and
the ability to get a telephonic warrant are considered. This exception will generally
not apply to minor crimes, including DUIs and other non-felony traffic offenses.
See, e.g., Altshuler v. Seattle, 63 Wn. App. 389, 395, 819 P.2d 393 (1991), review
denied, 118 Wn.2d 1023 (1992) (warrantless entry into motorists garage while
pursuing suspect who drove through red light and failed to stop by driving at a nonreckless 30 mph for 12 blocks to his homes garage was improper).
The State must show that the searching officer subjectively believed an emergency
existed and a reasonable person similarly situated would have thought an emergency
existed. The officer must also have a reasonable a basis to associate the place
297

searched with the emergency situation. Danger to an officer or other people is a

sufficiently exigent circumstance to allow entry without permission. Possible
destruction of evidence or the escape of a person being pursued is not in and of itself
enough to fall within this exception.
There are 11 factors to consider in determining whether exigent circumstances existed
to justify a warrantless police entry into a home: (1) a grave offense, particularly a
crime of violence, is involved; (2) the suspect is reasonably believed to be armed; (3)
there is reasonably trustworthy information that the suspect is guilty; (4) there is
strong reason to believe that the suspect is on the premises; (5) the suspect is likely
to escape if not swiftly apprehended; (6) the entry is made peaceably; (7) hot pursuit;
(8) fleeing suspect; (9) danger to arresting officer or to the public; (10) mobility of
the vehicle; and (11) mobility or destruction of the evidence. See City of Seattle v.
Altschuler, 53 Wn. App. 317, 320, 766 P.2d 518 (1989).
While hot pursuit will excuse the initial warrantless entry into the building, once the
suspect is in custody, a search warrant is needed before any evidence is sought and
collected.
b.

Private Individuals. In Burdeau v. McDowell, 256 U.S. 465, 41 S. Ct. 574, 65 L. Ed.
1048 (1921), the Court held that the Fourth Amendment of the United States
Constitution is a limit on governmental action and not private action. Consequently,
evidence seized by a private individual's search should not be excluded in a
subsequent criminal action. This rule is equally applicable in Washington where the
exclusionary rule is inapplicable to the actions of private persons unless it is shown
that the State in some way instigated, encouraged, counseled, directed, or controlled
the conduct of the private person. State v. Wolken, 103 Wn.2d 823, 830, 700 P.2d 319
(1985).
No per se rule can be formulated to determine if a private citizen is acting as
an agent of governmental authorities. Each case must be determined by its
own circumstances. While a close working relationship with the authorities
may make a person the agent of police, State v. Birdwell, 6 Wn. App. 284,
288, 492 P.2d 249, review denied, 80 Wn.2d 1009, cert. denied, 409 U.S. 973,
34 L. Ed. 2d 237, 93 S. Ct. 346 (1972), mere evidence that the private person's
purpose was to aid the authorities is insufficient to transform a private search
into a government search. State v. Ludvik, supra at 263; State v. Sweet, 23
Wn. App. 97, 100, 596 P.2d 1080 (1979).
State v. Dold, 44 Wn. App. 519, 522, 722 P.2d 1353 (1986).
The mere purpose of private individuals to aid the government is insufficient to
transform an otherwise private search into a government search. State v. Sweet, 23
Wn. App. 97, 100, 596 P.2d 1080 (1979). The critical factors for determining whether
a private party is acting as a government instrument or agent are: (1) whether the
government knew of and acquiesced in the intrusive conduct; and (2) whether the
party performing the search intended to assist law enforcement efforts or further his
own ends. Clark, 48 Wn. App. at 856; Reed, 15 F.3d at 931.
298

A government agent, however, may not conduct a warrantless search of the area
searched by the private individual. The privacy interest protected by Const. art. I,
7 survives the exposure that occurs when it is intruded upon by a private actor; i.e.,
an individual's privacy interest is not extinguished simply because a private actor has
actually intruded upon or is likely to intrude upon the interest. See State v. Eisfeldt,
163 Wn.2d 628, 185 P.3d 580 (2008). A government agent may rely upon the private
actors observations to establish probable cause of the issuance of a search warrant.
State v. Krajeski, 104 Wn. App. 377, 383, 16 P.3d 69 (2001) (entry into apartment by
defendants mother and landlords were private searches as they were for the purposes
of securing the defendants dog and to collect the defendants belongings while he was
in jail).
i.

c.

Private Citizen Involvement in Search at Police Officers Directive.

Sometimes, a lone police officer may need civilian assistance in conducting
a search. The Ninth Circuit in United States v. Sparks, 265 F.3d 825 (9th Cir.
2001), held that civilian assistance is lawful when:

the civilian's role was to aid the efforts of the police, and not simply to
further the civilian's own goals;

the officer was in need of assistance. Police cannot invite civilians to

perform searches on a whim; there must be some reason why a law
enforcement officer cannot himself conduct the search and some
reason to believe that postponing the search until an officer is
available might raise a safety risk; and

the civilians are limited to doing what the police had authority to do.

Silver Platter . The silver platter doctrine holds that, even though it would not be
legal for local law enforcement officials to gather evidence in the same manner,
evidence gathered by agents of a foreign jurisdiction (tribal, federal, or other state) is
admissible in Washington courts if: (1) there was no participation from local officials;
(2) the agents of the foreign jurisdiction did not gather the evidence with the intent
that it would be offered in state court rather than in their jurisdiction; and (3) the
agents of the foreign jurisdiction complied with the laws governing their conduct. See
generally, State v. Brown, 132 Wn.2d 529, 586-87, 940 P.2d 546 (1997), cert. denied,
523 U.S. 1007 (1998).
i.

The silver platter doctrine allows the state to utilize DNA evidence collected
in another state pursuant to their laws. See State v. Mezquia, 129 Wn. App.
118, 118 P.3d 378 (2005).

ii.

The silver platter doctrine may allow Washington prosecutors and police
officers to utilize tape-recorded calls made by a witness in another state
pursuant to that states one-party consent law. See State v. Fowler, 157
Wn.2d 387, 139 P.3d 342 (2006) (state allowed to utilize tape-recorded calls
made by the defendants stepdaughter in Oregon under Oregons one-party
consent law to aid in an Oregon investigation related to defendants alleged
299

Oregon sexual abuse of which Washington officials were unaware).

d.

Special Needs
On March 13, 2008, the Washington Supreme Court issued a plurality opinion in York
v. Wahkiakum, 163 Wn.2d 297, 178 P.3d 995 (2008), that struck down random and
suspicionless drug testing of student athletes as a violation of Const. art. I, 7. A
majority of the justices further held in this opinion that there is no special needs
exception to the search warrant requirement under Const. art. I, 7. Officers must
check with their local prosecutors to ascertain the impact of York in the following
settings:
I.

Schools. School officials and employees have far greater latitude to search a
student, his or her belongings or locker, than do police officers in their
dealings with citizens. The courts and legislature have recognized the need for
school officials to maintain order and discipline in schools and to protect all
students from illegal drugs and weapons.
Whether a police officer on assignment to a public school as a school resource
officer to maintain a safe, secure, and orderly learning environment will be
considered a school official for purposes of the school search exception
to the constitutional requirement of a search warrant is currently being
considered by the Washington Supreme Court. See State v. Meneese, No.
86203-6 (oral argument held January 24, 2012). The Washington Court of
Appeals has issued conflicting decisions on this point. Compare State v.
J.M., 162 Wn. App. 27, 34-35, 255 P.3d 828, review granted, 127 Wn.2d 1017
(2011) (test that applies to a school officials warrantless search will apply to
a school resource officers warrantless search), with State v. E.K.P., 162 Wn.
App. 675, 255 P.3d 870 (2011) (indicating that a different test will be applied
depending upon whether the principal performs the search or a police officer
conducts the search).
The validity of searches of students by school officials is judged by the
reasonable belief standard. This standard requires that the searching party
have a reasonable belief that the student is in possession of a prohibited item.
Two criteria must be met: (1) the belief must be supported by articulable and
reasonable grounds; and (2) the grounds must be directed at an individual
student, not an entire class or group.
Factors considered in the reasonable belief determination include:
C

The students age, disciplinary history and school record.

The prevalence and seriousness of the problem in the school to which

the search was directed.

The exigency to make the search without delay.

300

The probative value and reliability of the information used as a

justification for the search.

Information received from a reliable source, which may include an

unnamed student. See State v. E.K.P., 162 Wn. App. 675, 255 P.3d
870 (2011) (the Aguilar-Spinelli test, which requires that an informant
(1) be credible and reliable and (2) have a basis for his information
does not apply with a school official conducts a search based upon
information from an informant; the test does apply if the search is
conducted by a police officer).

A students violation of a closed campus rule, without more, will not provide
reasonable grounds for concluding that a search would reveal evidence of that
or additional violations of law or school rules. See State v. B.A.S., 103 Wn.
App. 549, 13 P.3d 244 (2000). The observation of a knife in a vehicle parked
on school property that held two truants, was sufficient to justify a search of
the vehicle for weapons, by school officials. State v. Brown, 158 Wn. App.
49, 240 P.3d 1175 (2010), review denied, 171 Wn.2d 1006 (2011).
School officials may search school lockers pursuant to RCW 28A.600.210.240. These sections provide specific authority empowering school officials
to search a student lockers at any time without prior notice or even reasonable
suspicion that the search will yield evidence of a violation of the law or school
rules. Simply put, the student has no reasonable expectation of privacy in the
locker assigned by the school for his use. Locked containers within the locker
may be opened by a school official and searched if reasonable suspicion
develops that the container holds evidence that the law or school rules have
been violated. If a police officer is assisting a school official in conducting the
search (i.e. by providing a narcotics dog to conduct a sniff of the exterior of
the lockers), the school official is likely to be considered a state agent and the
officer should use the information collected to support a search warrant prior
to any entry into the locker.
School officials are authorized by RCW 28A.600.230 to search students and
their possessions if the officials have reasonable grounds to suspect that the
search will yield evidence of the students violation of the law or school rules.
Limitations on the scope of the search require that the methods be reasonably
related to the objectives of the search, and not excessively intrusive. Strip and
body cavity searches are generally prohibited. See Safford United School Dist.
#1 v. Redding, 557 U.S.364, 129 S. Ct. 2633, 174 L. Ed. 2d 354 (2009) (search
of a school child's outer clothing and backpack based upon plausible
information that the student was violating the school's drug rules was proper,
but the search of the child's underwear violated the Fourth Amendment); B.C.
v. Plumas Unified School Dist., 192 F.3d 1260 (9th Cir. 1999). The Ninth
Circuit, moreover, prohibits canine searches of students. See B.C. v. Plumas
Unified School Dist., 192 F.3d 1260 (9th Cir. 1999).

301

e.

II.

Courthouses. Everyone entering a courthouse may be required to pass

through a metal detector and may be required to submit their purses and other
packages to a visual or x-ray search for weapons. No individualized suspicion
is required. Contraband discovered during such a search may be used in a
criminal prosecution.

III.

DNA. In United States v. Kincaid, 379 F.3d 813 (9th Cir. 2004), cert. denied,
125 S. Ct. 1638 (2005), the court held that the Fourth Amendment permits
compulsory DNA profiling of certain conditionally-released federal offenders
in the absence of individualized suspicion that they had committed additional
crimes. The same result is reached under the Washington State Constitution.
See State v. Surge, 160 Wn.2d 65, 156 P.3d 208 (2007).

Implied Consent
In Schmerber v. California, 384 U.S. 757, 16 L. Ed. 2d 908, 86 S. Ct. 1826 (1966),
United States Supreme Court considered the constitutionality of the withdrawal of a
blood sample from an objecting patient in a hospital who had previously been placed
under arrest. Rejecting claims that this practice violated the petitioner's right of due
process, his privilege against self-incrimination, and his right to counsel, that Court
additionally held that the taking of this blood sample was not the product of an illegal
search and seizure under the Fourth and Fourteenth Amendments.
In the wake of Schmerber, most states enacted implied consent laws. These laws
recognized that search warrants are not required to extract blood, but they provided
citizens with the right to refuse a warrantless seizure of their blood. Most of these
statutes also stated a preference for less invasive alcohol tests, such as breath or urine
tests. Where such procedural statutes exist, warrantless collection of breath or blood
for alcohol or drug testing must comply fully with the statutes.
Although some jurisdictions have held that their implied consent statutes preclude
alcohol or drug tests performed pursuant to search warrants, Washington courts have
not yet decided this issue. The Legislature, however, has clearly stated that search
warrants for a blood sample are available regardless of whether a driver consents to
a breath or blood test or declines a breath or blood test under the implied consent
statute. See City of Seattle v. St. John, 166 Wn.2d 941, 215 P.3d 194 (2009); RCW
46.20.308(1) (Neither consent nor this section precludes a police officer from
obtaining a search warrant for a persons breath or blood.).

f.

Probation/Parolee Searches. An individual who is under community supervision,

or probation, or on parole has a lesser expectation of privacy then the general public.
Such a person may be subjected to warrantless searches by a probation, parole, or
community corrections officer upon a well-founded or reasonable suspicion of a
probation violation. See, e.g. State v. Campbell, 103 Wn.2d 1, 22, 691 P.2d 929
(1984), cert. denied, 471 U.S. 1094 (1985); State v. Lucas, 56 Wn. App. 236, 783
P.2d 121 (1989), review denied, 114 Wn.2d 1009, 790 P.2d 167 (1990); State v.
Patterson, 51 Wn. App. 202, 752 P.2d 945 review denied, 111 Wn.2d 1006 (1988);
State v. Simms, 10 Wn. App. 75, 516 P.2d 1088 (1973), review denied, 83 Wn.2d
302

1007 (1974). See also Griffin v. Wisconsin, 483 U.S. 868, 107 S. Ct. 3164, 97 L. Ed.
2d 709 (1987).
A probation or parole or community corrections officer may search the probationer's
home without a warrant so long as the officer has, at the time of the search, probable
cause that the place to be searched is the probationers home. See generally State v.
Winterstein, 167 Wn.2d 620, 220 P.3d 1226 (2009). Whether the probation, parole,
or community corrections officer must also have probable cause to believe that the
probationer is at home is an open question. Id. Memory cards and their contents fall
within the warrantless search of a probationer's ""person, residence, automobile, or
other personal property" that is authorized by RCW 9.94A.631. A non-password
protected memory stick is treated the same as a closed shoebox when analyzing the
legality of a probation search. State v. Parris, 163 Wn. App. 110, 259 P.3d 331
(2011), review denied, 173 Wn.2d 1008 (2012).
People who live with probationers are entitled to the full protection of Const. art. I,
7. Evidence discovered during a warantless search of a non-common area of the
home will not be admissible against the non-probationer. State v. McKague, 143 Wn.
App. 531, 178 P.3d 1035 (2008).
A police officers authority to detain someone is not increased just because an
offender is on active supervision. A police officer may contact or detain a
Department of Corrections (DOC) offender the same as the officer would any other
person. This includes social contact, Terry stop, community caretaking, infraction,
or for a new crime.
An officer may not detain a DOC offender just to see if DOC wants to have them
arrested. An officer may arrest an offender for DOC violations when a CCO
unequivocally asks the officer to do so. An officer cannot arrest for DOC violations
unless a CCO says so; there are no investigatory stops or arrests for DOC violations.
If the DOC officer does not specifically tell the officer you are to arrest the offender
for DOC, the officer may not do so unless the officer can make a valid arrest for a new
crime on the officers own.
An offenders supervision status does not increase a police officers search authority.
To search any person a police office will need a warrant or any valid exception to the
warrant requirement. For example, if DOC asks the police officer to arrest a person,
the police officer can search incident to that arrest just as the officer would for any
other crime. An officer can frisk for weapons for the same reasons the officer would
frisk any other person.
An officer may not enter a residence without the consent of the offender to serve a
DOC detainer. If the offender is present and will not give consent, the police officer
will need to obtain a search warrant in order to enter the house to retrieve the parolee
or probationer.
A community corrections officer (CCO) may ask a law enforcement officer to
accompany him, for his safety, when making a contact with a probationer to
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investigate a possible violation of probation. A searching CCO officer does not run
afoul of the Fourth Amendment merely because they originally receive a tip from
police that the probationer may be violating the terms of his probation. Probationers
are not entitled to greater protection from warrantless searches under Const. art. I,
7, then they receive under the Fourth Amendment. State v. Reichert, 158 Wn. App.
374, 242 P.3d 44 (2010), review denied, 171 Wn.2d 1006 (2011).
g.

Civil Standby
[A] civil standby is when an officer is basically called to come out basically to make
sure there is no breach of the peace. Osborne v. Seymour, 164 Wn. App. 820, 828
n.3, 265 P.3d 917 (2011), (quoting Harris County v. Hinojosa, 294 S.W.3d 737, 741
(Tex. App. 2009) (internal quotation marks omitted)); accord Beal v. City of Seattle,
134 Wn.2d 769, 773-74, 954 P.2d 237 (1998). Most civil standbys occur in relation
to a domestic violence protection order.
A police officer must either secure the permission of the protected person or be
expressly granted permission to enter the home in the RCW 26.50.080 order. Police
officers may not rely upon consent from the restrained and excluded household or
family member for entry into the family home. See generally Osborne v. Seymour,
164 Wn. App. 820, 828 n.3, 265 P.3d 917 (2011). An officer may be liable to the
protected person pursuant to 42 U.S.C. 1983 if the officer relies solely upon the
restrained and excluded household or family members consent. Id.
If the relevant box is not checked by the court, officers should advise the restrained
party to ask the court to authorize the civil standby. The relevant portion of the court
orders are as follows:
I.

Temporary Order for Protection and Notice of Hearing , Page 4 of 4:

Law enforcement shall assist petitioner in obtaining:
GPossession of petitioner's G residence G personal belongings located at: G the shared
residence
Grespondent's residence Gother:_______________________________
G Custody of the above-named minors, including taking physical custody for
delivery to petitioner (if applicable).
GOther:
.

II.

Order for Protection, Page 5 of 5:

Law enforcement shall assist petitioner in obtaining:
GPossession of petitioner's G residence G personal belongings located at: G the shared
residence
Grespondent's residence Gother:_______________________________
G Custody of the above-named minors, including taking physical custody for
delivery to petitioner (if applicable).
GOther:

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III.

Domestic Violence No-Contact Order, Page 2 of 2:

8. G Civil standby: The appropriate law enforcement agency shall, at a reasonable
time and for a reasonable duration, assist the defendant in obtaining personal
belongings located at:
_________________________________________________________________.

h.

Administrative and Regulatory Inspections and Seizures

An "administrative inspection" is a search of a work place or the area subject to
inspection by a regulatory agency for the purpose of insuring compliance with printed
regulations.
Work Site Inspections. Government employees charged with regulating an industry
are not as restricted in their actions as are criminal investigators.
Warrants are generally required for administrative searches of both private and
commercial premises. Camara v. Municipal Court, 387 U.S. 523, 87 S. Ct. 1727, 18
L. Ed. 2d 930 (1967). See Please see discussion elsewhere in these materials.
Warrants not required when searches are made pursuant to legislative authority.
Warrantless inspection of commercial premises must meet the following criteria: (i)
substantial governmental interest; (ii) inspections must be necessary to fulfill the
regulatory scheme; and (iii) the inspections program must be certain and regular. See
generally New York v. Burger, 482 U.S. 691, 107 S. Ct. 2636, 96 L. Ed.2d 601
(1987).
Examples of administrative inspections:

Vehicle spot checks at weigh stations, trucking companies, etc. See United
States v. Delgado, 545 F.3d 1195 (9th Cir. 2008), cert. denied, 129 S. Ct. 1383
(2009) (commercial trucking is subject to warrantless inspections as a
pervasively regulated industry under New York v. Burger, 482 U.S. 691
(1987)).

Wrecker yard, hulk hauler inspections.

School bus inspections.

Aircraft inspections (FAA, WSP).

Health inspections.

Fire code inspections.

Building inspections.

OSHA/WISHA inspections.
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Commercial Vehicle spot checks. Are valid when conducted near truck weigh-in
stations. Delaware v. Prouse, 440 U.S. 648, 99 S. Ct. 1391, 59 L. Ed. 2d 660 (1979).
Issues that courts will consider include:

Are the spot checks sufficiently productive mechanisms to justify the

intrusion?

The checks must not involve "unconstrained exercise of discretion" by officers

conducting the stops. Delaware v. Prouse, supra.

Purpose of motor carrier inspections.

(a)

"Highways may be rendered safer for the use of the general public."
RCW 81.80.020

(b)

Public may be assured adequate, complete, dependable, and stable

transportation service in all its phases. RCW 81.80.020.

Authority
(a)

The inspection of private, common, and contract carriers with respect

to vehicle equipment, drivers' qualifications, and hours of service shall
be done in conjunction with weight enforcement. RCW 46.32.010(2)

(b)

It is a traffic infraction to refuse to have the motor vehicle examined.

RCW 46.32.010(6)

Border Inspections
The purpose of a border inspection is to interdict the flow of illegal immigrants and/or
illegal goods. The border exception allows federal officers to briefly detain
individuals at border checkpoints for initial questioning, with longer detentions
authorized upon articulable facts. See, e.g., United States v. Martinez- Fuerte, 428
U.S. 543, 96 S. Ct. 3074, 49 L. Ed. 2d 1116 (1976).
State officers have no authority to conduct border inspections or to enforce federal
immigration law. See United States v. State of Arizona, 641 F.3d 339 (9th Cir.), cert.
granted, 132 S. Ct. 845 (2011). State officers may, however, make an arrest for a
violation of state law based upon evidence that a federal officer discovers during a
lawful border inspection.
Airport Inspections. These inspections are conducted to interdict the flow of
weapons or explosives. The reasonableness of an airport administrative search does
not depend, in whole or in part, upon the consent of the passenger being searched. See
United States v. Aukai, 497 F.3d 955 (9th Cir. 2007).
Road Blocks. The purpose of a road block is to apprehend a fleeing felon. Three
requirements must be met before a road block can be erected:
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i.

Probable cause that a felony has been committed.

ii.

Brief stopping of vehicles moving in a particular direction.

iii.

Search is for perpetrator. State v. Silvernail, 25 Wn. App. 185, 605

P.2d 1279 (1980) (Fourth Amendment analysis).

Informational checkpoint designed to obtain more information about a recent hit and
run accident is constitutional under a Fourth Amendment analysis. See Illinois v.
Lidster, 540 U.S. 419, 124 S. Ct. 885, 157 L. Ed. 2d 843 (2004).
Driver's license, vehicle registration, and DUI checkpoints. The purpose of these
checkpoints is to identify unlicensed drivers, and to interdict alcohol-affected drivers.
Washington law does not permit these checkpoints. See State v. Meisani, 110 Wn.2d
454, 755 P.2d 775 (1988). Accord York v. Wahkiakum Sch. Dist. No. 200, 163 Wn.2d
297, 178 P.3d 995 (2008) (Const. art. I, 7 does not allow for suspicionless searches).
Game Checks. RCW 77.15.094 authorizes wildlife agents to make a reasonable
search, without a warrant, of vehicles, tents, etc., or other places they have reason to
believe contain evidence of game violations.
V.
A.

Exclusionary Rule
Purpose
Illegal searches and seizures may result in civil liability for the officer or individual who
engages in the illegal conduct. The more common remedy for an illegal search or seizure is
the exclusion of the illegally obtained evidence and all evidence discovered as a result of the
illegality. This latter type of evidence is generally called the fruits of the poisonous tree.
See Wong Sun v. United States, 371 U.S. 471, 83 S. Ct. 407, 9 L. Ed. 2d 441 (1963). The
federal exclusionary rule was made applicable to the states in 1961. See Mapp v. Ohio, 367
U.S. 643, 655, 81 S. Ct. 1684, 6 L. Ed. 2d 1081 (1961).

B.

The Evolution of Washingtons Exclusionary Rule

The earliest Washington case that discusses the exclusionary rule is State v. Royce, 38 Wash.
111, 80 P. 268 (1905). Royce involved the admissibility of a pawn ticket that was seized from
the defendant following an allegedly illegal arrest. The court, without considering the legality
of the arrest, held the pawn ticket admissible:
Though papers and other subjects of evidence may have been illegally taken
from the possession of the party against whom they are offered, ... this is no
valid objection to their admissibility, if they are pertinent to the issue. The
court will not take notice how they were obtained, whether lawfully or
unlawfully....
Id. at 117. Justice Dunbar, who had been a delegate at the Constitutional Convention,
concurred in this opinion. See C. Sheldon, The Washington High Bench: A Biographical
307

History of the State Supreme Court, 1889-1991, at 134-37 (1992).

Seventeen years later the court announced the existence of an exclusionary rule, in State v.
Gibbons, 118 Wash. 171, 203 P. 390 (1922). The court relied on then-recent federal authority
requiring suppression of illegally seized evidence. Amos v. United States, 255 U.S. 313, 65
L. Ed. 654, 41 S. Ct. 266 (1921). No reference was made to the contrary decision in Royce.
Following Gibbons, the Washington Supreme Court has repeatedly said that "it is beneath the
dignity of the state, and contrary to public policy, for the state to use for its own profit
evidence that has been obtained in violation of law." State v. Buckley, 145 Wash. 87, 89, 258
P. 1030 (1927); see, e.g., State v. Miles, 29 Wn.2d 921, 927, 190 P.2d 640 (1948).
The court recognized that the "exclusion of improperly obtained evidence is a privilege." State
v. Smith, 50 Wn.2d 408, 411, 314 P.2d 1024 (1957). This privilege was lost if the defendant
did not seek suppression of evidence in a timely fashion:
Questions of this character generally arise under one of the three following
circumstances:
(1) Where, by the direct or proper cross-examination of the state's witnesses,
it is made to appear, or it is otherwise admitted, that the articles which are
offered in evidence were unlawfully seized. Under those circumstances, it is
the duty of the trial court, upon objection, to refuse to receive them in
evidence. No question of fact exists under these circumstances. The court is
only called upon to rule on the admissibility of evidence upon admitted or
conceded facts. It is not required to stop in the midst of the trial and try a
collateral fact.
(2) Where, during the trial, the seized articles are offered in evidence, and it
does not appear from the state's testimony, or otherwise, that such articles
were unlawfully seized, and objection is made to the introduction of such
evidence, on the ground that it was unlawfully seized, and the defendant offers
by affidavit, or otherwise, to prove such unlawful seizure, the court should
receive the articles in evidence, because it will not, at that stage of the
proceedings, stop to investigate the disputed circumstances under which the
articles were seized. If, under these circumstances, the defendant desires to
suppress, as evidence, the articles taken, he must, within a reasonable time
before the case is called for trial, move for such suppression, and thus give the
court an opportunity to separately try out this disputed question of fact. One
exception to this rule would be:
(3) Where, during the trial of the case, the defendant objects to the receiving
of the articles in evidence, on the ground that they had been unlawfully seized,
and offers to prove such unlawful seizure, and to further prove that, by the
exercise of reasonable diligence, he could not before have learned that the
articles had been unlawfully seized, the court should stop in the trial of the
case and determine the collateral issue concerning the legality of the seizure.
This for the reason that the defendant has not previously had an opportunity
to raise the question. Where the defendant has had previous knowledge that
308

the articles were taken, it is not unfair to him that he should be required to
move, prior to the time of the trial, to suppress the articles as evidence. But
where he has not had the opportunity of obtaining the knowledge of the taking
until the articles are offered in evidence, it would be a harsh and unfair rule to
deprive him of the right, during the trial, to object to the introduction of the
articles in evidence and to prove, if he can, the ground of his objection.
Gouled v. United States, 255 U. S. 298, 41 Sup. Ct. 261, 65 L. Ed. 647.
State v. Dersiy, 121 Wash. 455, 462-63, 209 P. 837 (1922). The rules announced in Dersiy
were followed by Washington courts throughout the 1990's. See, e.g., State v. Duckett, 73
Wn.2d 692, 694-95, 440 P.2d 485 (1968); State v. Blake, 71 Wn.2d 356, 359-360, 428 P.2d
555 (1967); State v. Baxter, 68 Wn.2d 416, 422-24, 413 P.2d 638 (1966); State v. Silvers, 70
Wn.2d 430, 432, 423 P.2d 539, cert. denied, 389 U.S. 871 (1967) (Error predicated upon
evidence allegedly obtained by illegal search and seizure cannot be raised for the first time on
appeal.); State v. Mierz, 127 Wn.2d 460, 468, 901 P.2d 286 (1995) (same); In re Rountree,
35 Wn. App. 557, 668 P.2d 1292 (1983) (a collateral attack cannot be predicated upon a claim
that evidence was unlawfully seized)16.
The courts understanding of the purpose for the exclusionary rule began to transform. In
1983, the court indicated that the exclusionary rule should be applied to achieve three
objectives:
first, and most important, to protect privacy interests of individuals against
unreasonable governmental intrusions; second, to deter the police from acting
unlawfully in obtaining evidence; and third, to preserve the dignity of the
judiciary by refusing to consider evidence which has been obtained through
illegal means.
State v. Bonds, 98 Wn.2d 1, 12, 653 P.2d 1024 (1982), cert. denied, 464 U.S. 831 (1983).
By 2007, the courts understanding of the Washington exclusionary rule evolved further:
The federal exclusionary rule is a judicially-created prophylactic measure
designed to deter police misconduct. It applies only when the benefits of its
deterrent effect outweigh the cost to society of impairment to the truth-seeking
function of criminal trials. In contrast, the state exclusionary rule is
constitutionally mandated, exists primarily to vindicate personal privacy rights,
and strictly requires the exclusion of evidence obtained by unlawful
governmental intrusions.
State v. Chenoweth, 160 Wn.2d 454, 472 n.14, 158 P.3d 595 (2007).

16
Prior to 1947, no challenge could be made to a facially valid conviction. See generally In re Runyan, 121
W n.2d 432, 441-43, 853 P.2d 424 (1993).

309

Consistent with its latest understanding of the exclusionary rules origin and purpose, the
Washington Supreme Court has indicated a reluctance to impose and/or enforce any procedural
restrictions upon a defendants ability to obtain the suppression of unlawfully seized evidence.
See, e.g., In re Pers. Restraint of Nichols, 171 Wn.2d 370, 256 P.3d 1131 (2011) (a petitioner
can raise a Wash. Const. art. I, 7, claim for the first time in a personal restraint petition
(PRP)); State v. Robinson, 171 Wn.2d 292, 253 P.3d 84 (2011) (a criminal defendant may raise
a constitutional challenge to the collection of evidence for the first time on appeal under certain
circumstances).
C.

Procedures for Challenging Search

1.

Trial Court
a.

Prior to the Filing of Charges

Any person who is aggrieved by an unlawful search and seizure may move the
court for the return of the property on the ground that the property was illegally
seized and that the person is lawfully entitled to possession thereof. CrR
2.3(e); CrRLJ 2.3(e). The motion is filed in the court which issued the warrant,
with a copy served upon the chief executive of the law enforcement agency that
obtained the warrant. CrRLJ 2.3(e). The court that issued the search warrant
shall transfer the motion to any court in which charges arising from the search
are pending for the motion to be heard in the ordinary manner. CrRLJ 2.3(e)(1);
CrR 2.3(e). If no charges are pending, a hearing on the motion shall be set not
less than 30 days from the date of the filing or service of the motion. CrRLJ
2.3(e)(2). If the motion for return of property is granted, the property shall be
returned unless the prosecuting authority seeks review within 14 days. CrRLJ
2.3(e)(3).
At the hearing, the State bears the initial burden of proof to show its right of
possession; if the State meets its initial burden, the person has the burden of
coming forward with sufficient facts to convince the court of the person's right
of possession. See State v. Marks, 114 Wn.2d 724, 790 P.2d 138 (1990). A
court may refuse to return seized property no longer needed for evidence only
if (1) the defendant is not the rightful owner; (2) the property is contraband; or
(3) the property is subject to forfeiture pursuant to statute. See generally State
v. Alaway, 64 Wn. App. 796, 798, 828 P.2d 591, review denied, 119 Wn.2d
1016 (1992).

b.

After Charges are Filed

The proper procedure for seeking suppression is set out in CrR 3.6 and CrRLJ
3.6. These rules provide that:
(a) Pleadings. Motions to suppress physical, oral or
identification evidence, other than motion pursuant to rule 3.5,
shall be in writing supported by an affidavit or document setting
forth the facts the moving party anticipates will be elicited at a
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hearing, and a memorandum of authorities in support of the

motion. Opposing counsel may be ordered to serve and file a
memorandum of authorities in opposition to the motion. The
court shall determine whether an evidentiary hearing is required
based upon the moving papers. If the court determines that no
evidentiary hearing is required, the court shall enter a written
order setting forth its reasons.
(b) Hearing. If an evidentiary hearing is conducted, at its
conclusion the court shall enter written findings of fact and
conclusions of law.
CrR 3.6.
(a) Pleadings; Determination Regarding Hearing.
Motions to suppress physical, oral or identification evidence
other than motions pursuant to rule 3.5 shall be in writing
supported by an affidavit or document as provided in RCW
9A.72.085 or any law amendatory thereto, setting forth the
facts the moving party anticipates will be elicited at a hearing.
If there are no disputed facts, the court shall determine whether
an evidentiary hearing is required. If the court determines that
no evidentiary hearing is required, the court shall set forth its
reasons for not conducting an evidentiary hearing.
(b) Decision. The court shall state findings of fact and
conclusions of law.
CrRLJ 3.6.
i.

Waiver of Issue
"[E]xclusion of improperly obtained evidence is a privilege." State v.
Smith, 50 Wn.2d 408, 411, 314 P.2d 1024 (1957), and it must be
asserted in a timely fashion. If the defendant fails to seek suppression
of evidence until trial, he can obtain suppression only if (1) the relevant
facts are undisputed or (2) he could not, by reasonable diligence, have
learned of the illegal seizure prior to trial. If the issue could have been
raised before trial, the court is not required to interrupt the trial to
resolve disputed facts relating to the search. State v. Duckett, 73 Wn.2d
692, 694-95, 440 P.2d 485 (1968); State v. Blake, 71 Wn.2d 356, 359360, 428 P.2d 555 (1967); State v. Dersiy, 121 Wash. 455, 462-63, 209
P. 837 (1922); State v. Baxter, 68 Wn.2d 416, 422-24, 413 P.2d 638
(1966). Admission of illegally obtained evidence does not require a
new trial if the defendant makes no timely objection. State v. Mierz, 72
Wn. App. 783, 789, 866 P.2d 65, 875 P.2d 1228 (1994), aff'd, 127
Wn.2d 460, 901 P.2d 286 (1995).

311

If a defendant brings a suppression motion, but affirmatively withdraws

the motion prior to trial, s/he will waive the chance to challenge the
illegality of the search or seizure. See State v. Valladares, 99 Wn.2d
663, 672, 664 P.2d 508 (1983).
ii.

Evidence Rules Applicable to Hearing

As a general principle, a court may consider hearsay testimony at a
suppression hearing. United States v. Raddatz, 447 U.S. 667, 679, 65
L. Ed. 2d 424, 100 S. Ct. 2406 (1980); State v. O'Cain, 108 Wn. App.
542, 556, 31 P.3d 733 (2001). This rule seems to still apply in the postCrawford v. Washington, 541 U.S. 36, 124 S. Ct. 1354, 158 L. Ed. 2d
177 (2004), era. See State v. Massie, 2005 Ohio 1678, 2005 Ohio App.
Lexis 1613 (Apr. 8, 2005) (Raddatz was not overruled by Crawford).

iii.

Possible Disqualification of Judge

The judge who issued the search warrant that is being challenged in the
suppression hearing is not disqualified from presiding over the hearing.
State v. Chamberlin, 161 Wn.2d 30, 162 P.3d 389 (2007).

2.

Appeal
a.

Presenting Claim for First Time

The general rule in Washington is that a party's failure to raise an issue at trial
waives the issue on appeal unless the party can show the presence of a
manifest error affecting a constitutional right. State v. Kirwin, 165 Wn.2d
818, 823, 203 P.3d 1044 (2009) (internal quotation marks omitted) (quoting
State v. McFarland, 127 Wn.2d 322, 333, 899 P.2d 1251 (1995)). This standard
comes from RAP 2.5(a), which permits a court to refuse to consider claimed
errors not raised in the trial court, subject to certain exceptions. McFarland,
127 Wn.2d at 332-33. [A]lthough RAP 2.5(a) permits a party to raise for the
first time on appeal a manifest error affecting a constitutional right, RAP
2.5(a) does not mandate appellate review of a newly raised argument where the
facts necessary for its adjudication are not in the record and therefore where the
error is not manifest. State v. Riley, 121 Wn.2d 22, 31, 846 P.2d 1365
(1993).
In State v. Robinson, 171 Wn.2d 292, 253 P.3d 84 (2011), the Washington
Supreme Court held that a suppression issue may be raised for the first time on
appeal, even when the facts necessary to adjudicate the claim are not in the
record, when the following four conditions are met:
(1) a court issues a new controlling constitutional interpretation
material to the defendant's case, (2) that interpretation overrules
an existing controlling interpretation, (3) the new interpretation
applies retroactively to the defendant, and (4) the defendant's
312

trial was completed prior to the new interpretation.

When a challenge is raised for the first time under this exception, the correct
remedy is to remand each case to the trial court for a suppression hearing.
Robinson is the exception to the general rule. Robinson dealt with Gant claims
that were raised for the first time on appeal in cases tried before Gant was
decided. Robinson does not allow every defendant to assert a search incident
to arrest claim for the first time on appeal. See State v. Fenwick, 164 Wn. App.
392, 264 P.3d 284 (2011), review denied, 173 Wn.2d 1021 (2012) (a defendant
cannot challenge the search of a vehicle incident to arrest based upon Gant for
the first time on appeal, when the defendants trial occurred after Gant was
decided); State v. Lee, 162 Wn. App. 852, 259 P.3d 294 (2011), review denied,
173 Wn.2d 1017 (2012) (same).
i.

Ineffective Assistance of Counsel

Prior to Robinson, some defendants attempted to raise a suppression
motion that was not considered by the trial court in the direct appeal
under the heading of ineffective assistance of counsel. This tactic is
disfavored by our courts, which require the defendant to establish from
the trial court record: (1) the facts necessary to adjudicate the claimed
error; (2) the trial court would likely have granted the motion if it had
been made; and (3) the defense counsel had no legitimate tactical basis
for not raising the motion in the trial court. State v. McFarland, 127
Wn.2d 322, 899 P.2d 1251 (1995); State v. Riley, 121 Wn. 2d 22, 31,
846 P.2d 1365 (1993).
Counsel is not ineffective for failing to forecast changes or advances in
the law. See, e.g., In re the Personal Restraint Petition of Benn, 134
Wn.2d 868, 939, 952 P.2d 116 (1998) (counsel could not be faulted for
failing to anticipate a change in the law); Sherrill v. Hargett, 184 F.3d
1172, 1176 (10th Cir.), cert. denied, 528 U.S. 1009 (1999); Lilly v.
Gilmore, 988 F.2d 783, 786 (7th Cir.), cert. denied, 519 U.S. 1119
(1993) ("The Sixth Amendment does not require counsel to forecast
changes or advances in the law, or to press meritless arguments before
a court."); Johnson v. Armontrout, 923 F.2d 107, 108 (8th Cir.), cert.
denied, 502 U.S. 831 (1991) (same); Elledge v. Dugger, 823 F.2d 1439,
1443 (11th Cir. 1987) ("Reasonably effective representation cannot and
does not include a requirement to make arguments based on predictions
of how the law may develop."); Bullock v. Carver, 297 F.3d 1036,
1051 (10th Cir.), cert. denied, 537 U.S. 1093 (2002) (we have rejected
ineffective assistance claims where a defendant faults his former
counsel not for failing to find existing law, but for failing to predict
future law and have warned that clairvoyance is not a required
attribute of effective representation.) (quoting United States v.
Gonzalez-Lerma, 71 F.3d 1537, 1542 (10th Cir. 1995)); United States
v. Chambers, 918 F.2d 1455, 1461 (9th Cir. 1990) (counsels conduct
313

was not deficient when, at the time of trial, the instruction given to the
jury was the standard instruction that had been approved by the
appellate court).
Counsel is not required to preserve an issue after a higher court has
granted review of an intermediary appellate courts decision but not yet
passed upon the propriety of the lower courts reasoning. See United
States v. McNamara, 74 F.3d 514, 516-17 (4th Cir. 1996) (counsel was
not constitutionally deficient for following controlling law of circuit
that willfulness was not an element of structuring financial transactions
to avoid currency reporting requirements even though Supreme Court
had granted certiorari on that issue at time legal advice was given; "an
attorney's failure to anticipate a new rule of law was not constitutionally
deficient"); Kornahrens v. Evatt, 66 F.3d 1350, 1359 (4th Cir. 1995),
cert. denied, 517 U.S. 1171 (1996) (trial counsel in capital case was not
constitutionally ineffective for failing to preserve an issue at trial based
merely on the Supreme Court's grant of certiorari in a case which raised
the issue); Randolph v. Delo, 952 F.2d 243, 246 (8th Cir. 1991), cert.
denied, 504 U.S. 920 (1992). (ruling that trial counsel was not
ineffective by failing to raise Batson challenge two days before Batson
was decided)
b.

Findings of Fact
Written findings of fact and conclusions of law are mandatory for suppression
motions heard by the superior court. CrR 3.6. District court judges may enter
written findings or merely state oral findings on the record. CrRLJ 3.6. If an
appeal is a possibility, the prosecutor should always opt for written findings.
The trial courts failure to enter written findings after a suppression motion will
not result in the dismissal of charges. If a trial courts oral decision sufficiently
sets forth its reasons for denying a motion to suppress, the appellate court may
simply resolve the issue on the record before it. See, e.g., State v. Riley, 69 Wn.
App. 349, 352-53, 848 P.2d 1288 (1993); State v. Smith, 67 Wn. App. 81, 8687, 834 P.2d 26 (1992), affd, 123 Wn.2d 51 (1993). If the trial courts oral
decision is insufficient, the appellate court may either examine the record and
make its own determination or the appellate court may remand the issue to the
trial court for the purpose of entering appropriate findings and conclusions.
See, e.g., State v. Chakos, 74 Wn.2d 154, 160, 442 P.2d 815 (1968), cert.
denied, 393 U.S. 1090 (1969) (remand for entry of findings); State v. Massey,
60 Wn. App. 131, 141-42, 803 P.2d 340, review denied, 115 Wn.2d 1021
(1990), cert. denied, 499 U.S. 960 (1991) (appellate court made own
determination of voluntariness); State v. Davis, 34 Wn. App. 546, 550, 662
P.2d 78, review denied, 100 Wn.2d 1005 (1983) (same). Since findings may
be entered even after the brief of appellant is filed, counsel for appellant should
bring the absence of findings to the trial courts attention as soon as discovered
so that the appeal need not be delayed. State v. Vickers, 107 Wn. App. 960,
29 P.3d 752 (2001); State v. Nelson, 74 Wn. App. 380, 393, 874 P.2d 170,
314

review denied, 125 Wn.2d 1002 (1994); State v. Moore, 70 Wn. App. 667,
671-72, 855 P.2d 306 (1993). If findings are entered after the brief of appellant
has been filed, care must be taken to prevent the findings from being tailored
to respond to the issues that have been raised. Engaging in such conduct will
not be sanctioned by the appellate courts. See State v. Head, 136 Wn.2d 619,
964 P.2d 1187 (1998).
The problem of late findings or no findings can be eliminated by following a
few simple rules. Regardless of who prevails, prosecutors should consider
drafting their own proposed findings. (If the State lost, the prosecutor preparing
the findings should use the heading prepared in conformity with the courts
ruling, objections not waived above his or her signature line.). These findings
should be promptly sent to the defense counsel along with a note for motion
docket. The note for motion docket will ensure that the entry of findings of fact
do not fall between the cracks and that the findings are entered when the
hearing judge, defense attorney, and prosecutor will all still be available and
will all have a clear recollection of the facts. Prosecutor prepared findings help
to ensure that every necessary issue is covered. This is particularly important
because an appellate court will interpret the absence of a finding as though a
finding of fact against the party with the burden of proof was made. See State
v. Armenta, 134 Wn.2d 1, 14, 948 P.2d 1280 (1997); State v. Cass, 62 Wn.
App. 793, 795, 816 P.2d 57 (1991), review denied, 118 Wn.2d 1012 (1992).
All findings of fact should be short, specific and limited to discrete ideas.
Lengthy paragraphs covering multiple issues should be avoided.
In reviewing the findings of fact entered following a motion to suppress, an
appellate court will review only those facts to which error has been assigned.
Unchallenged findings of fact are verities on appeal. State v. Hill, 123 Wn.2d
641, 870 P.2d 313 (1994); In re Riley, 76 Wn.2d 32, 33, 454 P.2d 820, cert.
denied, 396 U.S. 972 (1969).
To challenge a trial courts findings of fact, the defendant must cite to the
specific record and assign error to the challenged finding. State v. Slanaker, 58
Wn. App. 161, 791 P.2d 575, review denied, 115 Wn.2d 1031 (1990); State v.
McGhee, 57 Wn. App. 457, 788 P.2d 603, review denied, 115 Wn.2d 1013
(1990).
Where there is substantial evidence in the record supporting the challenged
facts, those facts will be binding on appeal. State v. Hill, 123 Wn.2d 641, 870
P.2d 313 (1994); State v. Graffius, 74 Wn. App. 23, 29, 871 P.2d 1115 (1994).
Moreover, a challenge to the sufficiency of the evidence to prove a particular
matter in a criminal case requires that the appellate court view the evidence in
the light most favorable to the State. State v. Bodey, 44 Wn. App. 698, 723
P.2d 1148 (1986); State v. Frederiksen, 40 Wn. App. 749, 700 P.2d 369, review
denied, 104 Wn.2d 1013 (1985). The court assumes the truth of the supporting
evidence and draws all reasonable inferences from that evidence in favor of the
State. State v. Summers, 45 Wn. App. 761, 728 P.2d 613 (1986). Any
inference drawn by the trial court will be upheld on review if the supporting
315

evidence interpreted most favorably to the State is substantial. State v.

LaLonde, 35 Wn. App. 54, 665 P.2d 421, review denied, 100 Wn.2d 1014
(1983).
c.

Gunwall
The general rule is that an appellate court will not consider whether the
Washington Constitution provides greater protection from search or seizure in
a particular area absent a timely and adequate Gunwall analysis. See State v.
Mierz, 127 Wn.2d 460, 473 n.10, 901 P.2d 286 (1995) (The failure to engage
in a Gunwall analysis in timely fashion precludes us from entertaining a state
constitutional claim.); State v. Thomas, 128 Wn.2d 553, 562, 910 P.2d 475
(1996)(refusing to consider independent constitutional claim on the grounds
that the briefing was inadequate). This analysis with respect to Const. art. I,
7, is not too onerous as the proponent of the independent state constitutional
rule need only address two of the non-exclusive factors: preexisting state law,
and matters of particular state interest or local concern. See generally State v.
Bustamante-Davila, 138 Wn.2d 964, 979, 983 P.2d 590 (1999).
What constitutes a timely presentation of a Gunwall analysis is less than clear.
Some cases indicate that a failure to present the Gunwall analysis in the trial
court constitutes a waiver. See State v. Reding, 119 Wn.2d 685, 696, 835 P.2d
1019 (1992) (This court has previously declined to consider state
constitutional arguments not raised at the trial or appellate court levels.); Ford
Motor Co. v. Barrett, 115 Wn.2d 556, 570-71, 800 P.2d 367 (1990) (Utter, J.,
concurring) (failure to perform an adequate Gunwall analysis in the trial court
will preclude a party from raising a state constitutional issue on appeal); State
v. Wethered, 110 Wn.2d 466, 755 P.2d 797 (1988) (a state constitutional claim
is waived if not properly raised in a timely manner).
Some cases indicate that the analysis may not be raised for the first time in a
reply brief. See State v. Clark, 124 Wn.2d 90, 95 n. 2, 875 P.2d 613 (1994)
(court will not consider a Gunwall analysis performed in a reply brief).Courts
will grant a motion to strike a Gunwall analysis contained in a reply brief. See
State v. Lively, 130 Wn.2d 1, 18 n. 4, 921 P.2d 1035 (1996) (State's motion to
strike portions of the defendant's reply brief that added a Gunwall analysis to
appellant's Constitutional claim granted by the supreme court); see also RAP
10.3(c) (A reply brief should be limited to a response to the issues in the brief
to which the reply brief is directed.).
Other cases would appear to bar first raising an independent state
constitutional claim in a motion for reconsideration, in a petition for review, or
in a supplemental brief. State v. Hudson, 124 Wn.2d 107, 120, 874 P.2d 160
(1994) (to allow an appellant to engage in a full Gunwall analysis in his
supplemental brief would encourage parties to save their state constitutional
claims for the reply brief and would lead to unbalanced and incomplete
development of the issues for review); State v. Halstien, 122 Wn.2d 109, 130,
857 P.2d 270 (1993) (An issue not raised or briefed in the Court of Appeals
316

will not be considered by this court.); Nostrand v. Little, 58 Wn.2d 111, 120,
361 P.2d 551 (1961) (This court has for many years adhered to its rule that it
will not consider questions presented to it for the first time in a petition for
rehearing.)
Examples of cases where the courts have ignored these rules abound.
Nonetheless, prosecutors should be aggressive about restating the rules and
seeking to strike arguments made in violation of the above rules.
3.

Collateral Attacks
a.

Procedural Issues
The United States Supreme Court held in Stone v. Powell, 428 U.S. 465, 49 L.
Ed. 2d 1067, 96 S. Ct. 3037 (1976), that federal courts would not consider a
state prisoners claim that evidence obtained by an unconstitutional search or
seizure was introduced at his trial, if the state provides a mechanism wherein
the prisoner could have obtained full and fair litigation of his claim in the state
courts. The Court reached this conclusion after a thorough discussion of the
purposes and costs of the exclusionary rule. The relevant court rules, CrR 3.6
and CrRLJ 3.6, for challenging the legality of a search or seizure provide a
mechanism by which a defendant may obtain a full and fair litigation of a claim
in state court. See, e.g., Terrovona v. Kincheloe, 852 F.2d 424, 428 (9th Cir.
1988).
Washington courts will consider a petitioners claim that evidence obtained by
an unconstitutional search or seizure was introduced at his or her trial. In re
Personal Restraint of Nichols, 171 Wn.2d 370, 256 P.3d 1131 (2011). The
claim must meet the requirements for a timely personal restraint (PRP), and the
retroactivity rules of Teague v. Lane, 489 U.S. 288, 311, 109 S. Ct. 1060, 103
L. Ed. 2d 334 (1989). See In re Personal Restraint of Nichols, 171 Wn.2d 370,
375, 256 P.3d 1131 (2011); State v. Evans, 154 Wn.2d 438, 444, 114 P.3d 627
(2005).
The State will need to submit affidavits or declarations with relevant evidence
from outside the record when responding to a suppression motion made for the
first time in a PRP. See In re Personal Restraint of Nichols, 171 Wn.2d 370,
375, 256 P.3d 1131 (2011); RAP 16.7(a)(2) If the affidavits received from both
the petitioner and the State are insufficient to resolve the matter, the court may
order additionally, that a search and seizure issue may order a a reference
hearing. Nichols; RAP 16.11-.13.

b.

Ineffective Assistance of Counsel

Where a defendant pled guilty, a suppression claim will have to be raised under
the rubric of ineffective assistance of counsel. Courts consider such claims
under the ineffective assistance of counsel framework set out in Strickland v.
Washington, 466 U.S. 668, 104 S. Ct. 2052, 80 L. Ed. 2d 674 (1984 ) . Under
317

Strickland, the defendant must prove both that the attorney's performance "fell
below the objective standard of reasonableness" and that he was prejudiced by
the attorney's deficient performance. Id. at 694. The second prong of this test
is met by showing that there is "a reasonable probability that, but for counsel's
unprofessional errors, the result of the proceeding would have been different."
Id. at 694.
i.

Failure to Anticipate Change in Law

Frequently, the ineffective assistance of counsel claim is predicated
upon the trial attorneys recommendation to plead guilty despite what
subsequently is demonstrated to be a meritorious claim or the trial
attorneys failure to seek suppression under a theory that was contrary
to established precedent or not yet accepted by the appellate courts
when the CrR 3.6 hearing was held.
It is a long-established principle of Washington law that pleading guilty
waives the right to challenge any errors committed before arraignment.
A voluntary plea of guilty waives all defenses other than that the
complaint, information, or indictment charges no offense. State v.
Bailey, 53 Wn. App. 905, 907, 771 P.2d 766 (1989); State v. Olson, 73
Wn. App. 348, 353, 869 P.2d 110, review denied, 124 Wn.2d 1029, 883
P.2d 327 (1994) (guilty plea waives right to appeal the denial of any
pretrial motions); Garrison v. Rhay, 75 Wn.2d 98, 101, 449 P.2d 92
(1968); see also, 13 R. Ferguson, Wash. Practice, Criminal Practice
and Procedure, at 3618 (1997) (A valid guilty plea . . . waives all
objections the defendant might otherwise make to errors committed
prior to arraignment, including an illegal search and seizure[.]).
Similarly, it is well-settled that one of the risks inherent in a guilty plea
is that the law may change at some point in the future. A defendant
may not accept the benefits of a plea bargain and then seek to improve
his situation when the legal landscape changes. According to the U.S.
Supreme Court:
It is no denigration of the right to trial to hold that when
the defendant waives his state court remedies and
admits his guilt, he does so under the law then existing;
further, he assumes the risk of ordinary error in either
his or his attorneys assessment of the law and facts.
Although he might have pleaded differently had later
decided cases then been the law, he is bound by his plea
and conviction, unless he can allege and prove serious
derelictions on the part of counsel sufficient to show
that his plea was not, after all, a knowing and intelligent
act.
McMann v. Richardson, 397 U.S. 776, 25 L. Ed. 2d 763, 90 S. Ct.
318

1441, 1450 (1970)(emphasis added).

Counsel, whether in recommending that his or her client enter a plea or
that a suppression issue not be pursued, is not ineffective for failing to
forecast changes or advances in the law. See, e.g., In re the Personal
Restraint Petition of Benn, 134 Wn.2d 868, 939, 952 P.2d 116 (1998)
(counsel could not be faulted for failing to anticipate a change in the
law); Sherrill v. Hargett, 184 F.3d 1172, 1176 (10th Cir.), cert. denied,
120 S. Ct. 507 (1999); Lilly v. Gilmore, 988 F.2d 783, 786 (7th Cir.),
cert. denied, 114 S. Ct. 154, 126 (1993) ("The Sixth Amendment does
not require counsel to forecast changes or advances in the law, or to
press meritless arguments before a court."); Johnson v. Armontrout,
923 F.2d 107, 108 (8th Cir.), cert. denied, 502 U.S. 831 (1991)
(same);Commonwealth v. Speight, 677 A.2d 317, 326 (Pa. 1996), cert.
denied, 117 S. Ct. 967 (1997) (same); State v. Brennan, 627 A.2d 842,
846 (R.I. 1993) (same). Thus, if a case that was decided after the
defendants conviction was obtained provides the basis for the
suppression motion, the defendant will not be able to satisfy the
deficient performance prong of the Strickland test. This is because the
propriety of counsels conduct must be viewed at the time counsel is
required to act. See United States v. Chambers, 918 F.2d 1455, 1461
(9th Cir. 1990).
Counsel is also not required to preserve an issue after a higher court has
granted review of an intermediary appellate courts decision but not yet
passed upon the propriety of the lower courts reasoning. See United
States v. McNamara, 74 F.3d 514, 516-17 (4th Cir. 1996); Jameson v.
Coughlin, 22 F.3d 427, 429 (2d Cir. 1994) (Nor can counsel be
deemed incompetent for failing to predict that the New York Court of
Appeals would later overrule the Second Department's reasonable
interpretation of New York law.); United States v. Smith, 915 F. Supp.
1378 (W.D. Pa. 1995). An attorneys failure to seek a continuance in
anticipation of a possible change in the law is also not deficient
performance. See United States v. Gonzalez-Lerma, 71 F.3d 1537,
1541-42 (10th Cir. 1995).
This rule has been applied to claims based upon Gant. See, e.g., State
v. Cardwell, 155 Wn. App. 41, 46, 226 P.3d 243 (2010) ( because
Gant represents a radical unanticipated change in the law, Cardwell's
counsel was not ineffective for failing to anticipate it and move to
suppress evidence seized during a search incident to arrest that was
entirely lawful at the time Officer Pearce conducted it.).
ii.

Failure to Brief Gunwall

An attorneys failure to adequately brief the six non-exclusive Gunwall
factors may result in an appellate courts refusal to consider whether the
Washington Constitution provides greater protection than the federal
319

constitution. Inclusion of a Gunwall analysis in every brief, however,

does not appear to be the standard of practice for Washington
appellate counsel. To the contrary, a legion of cases exist where
defense counsel did not argue that the court should adopt an
independent state constitutional interpretation. See, e.g, State v. Mierz,
127 Wn.2d 460, 473 n. 10, 901 P.2d 286 (1995); State v. Olivas, 122
Wn.2d 73, 81-82, 856 P.2d 1076 (1993); State v. Greenwood, 120
Wn.2d 585, 614, 845 P.2d 971 (1993); State v. Hollis, 93 Wn. App.
804, 810 n. 3, 970 P.2d 813, review denied, 137 Wn.2d 1038 (1999);
State v. Bryant, 78 Wn. App. 805, 809 n. 4, 901 P.2d 1046 (1995); State
v. Jones, 71 Wn. App. 798, 810 n. 3, 863 P.2d 85 (1993), review
denied, 129 Wn.2d 1016 (1996). The prevalence of this practice
precludes a defendant from satisfying the deficient performance
Strickland prong.
c.

Retroactivity of New Rules

Individuals who seek to apply judicial opinions decided after their conviction
became final to their case or who seek to have a prior rule expanded to their
case or who simply seek to have a new rule announced have significant
roadblocks to overcome. Under Teague v. Lane, 489 U.S. 288, 109 S. Ct.
1060, 103 L. Ed. 2d 334 (1989), a new rule of criminal procedure may not be
applied or announced in a habeas corpus case unless the rule falls within one
of two narrow exceptions. Penry v. Lynaugh, 492 U.S. 302, 313, 109 S. Ct.
2934, 106 L. Ed. 2d 256 (1989). A "new rule" for purposes of the Teague
analysis is one that "breaks new ground," "imposes a new obligation on the
States or the Federal Government," or "was not dictated by precedent existing
at the time the defendant's conviction became final." Teague, 489 U.S. at 301
(emphasis in original); see also Caspari v. Bohlen, 510 U.S. 383, 390, 114 S.
Ct. 948, 953, 127 L. Ed. 2d 236 (1994); Gilmore v. Taylor, 508 U.S. 333, 340,
113 S. Ct. 2112, 2116, 124 L. Ed. 2d 306 (1993). The Teague doctrine serves
to validate "reasonable, good-faith interpretations of existing precedents made
by state courts." Butler v. McKellar, 494 U.S. 407, 414, 110 S. Ct. 1212, 108
L. Ed. 2d 347 (1990).
The Teague doctrine was adopted in Washington by the State Supreme Court.
See, e.g., State v. Summers, 120 Wn.2d 801, 815-16, 846 P.2d 490 (1993); In
re the Personal Restraint Petition of St. Pierre, 118 Wn.2d 321, 326-28, 823
P.2d 492 (1992). Teague has been applied by the Washington Supreme Court
to a capital case. See In re the Personal Restraint Petition of Benn, 134 Wn.2d
868, 939-940, 952 P.2d 116 (1998) ("new rules should not be applied
retroactively on collateral review unless they place certain kinds of conduct
beyond the power of the State to proscribe or punish, or establish procedures
inherent in the concept of ordered liberty.").
Washington is not alone in adopting the Teague doctrine as a matter of state
law. See State v. Slemmer, 170 Ariz. 174, 823 P.2d 41, 49 (1991); People v.
Flowers, 138 Ill.2d 218, 149 Ill. Dec. 304, 561 N.E.2d 674, 682 (1990);
320

Daniels v. State, 561 N.E.2d 487, 489-90 (Ind. 1990); Morgan v. State, 469
N.W.2d 419, 422 (Iowa), cert. denied, 502 U.S. 913 (1991); Taylor v. Whitley,
606 So.2d 1292, 1297 (La. 1992), cert. denied, 113 S. Ct. 2935 (1993);
Commonwealth v. Bray, 407 Mass. 296, 553 N.E.2d 538, 541 (1990); Nixon v.
State, 641 So.2d 751, 753 (Miss. 1994), cert. denied, 513 U.S. 1120 (1995);
State v. Nichols, 986 P.2d 1093, 1096-97 (Mont. 1999) (applying Teague to
new state constitutional rule); State v. Reeves, 234 Neb. 711, 453 N.W.2d 359,
382-83 (Neb.), vacated on other grounds, 498 U.S. 964, 111 S. Ct. 425, 112 L.
Ed. 2d 409 (1990); People v. Eastman, 85 N.Y.2d 265, 648 N.E.2d 459, 465
(1995); State v Zuniga, 336 N.C. 508, 444 S.E.2d 443, 446 (1994); Ferrell v.
State, 902 P.2d 1113, 1114-15 (Okl. Cr. 1995); Commonwealth v. Blystone,
725 A.2d 1197, 1202-03 (Pa. 1999); Pailin v. Vose, 603 A.2d 738, 742 (R.I.
1992); State v. Guthrie, 194 W. Va. 657, 461 S.E.2d 163, 183 (1995); State v.
Horton, 195 Wis. 2d 280, 536 N.W.2d 155 (Wis. App. 1995).
In cases where the State claims that collateral relief is barred by the principles
of Teague, a court should proceed in three steps. Caspari, 510 U.S. at 390.
"First, the court must ascertain the date on which the defendant's conviction and
sentence became final for Teague purposes." Caspari, 510 U.S. at 390. A state
court judgment becomes final for retroactivity analysis for a federal
constitutional claim when the time for filing a petition for writ of certiorari has
elapsed or a timely-filed petition has been finally denied. Griffith v. Kentucky,
479 U.S. 314, 321 n. 6, 107 S. Ct. 708, 93 L. Ed. 2d 649 (1987). A Washington
court judgment becomes final for purposes of a Washington Constitutional
claim when the judgment is filed with the court, when the mandate from the
direct appeal issues, or when a timely-filed petition for certiorari has been
finally denied. See RCW 10.73.090(3)(b).
"Second, the court must '[s]urve[y] the legal landscape as it then existed,'" and
"'determine whether a state court considering [the defendant's] claim at the time
his conviction became final would have felt compelled by existing precedent
to conclude that the rule [he] seeks was required by the Constitution.'"
Caspari, 510 U.S. at 390 (quoting Graham v. Collins, 506 U.S. 461, 468, 113
S. Ct. 892, 898, 122 L. Ed. 2d 260 (1993) and Saffle v. Parks, 494 U.S. 484,
488, 110 S. Ct. 1257, 108 L. Ed. 2d 415 (1990)). Unless reasonable jurists
would have felt compelled by existing precedent to grant relief, the court is
precluded from granting relief. Goeke v. Branch, 514 U.S. 115, 115 S. Ct.
1275, 1277, 131 L. Ed. 2d 152 (1995); Saffle, 494 U.S. at 488. The application
of an old rule in a new setting or in a manner not dictated by precedent
constitutes a new rule barred by Teague. Stringer v. Black, 503 U.S. 222, 228,
112 S. Ct. 1130, 1135, 117 L. Ed. 2d 367 (1992). A rule may be a new rule
even if the court's decision is within the "logical compass" or is "controlled" by
a prior decision. Caspari, 510 U.S. at 395; Butler, 494 U.S. at 415; Sawyer v.
Smith, 497 U.S. 227, 234, 110 S. Ct. 2822, 2827, 111 L. Ed. 2d 193 (1990).
Third, if the relief petitioner seeks would require the application or
announcement of a new rule, the court must decide whether that rule falls
within one of the two narrow exceptions recognized in Teague. Caspari, 510
321

U.S. at 390; Graham, 506 U.S. at 477. The first exception is for new rules that
either decriminalize a class of conduct or that prohibit capital punishment for
a particular class of defendants. Saffle, 494 U.S. at 495. The second exception
allows for the announcement and retroactive application of a new rule if the
new rule is a watershed rule of criminal procedure that "requires the observance
of 'those procedures that . . . are implicit in the concept of ordered liberty.'"
Teague, 489 U.S. at 307 (citations omitted). This second narrow exception is
reserved for new rules that critically enhance the accuracy of the fact-finding
process. Graham, 506 U.S. at 478; Teague, 489 U.S. at 313.
The
paradigmatic example of a "watershed rule of criminal procedure" falling
within Teague's second exception is the requirement that counsel be provided
in criminal trials for serious offenses. Gray v. Netherland, 518 U.S. 152, 116
S. Ct. 2074, 2085, 135 L. Ed. 2d 457 (1996); Saffle v. Parks, 494 U.S. at 495
(citing Gideon v. Wainwright, 372 U.S. 335, 83 S. Ct. 792, 9 L. Ed. 2d 799
(1963))"Whatever the precise scope of this [second] exception, it is clearly
meant to apply only to a small core of rules requiring observance of those
procedures that ... are implicit in the concept of ordered liberty." Graham, 506
U.S. at 478 (internal quotation marks omitted). To date, no new Fourth
Amendment rule has been found to satisfy this exception to Teague. See, e.g.,
In re Personal Restraint Petition of Markel, 154 Wn.2d 262, 269, 111 P.3d 249
(2005) (noting that no new rule has yet been found to satisfy the "watershed
exception" to Teague).
C.

Who May Raise Claim

1.

General Rule
A person may challenge a search of seizure only if he or she has a personal Fourth
Amendment or Art. I, 7, interest in the area searched or the property seized. The
defendant must personally claim a justifiable, reasonable, or legitimate
expectation of privacy that has been invaded by governmental action.
In determining whether a defendant has a personal privacy interest, the court in Rakas
v. Illinois, 439 U.S. 128, 133, 58 L. Ed. 2d 387, 99 S. Ct. 421 (1978), focused on
whether the defendant possessed a legitimate expectation of privacy as to the item or
area searched.
Legitimation of expectations of privacy by law must have a source
outside of the Fourth Amendment, either by reference to concepts of
real or personal property law or to understandings that are recognized
and permitted by society. One of the main rights attaching to property
is the right to exclude others. . . . Expectations of privacy protected by
the Fourth Amendment, of course, need not be based on a common-law
interest in property, or on an invasion in such an interest . . . [but] even
a property interest in the premises may not be sufficient to establish a
legitimate expectation of privacy with respect to particular items
located on the premises or activity conducted thereon. (Citations
omitted.)
322

Rakas, 99 S. Ct. at 430-31 n.12.

a.

Burden of Proof
The defendant seeking suppression of seized evidence has the burden of
establishing the requisite privacy interest. See, e.g., Alderman v. United States,
394 U.S. 165, 173, 89 S. Ct. 961, 22 L. Ed 2d 176 (1969) (quoting Jones v.
United States, 362 U.S. 257, 261, 80 S. Ct. 725, 4 L. Ed. 2d 697 (1960) (one
who brings a motion to suppress must allege and establish "that he himself was
the victim of an invasion of privacy"); United States v. Lyons, 992 F.2d 1029,
1031, rehg denied, 997 F.2d 826 (10th Cir. 1993) (defendant must prove his
standing to challenge a search); State v. Picard, 90 Wn. App. 890, 896, 954
P.2d 336, review denied, 136 Wn.2d 1021 (1998); State v. Jackson, 82 Wn.
App. 594, 602, 918 P.2d 945 (1996), review denied, 131 Wn.2d 1006 (1997).
This burden of proof regarding whether a defendant has standing never shifts
to the government. United States v. Singleton, 987 F.2d 1444 (9th Cir. 1993).
If the defendants evidence and the State's evidence leaves the court in a
"virtual equipoise" as to whether the defendant has a valid privacy interest in
the place searched or in the item seized, the Fourth Amendment analysis cannot
proceed further. See State v. Picard, 90 Wn. App. 890, 896-97, 954 P.2d 336,
review denied, 136 Wn.2d 1021 (1998).

b.

When Raised
Although the State may not raise the issue of a defendant's standing for the first
time on appeal when it is an appellant, it may raise the issue of standing for the
first time on appeal as a respondent because the appellate court has a duty to
affirm on any ground supported by the record, even if it is not the ground relied
on by the trial court. State v. Carter, 127 Wn.2d 836, 841-42, 904 P.2d 290
(1995); State v. Grundy, 25 Wn. App. 411, 415-16, 607 P.2d 1235 (1980),
review denied, 95 Wn.2d 1008 (1981). If the issue is first raised by the State
in the appellate court, the court may order a remand to the trial court for an
additional evidentiary hearing. See, e.g., State v. Picard, 90 Wn. App. 890,
896, 954 P.2d 336, review denied, 136 Wn.2d 1021 (1998).

c.

Special Circumstances
i.

Court Orders. Certain individuals will always lack standing to

challenge an entry into a building. An individual who has been
excluded from a particular building by a judicial domestic violence
order will lack a reasonable expectation of privacy in the building. See
State v. Jacobs, 101 Wn. App. 80, 2 P.3d 974 (2000).

ii.

Abandoned Property. A defendant who disavows ownership of an

item in response to police questioning will still have standing to
challenge the warrantless seizure of the item if the item is seized from
an area in which the defendant has an expectation of privacy. State v.
Evans, 159 Wn.2d 402, 150 P.3d 105 (2007).
323

2.

iii.

Social Guest. A social guest has standing to challenge the warrantless

search of his or her hosts home. State v. Link, 136 Wn. App. 685, 150
P.3d 610 (2007). A social or casual guest, however, does not enjoy the
same rights and authority as his host. See generally State v. Libero,
COA No. 41420-1-II, ___ Wn. App. ___, ___ P.3d ___ (Jun. 5, 2012).

iv.

Passengers. The driver of a vehicle does not have standing to

challenge an officer's questioning of a passenger. State v. Pettit, 160
Wn. App. 716, 721, 251 P.3d 896 (2011).

Automatic Standing
In Jones v. United States, 362 U.S. 257, 4 L. Ed. 2d 697, 80 S. Ct. 725 (1960),
overruled by United States v. Salvucci, 448 U.S. 83, 65 L. Ed. 2d 619, 100 S. Ct. 2547
(1980), the United States Supreme Court recognized a limited exception to the general
rule for cases in which a defendant is charged with a possessory offense. In such cases,
a defendant legitimately on the premises may challenge the search or seizure even
though the defendant did not have a privacy interest in the premises searched. Jones,
362 U.S. at 263-65.
The "automatic standing" rule was intended to prevent the government from arguing
at a suppression hearing that a defendant did not possess the substance and thus had no
Fourth Amendment protected interests, and then contrarily asserting at trial that the
defendant was guilty of possessing the substance. Jones, 362 U.S. at 263-64. The
court in Jones was also concerned about the possibility of self-incrimination, where
requiring a defendant at a suppression hearing to establish standing by admitting
possession of the items seized would provide evidence for the prosecution to use at
trial. Jones, 362 U.S. at 261-64.
Following Jones, the Washington Supreme Court stated in State v. Michaels, 60 Wn.2d
638, 646, 374 P.2d 989 (1962), that "the reasoning of [the Jones] opinion commends
itself to this court." It recognized that requiring a defendant in a suppression hearing
to admit possession of items seized would result in confession by the defendant of an
element of the possessory offense. The court in Michaels did not analyze the state
constitution separately from the federal constitution, but treated the two provisions as
coextensive, holding that the defendant had standing under both the state and federal
constitutions. State v. Michaels, 60 Wn. 2d 638, 646-47, 374 P.2d 989 (1962)
When the United States Supreme Court ruled in Simmons v. United States, 390 U.S.
377, 19 L. Ed. 2d 1247, 88 S. Ct. 967 (1968), that a claim by a defendant in a pretrial
hearing of a privacy interest in the place of seizure cannot be admitted at trial to
establish guilt, it changed the federal rule. The Court stated that, as a matter of public
policy, defendants should not be deterred from challenging a search and seizure for fear
that their suppression hearing testimony would be used to link them to the contraband.
390 U.S. at 389-94. Thus, after Simmons, the reasons which led to the rule of
automatic standing seemed no longer to be of consequence.

324

Recognizing that Simmons effectively eliminated the problem of self-incrimination by

defendants, the Supreme Court in United States v. Salvucci, 448 U.S. 83, 65 L. Ed. 2d
619, 100 S. Ct. 2547 (1980), overruled Jones and abandoned the automatic standing
rule. It held that defendants charged with possessory offenses must establish an
"expectation of privacy in the area searched." 448 U.S. at 92-93.
After Salvucci, the Washington Supreme Court issued one plurality opinion in 1980
wherein the Court declared adherence to the automatic standing rule as a matter of state
constitutional law. See State v. Simpson, 95 Wn.2d 170, 622 P.2d 1199 (1980). No
Gunwall analysis was performed in Simpson.
The Washington Supreme Court expressed some willingness to consider whether state
constitutional law requires continued adherence to the automatic standing rule in early
2000. See State v. Bobic, 140 Wn.2d 250, 258, 996 P.2d 610 (2000) (The State did
not file a cross-petition for review on the issue of automatic standing; thus, the only
issue before us is whether the evidence was in open view. RAP 13.4(d); 13.7(b).).
In October of 2000, the Court refused to announce the demise of the automatic
standing rule, but did place additional restrictions upon its application. See generally
State v. Williams, 142 Wn.2d 17, 11 P.3d 714 (2000). Most recently, in May of 2002,
the Court indicated once again that automatic standing continues to have a presence in
Washington and that the rule will apply whenever the defendants testimony at a
suppression hearing would create a realistic possibility of self-incrimination. See State
v. Jones, 146 Wn.2d 328, 334, 45 P.3d 328 (2002).
The refined automatic standing rule
is proper where (1) "[the defendant] is legitimately on the premises
where a search occurred" and (2) "the fruits of the search are proposed
to be used against him." Michaels, 60 Wn.2d at 646-47; see Jones, 362
U.S. 257, 4 L. Ed. 2d 697, 80 S. Ct. 725. Based on that language, the
trial court here concluded that automatic standing exists whenever there
is a search and a subsequent seizure of contraband. We believe,
however, that this is an overly broad interpretation of the conditions for
automatic standing outlined in Jones. Inherent in the conditions for
automatic standing is the principle that the "fruits of the search" bear a
direct relationship to the search the defendant seeks to contest.
Here, the defendant fails to meet the criteria for application of
the automatic standing doctrine. The defendant stipulated that the
police officers found the heroin on his person. The defendant has
standing to object to an illegal search of his person. But, the defendant
does not challenge the search of his person, which was a valid search
incident to his arrest under a valid arrest warrant. He is challenging only
the officer's entry into a third party's residence to serve the arrest
warrant. The defendant's ability to challenge that entry does not depend
upon his admission to possession of contraband or to any other illegal
activity. We cannot agree that the automatic standing rule as originally
conceived by the Supreme Court would have any application where
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there is no conflict in the exercise of his Fourth and Fifth Amendment

rights. Moreover, as expressed by the plurality opinion in Simpson, the
automatic standing rule may not be used where the defendant is not
faced with "the risk that statements made at the suppression hearing
will later be used to incriminate him albeit under the guise of
impeachment." Simpson, 95 Wn.2d at 180, 622 P.2d 1199. Automatic
standing is not a vehicle to collaterally attack every police search that
results in a seizure of contraband or evidence of a crime.
State v. Williams, 142 Wn.2d at 22-23.
a.

Essential Element
Automatic standing, does not apply if the crime charged does not involve
possession as an essential element of the offense. State v. Carter, 127 Wn.2d
836, 842-43, 904 P.2d 290 (1995). If a defendant is charged with multiple
crimes, some of which do not involve possession, standing for each offense
must be determined separately.
Currently, Washington law recognizes that the following crimes do not involve
possession as an essential element:

b.

Arson

State v. Picard, 90 Wn. App. 890, 954 P.2d 336, review

denied, 136 Wn.2d 1021 (1998)

Larceny

State v. Mustain, 21 Wn. App. 39, 42, 584 P.2d 405

(1978)

Burglary

State v. Foulkes, 63 Wn. App. 643, 647, 821 P.2d 77

(1991); State v. Stone, 56 Wn. App. 153, 157, 782 P.2d
1093 (1989), review denied, 114 Wn.2d 1013 (1990);
State v. Johnston, 38 Wn. App. 793, 801, 690 P.2d 591
(1984); State v. Mustain, 21 Wn. App. 39, 42, 584 P.2d
405 (1978)

Robbery

State v. Hayden, 28 Wn. App. 935, 939, 627 P.2d 973

(1981); but see State v. White, 40 Wn. App. 490, 699
P.2d 239, review denied, 104 Wn.2d 1004 (1985) (it
may be arguable under Simpson that first degree robbery
includes "possession" of the weapon as an essential
element).

Nature of Interest
Automatic standing allows a defendant to challenge the search. Automatic
standing, however, does not place the defendant in the same shoes as the
property owner. Thus, a casual visitor who is charged with a possessory
offense has automatic standing to challenge a search, the visitor does not enjoy
326

the same rights and authority as a tenant of the apartment. While the tenant
may successfully challenge the search on the grounds that police only obtained
consent from a co-tenant to conduct the search, the casual visitor cannot. See
generally State v. Libero, COA No. 41420-1-II, ___ Wn. App. ___, ___ P.3d
___ (Jun. 5, 2012).
D.

Who Has the Burden of Proof

1.

Warrantless Searches
Warrantless searches are presumed to be improper and the burden is upon the
prosecution to prove the existence of an exception to the warrant requirement. See
generally State v. Williams, 102 Wn.2d 733, 736, 689 P.2d 1065 (1984).

2.

Warrants
Basic to the review of the complaint for search warrant is the principle that search
warrants are a favored means of police investigation, and supporting affidavits or
testimony must be viewed in a manner which will encourage their continued use.
United State v. Harris, 403 U.S. 573, 29 L. Ed. 2d 723, 91 S. Ct. 2075 (1971); United
States v. Ventresca, 380 U.S. 102, 108-09, 13 L. Ed. 2d 284, 85 S. Ct. 741 (1965).
When a search warrant is properly issued by a judge, the party attacking it has the
burden of proving its invalidity. State v. Fisher, 96 Wn.2d 962, 639 P.2d 743, cert.
denied, 457 U.S. 1137 (1982); State v. Smith, 50 Wn.2d 408, 314 P.2d 1024 (1957);
State v. Trasvina, 16 Wn. App. 519, 557 P.2d 368 (1976).
A "magistrate's determination that a warrant should issue is an exercise of judicial
discretion that is reviewed for abuse of discretion. This determination generally should
be given great deference by a reviewing court." State v. Cole, 128 Wn.2d 262, 286,
906 P.2d 925 (1995); State v. Young, 123 Wn.2d 173, 195, 867 P.2d 593 (1994)
("Generally, the probable cause determination of the issuing judge is given great
deference."). "[D]oubts as to the existence of probable cause [will be] resolved in
favor of the warrant." State v. J- R Distribs., Inc., 111 Wn.2d 764, 774, 765 P.2d 281
(1988); see also Cole, 128 Wn.2d at 286; Young, 123 Wn.2d at 195; State v. Fisher,
96 Wn.2d 962, 967, 639 P.2d 743, cert. denied, 457 U.S. 1137 (1982).
In performing his independent, detached function, the magistrate is to operate in a
commonsense and realistic fashion. The magistrate is entitled to draw commonsense
and reasonable inferences from the facts and circumstances set forth. State v. Yokley,
139 Wn.2d 581, 596, 989 P.2d 512 (1999); State v. Helmka, 86 Wn.2d 91, 93, 542
P.2d 115 (1975). Hypertechnical interpretations are to be avoided when reviewing
search warrant affidavits. State v. Freeman, 47 Wn. App. 870, 737 P.2d 704, review
denied, 108 Wn.2d 1032 (1987); State v. Harris, 44 Wn. App. 401, 722 P.2d 867
(1986); State v. Anderson, 37 Wn. App. 157, 678 P.2d 1310 (1984).

327

a.

Inclusion of Illegally Obtained Evidence

If an affidavit in support of a search warrant contains illegally obtained
statements or information obtained pursuant to an illegal entry onto property,
the search warrant may still be upheld if the remaining information in the
warrant affidavit independently establishes probable cause. See State v.
Gaines, 154 Wn.2d 711, 719-20, 116 P.3d 993 (2005); State v. Coates, 107
Wn.2d 882, 888, 735 P.2d 64 (1987); State v. Spring, 128 Wn. App. 398, 403,
115 P.3d 1052 (2005), review denied, 156 Wn.2d 1032 (2006).

b.

Franks v. Delaware
The United States Supreme Court in Franks v. Delaware, 438 U.S. 154, 57 L.
Ed. 2d 667, 98 S. Ct. 2674 (1978) provides for a specific procedure to
challenge parts of a search warrant predicated on deliberate falsehoods or
statements made with reckless disregard for the truth. Under those
circumstances, a defendant may challenge those portions of the search warrant
which are intentionally false or made with reckless disregard for the truth,
excise those parts, and test the sufficiency of the remaining information to
establish probable cause. This same procedure has also been extended to
material omissions of fact. United States v. Martin, 615 F.2d 318 (5th Cir.
1980).
The test and procedure adopted by the United States Supreme Court is
applicable in Washington with respect to both material falsehoods and material
omissions of fact. See, e.g., State v. Cord, 103 Wn.2d 361, 367, 693 P.2d 81
(1985). Const. art. I, 7 does not require suppression upon proof of a negligent
omission or error. State v. Chenoweth, 160 Wn.2d 454, 158 P.3d 595 (2007).
An affiant cannot be expected to include in an affidavit every piece of
information gathered in the course of an investigation, and the mere fact that
an affiant did not include every conceivable conclusion in the warrant does not
taint the validity of the affidavit. United States v. Colkley, 899 F.2d 297, 30001 (4th Cir. 1990), quoting United States v. Burnes, 816 F.2d 1354, 1358 (9th
Cir. 1987); State v. Bockman, 37 Wn. App. 474, 486, 682 P.2d 925 (1984),
review denied, 102 Wn.2d 1002 (1985). Franks only protects against
omissions that are designed to mislead, or that are made in reckless disregard
of whether they would mislead, the magistrate. Colkley, 899 F.2d at 301. A
defendant is only entitled to an evidentiary hearing if s/he makes an initial
showing that the alleged misstatement or omission was intentional or culpable
rather than reasonable or negligent.
Intentional omissions or misstatements occur when the affiant shows "reckless"
disregard for the truth. Recklessness is shown where the affiant "in fact
entertained serious doubts as to the truth of the facts or statements in the
affidavit." See State v. O'Connor, 39 Wn. App. 113, 117, 692 P.2d 208 (1984),
review denied, 103 Wn.2d 1022 (1985), quoting United States v. Davis, 617
F.2d 677, 694 (D.C. Cir. 1979), cert. denied, 445 U.S. 967 (1980).
328

[S]uch serious doubts can be shown by (1) actual deliberation

on the part of the affiant, or (2) the existence of obvious reasons
to doubt the veracity of the informant or the accuracy of his
reports.
O'Connor, 39 Wn. App. at 117.
A negligent omission occurs when the affiant genuinely believes that the
omitted statement was irrelevant, and this belief was reasonable, even if it was
incorrect. O'Connor, 39 Wn. App. at 118, citing United States v. Melvin, 596
F.2d 492, 499-500 (1st Cir. 1979); People v. Stewart, 473 N.E.2d 840 (Ill.
1984); People v. Kurland, 28 Cal.3d 376, 618 P.2d 213, 220, 168 Cal. Rptr.
667 (1980).
The defendant has the burden of proving by a preponderance of the evidence
that there was an intentional misrepresentation or a reckless disregard for the
truth by the affiant. State v. Hashman, 46 Wn. App. 211, 729 P.2d 651 (1986),
review denied, 108 Wn.2d 1021 (1987); State v. Stephens, 37 Wn. App. 76,
678 P.2d 832, review denied, 101 Wn.2d 1025 (1984). Any fair doubt as to
whether allegations of the affidavit on which a search warrant issued were
perjurious is to be resolved in favor of the warrant. People v. Alfinito, 16
N.Y.2d 181, 211 N.E.2d 644 (1965). This heavy burden is imposed upon the
defendant because the allegations of the affidavit have already been subjected
to examination by a judicial officer in issuing the warrant. Id. Reckless
disregard will not be established solely from the omission of a material fact.
State v. Garrison, 118 Wn.2d 870, 873, 827 P.2d 1388 (1992); United States
v. Colkley, 899 F.2d 297, 301 (4th Cir. 1990).
Even if a defendant were able to prove an intentional or reckless misstatement
or omission, he still would be required to show that probable cause to issue the
warrant would not have been found had those false statements been deleted
and the omissions included. State v. Gentry, 125 Wn.2d 570, 607, 888 P.2d
1105, cert. denied, 516 U.S. 843 (1995). If the affidavit with the matter deleted
or inserted, as appropriate, remains sufficient to support a finding of probable
cause, the suppression motion fails and no hearing is required. However, if the
altered content is insufficient, defendant is entitled to an evidentiary hearing.
State v. Garrison, 118 Wn.2d 870, 873, 827 P.2d 1388 (1992); Franks, 438
U.S. at 171-72, 98 S. Ct. at 2684-85; State v. Larson, 26 Wn. App. 564, 568-69,
613 P.2d 542 (1980). Omitted information that is potentially relevant but not
dispositive is not enough to warrant a Franks hearing. State v. Garrison, 118
Wn.2d 870, 874, 827 P.2d 1388 (1992); United States v. Colkley, 899 F.2d 297,
301 (4th Cir. 1990).
In the evidentiary hearing the defendant has the burden of proving by a
preponderance of the evidence that there was an intentional misrepresentation
or a reckless disregard for the truth by the affiant. Cord, 103 Wn.2d at 367;
State v. Hashman, 46 Wn. App. 211, 217, 729 P.2d 651 (1986), review denied,
108 Wn.2d 1021 (1987); State v. Stephens, 37 Wn. App. 76, 678 P.2d 832,
329

review denied, 101 Wn.2d 1025 (1984).

The State is entitled to introduce evidence at the Franks hearing. State v. Post,
286 N.W.2d 195, 201-02 (Iowa 1979); People v. Reid, 362 N.W.2d 655, 660
(Mich. 1984). While Washington appellate courts have not explicitly held that
the State may present evidence at the Franks hearing, there are numerous cases
that establish this rule by implication. See e.g., State v. Cord, supra (affiant
testified at suppression hearing); O'Connor, 39 Wn. App. at 119 (sworn
testimony of affiant considered at suppression hearing to determine whether
affiant had acted with good faith). The State's presentation may include facts
not included in the affidavit which support the conclusion that the affiant's
omission of a particular fact was reasonable due to his or her belief that the
omitted fact was irrelevant or untrue. Post, 286 N.W.2d at 201-02. The States
presentation may also include those facts known to the affiant that directly
related to the allegedly improperly omitted fact, so the court can determine
whether the totality of new information would defeat the original probable
cause finding. This supplemental evidence may not, however, be considered in
determining whether there was sufficient probable cause for the issuance of the
warrant. O'Connor, 39 Wn. App. at 119.
c.

Overbroad Warrants and the Severability Doctrine. A warrant can be

"overbroad" either because it fails to describe with particularity items for which
probable cause exists or because it describes, particularly or otherwise, items
for which probable cause does not exist. If a warrant is overbroad, "the
severability doctrine" operates to save its valid parts
Under the severability doctrine, infirmity of part of a warrant requires the
suppression of evidence seized pursuant to that part of the warrant' but does not
require suppression of anything seized pursuant to valid parts of the warrant.
State v. Perrone, 119 Wn.2d 538, 556, 834 P.2d 611 (1992). Thus, the doctrine
applies when a warrant includes not only items that are supported by probable
cause and described with particularity, but also items that are not supported by
probable cause or not described with particularity, so long as a meaningful
separation can be made on some logical and reasonable basis[.] Perrone,
119 Wn.2d at 560.
The severability doctrine applies only when at least five requirements are met:
i.

The warrant must lawfully have authorized entry into the premises. The
problem must lie in the permissible intensity and duration of the search,
and not in the intrusion per se.

ii.

The warrant must include one or more particularly described items for
which there is probable cause. Otherwise, there is nothing for the
severability doctrine to save.

iii.

The part of the warrant that includes particularly described items

supported by probable cause must be significant when compared to the
330

warrant as a whole. If most of the warrant purports to authorize a search

for items not supported by probable cause or not described with
particularity, the warrant is likely to be "general" in the sense of
authorizing a general, exploratory rummaging in a person's belongings,
and no part of it will be saved by severance or redaction.
iv.

The searching officers must have found and seized the disputed items
while executing the valid part of the warrant (i.e., while searching for
items supported by probable cause and described with particularity).
Just as evidence found while executing a wholly invalid warrant would
not be saved, and just as evidence found while exceeding the scope of
a wholly valid warrant would not be saved, evidence found while
executing the unlawful part of a partially valid warrant should not be
saved either.

v.

The officers must not have conducted a general search, i.e., a search in
which they "flagrantly disregarded" the warrant's scope.

State v. Maddox, 116 Wn. App. 796, 67 P.3d 1135 (2003), aff'd, 152 Wn.2d
499, 98 P.3d 1199 (2004).
d.

Lost Tape Recording

Ideally, a recording of a telephonic affidavit will be made at the time the sworn
statements are offered. If the recording is lost prior to transcription or if the
recording device malfunctions, evidence will be suppressed unless the parties
can reconstruct the recording. The reconstruction must come from a
disinterested person namely the magistrate. The magistrate must, from his or
her memory, establish what information was relied upon in making the
probable cause determination. See generally, State v. Myers, 117 Wn.2d 332,
815 P.2d 761 (1991). It is, therefore, imperative that the magistrate that issued
the search warrant is contacted as soon as it is determined that there is a
problem with the tape so that the magistrate can record what she recalls while
her memory is still fresh.

E.

Exceptions to Exclusionary Rule

1.

Good Faith
The good faith exception to the exclusionary rule was developed as a means of
balancing the costs and benefits of the judicially created exclusionary rule. The good
faith exception was first announced by the United States Supreme Court in the case of
United States v. Leon, 468 U.S. 897, 82 L. Ed. 2d 677, 104 S. Ct. 3405, 3424 (1984).
In that case, the Court determined that rigid application of the exclusionary rule to
cases in which law enforcement went through the steps necessary to obtain a search
warrant would do little to deter police misconduct but would severely impact the truthfinding function of the criminal justice system leading to a general disrespect for the
law and administration of justice.
331

The good faith exception to the exclusionary rule has been rejected in Washington:
Unlike its federal counterpart, Washington's exclusionary rule is nearly
categorical. State v. Winterstein, 167 Wn.2d 620, 636, 220 P.3d 1226
(2009). This is due to the fact that article I, section 7 of our state
constitution clearly recognizes an individual's right to privacy with no
express limitations. State v. White, 97 Wn.2d 92, 110, 640 P.2d 1061
(1982). In contrast to the Fourth Amendment, article I, section 7
emphasizes protecting personal rights rather than curbing
governmental actions. Id. This understanding of that provision of our
state constitution has led us to conclude that the right of privacy shall
not be diminished by the judicial gloss of a selectively applied
exclusionary remedy. Id. Thus, while our state's exclusionary rule also
aims to deter unlawful police action, its paramount concern is
protecting an individual's right of privacy. Therefore, if a police officer
has disturbed a person's private affairs, we do not ask whether the
officer's belief that this disturbance was justified was objectively
reasonable, but simply whether the officer had the requisite authority
of law. If not, any evidence seized unlawfully will be suppressed. With
very few exceptions, whenever the right of privacy is violated, the
remedy follows automatically. See id.
State v. Afana, 169 Wn.2d 169, 181, 233 P.3d 879 (2010). Accord State v. Adams, 169
Wn.2d 487, 238 P.3d 459 (2010).
2.

Inevitable Discovery
A warrantless search is presumed impermissible, and unless the State establishes the
existence of one of the recognized exceptions to this presumption applies, evidence
discovered during the warrantless search is not admissible during trial. See, e.g., State
v. Richman, 85 Wn. App. 568, 573, 933 P.2d 1088, review denied, 133 Wn.2d 1028
(1997). The United States Supreme Court, however, adopted an inevitable discovery
exception to suppression. This exception applies when the State can prove that the
illegally discovered evidence would have been inevitably discovered. See, e.g., Nix v.
Williams, 467 U.S. 431, 444, 81 L. Ed. 2d 377, 104 S. Ct. 2501 (1984).
The Washington Supreme Court, however, has determined that the inevitable
discovery doctrine is incompatible with Wash. Const. art. I, 7. State v. Winterstein,
167 Wn.2d 620, 220 P.3d 1226 (2009).

3.

Independent Source Doctrine

The independent source doctrine is similar to the inevitable discovery doctrine. The
constitutional restraints (both U. S. Const. amend. 4, and Const. art. 1, 7) against
unreasonable searches and seizures extend not only to evidence directly obtained, but
also to derivative evidence. Silverthorne Lumber. Co. v. United States, 251 U.S. 385,
64 L. Ed. 319, 40 S. Ct. 182, 24 A.L.R. 1426 (1920). Of course this does not mean that
the facts thus obtained become sacred and inaccessible. If knowledge of them is gained
332

from an independent source they may be proved like any others. Id., 251 U.S. at 392.
This doctrine is consistent with the requirements of article 1, section 7, of the
Washington State Constitution. State v. Gaines, 154 Wn.2d 711, 116 P.3d 993 (2005);
State v. Ludvik, 40 Wn. App. 257, 263, 698 P.2d 1064 (1985).
Whether or not specific evidence is the unusable yield of an unlawful search or is
admissible because knowledge of its availability was obtained from an independent
source is a question of fact which must be peculiar to each case. State v. O'Bremski,
70 Wn.2d 425, 429, 423 P.2d 530 (1967).
a.

Specific Examples

In State v. Hilton, 164 Wn. App. 81, 261 P.3d 683 (2011), review
denied, 173 Wn.2d 1037 (2012), the court determined that the search
warrant for the defendants duplex, which had uncovered the matching
A-Merc shells, was invalid due to lack of specificity to guide officers
in their search. The State, however, was still allowed to admit
evidence that the defendant had purchased A-Merc .45 caliber bullets,
because well prior to the search warrant for the defendants apartment,
the police had recognized the unusual ammunition and decided to trace
it. One detective had already contacted the manufacturer, although he
had not begun contacting local suppliers, before the search warrant
issued. Even after contacting the store at which the defendant
purchased the ammunition, the detective continued to contact all of the
other local ammunition sellers. While at the store where the defendant
purchased the ammunition, the detective did not limit himself to the
defendants A-Merc records, but obtained the records for all purchasers
of that ammunition. In short, the record reflected that the detective was
not focused solely on the defendant, but was identifying other local
A-Merc customers as well. Far from simply exploiting information
obtained at the defendants apartment, the detective was thoroughly
pursuing a lead first developed at the murder scene. This is sufficient
to establish that the purchase records was independent of the evidence
unlawfully seized from the defendants apartment.

In State v. Smith, 165 Wn. App. 296, 266 P.3d 250, review granted, 173
Wn.2d 1034 (2012), officers knocked on the defendants motel room
after discovering his presence, through a suspicionless, warrantless
search of the motel registry. After the defendant was led away in
handcuffs pursuant to an outstanding warrant, officers noted a woman
holding a bloodied towel to her head. Further investigation revealed
that the defendant had assaulted the woman and sexually assaulted the
womans 12-year-old daughter. The testimony of the two victims were
independently traced to the officers community caretaking
responsibilities, rather than to the illegal discovery of the defendants
presence at the motel. The testimony of the two victims were also
admissible because the adult victim stated that she would have called
the police at her earliest opportunity had the police not shown up,
333

suggesting that she wanted police help and would have cooperated with
the criminal investigation regardless of any police misconduct.

In State v. Miles, 159 Wn. App. 282, 244 P.3d 1030, review denied, 171
Wn.2d 1022 (2011), the State obtained a search warrant for bank
records after evidence obtained through the issuance of an
administrative subpoena was suppressed. In support of the search
warrant, the State submitted the affidavit of a detective in the e Seattle
Police Department Fraud, Forgery, and Financial Exploitation Unit, and
the affidavit of a senior King County prosecuting attorney from the
Fraud Division. The detective's affidavit includes a copy of the victims
complaint, her sworn statement, and the three checks that she wrote to
the suspect in October to December 1999. The prosecutor's affidavit
sets forth the history of the case, including the prior seizure of the bank
records based on the administrative subpoena issued by the Securities
Division and the supreme court's decision. The prosecutor's affidavit
also addresses the question of whether the State would have applied for
a search warrant to obtain the bank records if the Securities Division
did not have the authority to issue an administrative subpoena. While
the supreme courts decision invalidating the administrative subpoena
prompted the request for a warrant, the application of the independent
source doctrine will turn on whether the evidence seen in the review of
the documents from the administrative subpoena prompted the request
for the search warrant and/or whether the officers would have sought
a warrant if they had not seen the documents initially obtained by the
administrative subpoena.

In State v. O'Bremski, 70 Wn.2d 425, 429, 423 P.2d 530 (1967), the
Court held that the testimony of a rape victim who had been discovered
in the defendants apartment following an unlawful entry into the
apartment did not have to be suppressed as the rape victims parents
had reported the victim as a run away and the police were actively
searching for her and a citizen had already reported the victims
presence in the defendants apartment.

In State v. Hall, 53 Wn. App. 296, 766 P.2d 512, review denied, 110
Wn.2d 1016 (1989), the court held that evidence collected pursuant to
a search warrant that was obtained after the police unlawfully entered
and secured the defendants residence was admissible where the
information contained in the affidavit in support of the search warrant
was all obtained prior to the illegal entry, the decision to obtain the
search warrant was made prior to the illegal entry, and no search was
conducted until after the search warrant was obtained.

In State v. Early, 36 Wn. App. 215, 674 P.2d 179 (1983), charge card
slips that established the defendants presence in Spokane at the time
of the robbery was not rendered inadmissible by the illegal seizure of
an atlas with Spokane circled, since the credit card slips were obtained
334

from the credit card companys records which revealed the businesses
and cities in which the defendant used her card. The credit card
company accessed the records by using the defendants name, which
had not been illegally seized.
C

4.

In State v. Perez, 147 Wn. App. 141, 193 P.3d 1131 (2008), the
officers who sought a search warrant for the trunk of the defendants
car, indicated that they had no intent to seek a search warrant before
they conducted the illegal inventory search of the trunk. Because such
an intent is foundational to the State's reliance on the independent
source rule, the appellate court concluded that the trial court erred in
denying the defendants motion to suppress.

Attenuation
Under the derivative evidence doctrine, secondary evidence discovered by exploitation
of the initial illegality will be suppressed unless it is sufficiently attenuated from the
initial illegality to be purged of the original taint. Wong Sun v. United States, 371 U.S.
471, 9 L. Ed. 2d 441, 83 S. Ct. 407 (1963); State v. Stortroen, 53 Wn. App. 654,
660-61, 769 P.2d 321 (1989). Under the derivative evidence doctrine courts apply a
but-for analysis. State v. Aranguren, 42 Wn. App. 452, 457, 711 P.2d 1096 (1985).
In determining whether there is a nexus between the evidence in question and the
police conduct, the court essentially makes a commonsense evaluation of the facts and
circumstances of the particular case. United States v. Kapperman, 764 F.2d 786 (11th
Cir. 1985).
Whether a confession, or a consent to search, is tainted by a prior illegal arrest: (1)
temporal proximity of the arrest and the subsequent consent, (2) the presence of
significant intervening circumstances, (3) the purpose and flagrancy of the official
misconduct, and (4) the giving of Miranda or Ferrier warnings. See, e.g., State v.
Gonzales, 46 Wash. App. 388, 398, 731 P.2d 1101 (1986). The burden is on the State
to prove sufficient attenuation from the illegal search to dissipate its taint. State v.
Childress, 35 Wash. App. 314, 316, 666 P.2d 941 (1983). The single most
significant intervening circumstance is actual consultation between the suspect and
an attorney prior to obtaining the confession or a consent to search. See, e.g.,
Pennsylvania ex rel. Craig v. Maroney, 348 F.2d 22 (3d Cir. 1965) (opportunity to
meet with attorney prior to questioning constitutes sufficient attenuation).
A clear majority of the Washington Supreme Court has yet to hold that attenuation
doctrine is consistent with Const. article I, section 7. See generally State v. Eserjose,
171 Wn.2d 907, 919-920, 930, 259 P.3d 172 (2011) (plurality opinion in which four
justices stating that the Court has at least, implicitly adopted the attenuation doctrine;
the fifth vote to affirm the conviction, however, held that the author believes the lead
opinion applies an attenuation analysis where none is required); State v.
Ibarra-Cisneros, 172 Wn.2d 880, 885 n.2, 263 P.3d 591 (2011) (The parties have not
addressed whether the attenuation doctrine is a recognized exception to the
exclusionary rule under article I, section 7 of the Washington State Constitution, and
we do not reach that issue.).
335

A plurality of the Washington Supreme Court has stated that:

When a court determines that evidence is not the fruit of the poisonous
tree, a defendant's privacy rights are respected, the deterrent value of
suppressing the evidence is minimal, and the dignity of the judiciary is
not offended by its admission. An alternative but for principle would
make it virtually impossible to rehabilitate an investigation once
misconduct has occurred, granting suspected criminals a permanent
immunity unless, by chance, other law enforcement officers initiate an
independent investigation. The factors the United States Supreme
Court identified in Brown [v. Illinois, 422 U.S. 590, 95 S. Ct. 2254, 45
L. Ed. 2d 416 (1975),] are designed to aid courts in determining
whether an illegal arrest was, as was said in Vangen, the operative
factor in causing or bringing the confession about. Id. at 556. For that
reason, we again embrace the Brown factors as the proper analytical
framework for determining whether a confession is sufficiently an act
of free will to purge the taint of an illegal arrest.
State v. Esojerose, 171 Wn.2d 907, 922-23, 259 P.3d 172 (2011). The Brown factors
are that courts should consider in determining if a confession was sufficiently
attenuated from an illegal arrest include: [t]he temporal proximity of the arrest and
the confession, the presence of intervening circumstances, and, particularly, the
purpose and flagrancy of the official misconduct., Id. at 919 (quoting Brown, 422 U.S.
at 603-04 (footnote and citation omitted)).
The Washington Supreme Court will be considering, once again, whether the
attenuation doctrine violates article I, section 7 of the Washington Constitution in State
v. Smith, No. 86951-1. Oral argument is expected in the fall of 2012.
5.

Silver Platter
The silver platter doctrine holds that, even though it would not be legal for local law
enforcement officials to gather evidence in the same manner, evidence gathered by
agents of a foreign jurisdiction (tribal, federal, or other state) is admissible in
Washington courts if: (1) there was no participation from local officials; (2) the agents
of the foreign jurisdiction did not gather the evidence with the intent that it would be
offered in state court rather than in their jurisdiction; and (3) the agents of the foreign
jurisdiction complied with the laws governing their conduct. See generally, State v.
Brown, 132 Wn.2d 529, 586-87, 940 P.2d 546 (1997), cert. denied, 523 U.S. 1007
(1998).
a.

Choice of Law
Whenever a suspect has fled to another jurisdiction and the arrest or search is
conducted by agents of that jurisdiction, the State should argue that the law of
the situs controls the admissibility of evidence obtained outside the forum state.
See, Morrison, Choice of Law for Unlawful Searches, 41 Okla. L. Rev. 579
(1988); 22A C.J.S. Criminal Law 771, at 431 ("Evidence validly procured
336

under the laws of the sister state is admissible even if procured in violation of
the law of the state in whose court the evidence is offered."); Pooley v. State,
705 P.2d 1293 (Alaska Ct. App. 1985); People v. Blair, 25 Cal.3d 640, 159
Cal. Rptr 818, 602 P.2d 738 (1979); McClellan v. State, 359 So.2d 869 (Fla.
App. 1978), cert. denied, 364 So.2d 892 (Fla. 1978). Accord State v.
Koopman, 68 Wn. App. 514, 844 P.2d 1024, review denied, 121 Wn.2d 1012,
852 P.2d 1091 (1993).
6.

Impeachment
The impeachment exception to the exclusionary rule permits the prosecution in a
criminal proceeding to introduce illegally obtained evidence to impeach the defendant's
own testimony. The United States Supreme Court first recognized this exception in
Walder v. United States, 347 U.S. 62, 74 S. Ct. 354, 98 L. Ed. 503 (1954), permitting
the prosecutor to introduce into evidence heroin obtained through an illegal search to
undermine the credibility of the defendant's claim that he had never possessed
narcotics. The Court explained that a defendant
"must be free to deny all the elements of the case against him without
thereby giving leave to the Government to introduce by way of rebuttal
evidence illegally secured by it, and therefore not available for its case
in chief. Beyond that, however, there is hardly justification for letting
the defendant affirmatively resort toperjurious testimony in reliance on
the Government's disability to challenge his credibility."
Walder, 347 U.S. at 65. Walder has been approved of by the Washington Supreme
Court. See, e.g., Riddell v. Rhay, 79 Wn.2d 248, 484 P.2d 907 (1971) (defendants
statements); State v. Hayes, 73 Wn.2d 568, 571, 439 P.2d 978 (1968) (admission of
suppressed breath alcohol test). See also State v. Greve, 67 Wn. App. 166, 834 P.2d
656 (1992), review denied, 121 Wn.2d 1005 (1993) (state constitution does not prohibit
the use of suppressed evidence for impeachment; its introduction discourages a
defendant from perjuring himself directly, thus furthering the goal of preserving the
dignity of the judicial process).
Evidence suppressed as the fruit of an unlawful search and seizure may also be used
to impeach a defendant's false trial testimony, given in response to proper
cross-examination. United States v. Havens, 446 U.S. 620, 627-628, 64 L. Ed. 2d 559,
100 S. Ct. 1912 (1980).
The prosecution may not, however, introduce illegally obtained evidence to impeach
the testimony of another defense witness. See James v. Illinois, 493 U.S. 307, 110 S.
Ct. 648, 107 L. Ed. 2d 676 (1990).
When evidence is admitted under this exception to the exclusionary rule, the defendant
is entitled, upon request, to a limiting instruction that directs the jury to consider the
evidence only in relation to the defendants credibility. See State v. Neslund, 50 Wn.
App. 531, 540, 749 P.2d 725, review denied, 110 Wn.2d 1025 (1988).

337

BASIC RULES OF JURISDICTION IN INDIAN COUNTRY

Trust Property**

Fee Simple Property**

Public Road

State jurisdiction exits for all crimes

committed by an Indian juvenile.
State jurisdiction exists for all crimes
committed by an Indian adult on trust
land located outside the geographic
boundaries of the reservation.

State jurisdiction exists for all

offenses committed by an Indian
adult or Indian juvenile.

State jurisdiction exists for all crimes

committed on a state, city, or county
road by an Indian adult or Indian
juvenile. A civil traffic infraction
may only be issued if the Tribe does
not have a comprehensive traffic
code.
If the Tribe has a
comprehensive traffic code, then a
report should be forwarded to the
tribal prosecutor for any action the
Tribe should wish to take.

Tribal court jurisdiction exists for all

offenses committed by an Indian
adult or Indian juvenile on trust land.

Tribal court jurisdiction exists for

all offenses committed by an Indian
adult or Indian juvenile on fee
simple property located within the
exterior boundary of the reservation.

Tribal court jurisdiction exists for all

offenses committed by an Indian
adult or Indian juvenile on public
roads located within the exterior
boundary of the reservation.

State court jurisdiction exists for all

crimes committed by non-Indian
adults and non-Indian juveniles.
No tribal court jurisdiction over a
non-Indian.
Tribal officers may
detain non-Indian law breakers until
a state officer can report to the scene.

State court jurisdiction exists for all

crimes committed by non-Indian
adults and non-Indian juveniles.
No tribal court jurisdiction over a
non-Indian. Tribal officers may
detain non-Indian law breakers until
a state officer can report to the
scene.

State court jurisdiction exists for all

c rim es a nd civ il in fr a c tio ns
committed by non-Indian adults and
non-Indian juveniles.
No tribal court jurisdiction over a
non-Indian. Tribal officers may
detain non-Indians who have
committed a crime until a State
commissioned officer can report to
the scene.

Indian Defendant

Federal jurisdiction exists for all

crimes committed by an Indian adult.
Federal jurisdiction also exists for all
crimes committed by an Indian
juvenile in the Jamestown-Klallam
R eservation, the N ooksack
Reservation,
the Sauk Suiattle
Reservation, and the Upper Skagit
Reservation.

Non-Indian Defendant

WHO COMMITTED THE OFFENSE

CHARACTER OF LAND ON WHICH OFFENSE WAS COMMITTED

Under these rules, more than one entity (i.e. Tribal and State) may have jurisdiction over a particular individual
and crime at the same time. Also, these rules do not apply to some reservations.
No State jurisdiction exists over Indian adults or Indian juveniles anywhere in the Jamestown-Klallam
Reservation, the Nooksack Reservation, the Sauk Suiattle Reservation, the Snoqualmie Reservation, and the Upper Skagit
Reservation.
State jurisdiction over Indian adults or Indian juveniles exists anywhere in the Muckleshoot Reservation, the
Nisqually Reservation, the Skokomish Reservation, the Stillaguamish Reservation, and the Squaxin Island Reservation.
** The easiest way to determine whether a piece of property is fee or trust is to contact the county auditor. Trust
property is exempt from taxes and the records will reflect that. Tulalip Reservation has a special class of fee property that
is subject to the same rules as trust property.
Prepared by the W ashington Association of Prosecuting Attorneys

338

ARREST WARRANTS

STATE COURT

TRIBAL COURT

T R U ST P R O P E R T Y
RESERVATION

W IT H IN

FEE SIM PLE PROPERTY W ITHIN

RESERVATION

PROPERTY
RESERVATION

OUTSIDE

State officers may not serve tribal

court arrest warrants on Indians or
non-Indians.

State officers may not serve tribal

court arrest warrants on Indians or
non-Indians.

State officers may not serve tribal

court arrest warrants on Indians or
non-Indians.

State officers may serve arrest warrants

upon non-Indians or Indians in
accordance with normal procedures if
the warrant is related to an offreservation violation of state laws or to
a crim e co m m itted within the
reservation at a location where the state
exercises criminal jurisdiction. If the
subject of the warrant is an Indian who
is currently in tribal custody, the State
may have to follow the extradition
procedure established by the Tribe to
obtain custody of the individual.

State officers may serve arrest warrants

up on non-Indians or Indians in
accordance with normal procedures.

State officers may serve arrest

warrants upon non-Indians or Indians
in accordance with normal procedures
regardless of whether the property is
owned in fee or trust.

STATE COURT

TRIBAL COURT

SEARCH WARRANTS
TRUST PROPERTY WITHIN
RESERVATION

FEE SIMPLE PROPERTY

WITHIN RESERVATION

PROPERTY OUTSIDE
RESERVATION

State officers may not assist in the

service of a tribal search warrant.
State officers may respond to the
scene to take into custody any nonIndians who are found on site and
who were found to be engaged in a
violation of state law.

State officers may not assist in the

service of a tribal search warrant.
State officers may assist tribal
officers in obtaining a parallel state
court search warrant and state officers
may serve such a warrant. State
officers may respond to the scene to
take into custody any non-Indians
who are found on site and who were
found to be engaged in a violation of
state law.

State officers may not assist in the

service of a tribal search warrant.
State officers may assist tribal
officers in obtaining a parallel
state court search warrant and state
officers may serve the parallel
state court warrant.

State officers may serve state

search warrants without obtaining a
parallel tribal search warrant or a
federal search warrant if the
warrant is related to an offreservation violation of state laws
or to a crime committed within the
reservation at a location where the
state exercises criminal jurisdiction.

State officers may serve state search

warrants without obtaining a parallel
tribal search warrant or a federal
search warrant.

State officers may serve state

search warrants on all property
located outside the exterior
boundary of a reservation
regardless of whether the property
is owned in fee or trust, by an
Indian or a non-Indian.

339

The Differences Between the Fourth Amendment and Const. Art. I, 7

Passengers

Search of Vehicles Incident to

Arrest What

Fourth Amendment
Rule

Const. art. I, 7
Rule

Control of Passengers. In order to

preserve officer safety, an officer
may place reasonable restrictions
upon a passengers freedom without
identifying any specific factors that
give rise to a safety concern.
Maryland v. Wilson, 519 U.S. 408,
117 S. Ct. 882, 137 L. Ed. 2d 41
(1997).

Control of Passengers.
Need
specific objective safety concerns
before restrictions can be placed
upon the movements of passengers
located in a lawfully stopped
vehicle. State v. Mendez, 137
W n.2d 208, 970 P.2d 722 (1999),
overruled on other grounds by
Brendlin v. California, 551 U.S.
249, 127 S. Ct. 2400, 168 L. Ed. 2d
132 (2007),

Identification of Passengers. No
seizure under the Fourth
Amendment when an officer
requests identification from an
automobile passenger. See People
v. Paynter, 955 P.2d 68, 75 (Colo.
1998).

Identification of Passengers May

not ask a passenger, in a vehicle
that was stopped for a traffic
infraction, his name or whether he
is willing to show the officer his
identification absent an independent
reason justifying the request. State
v. Rankin, 151 Wn.2d 689, 92 P.3d
202 (2004); State v. Brown, 154
W n.2d 787, 117 P.3d 336 (2005).

Locked Containers and Trunks.

W hen a vehicle may be searched
incident to arrest, an officer may
open locked containers and may
examine items in a trunk. New York
v. Belton, 453 U.S. 454, 101 S. Ct.
2860, 69 L. Ed.2d 768 (1981);
United States v. Ross, 456 U.S.
798, 102 S. Ct. 2157, 72 L. Ed.2d
572 (1982)

Locked Containers and Trunks.

Need warrant to enter locked
containers contained in a car or to
enter the trunk when the vehicle is
searched incident to the arrest of the
driver or owner. State v. Stroud,
106 W n.2d 144, 720 P.2d 436
(1986),

Items that M ay Belong to

Another.
Officer may search
passenger's belongings that are
found in the car.
Wyoming v.
Houghton, 526 U.S. 295, 119 S.
Ct. 1297, 143 L. Ed. 2d 408 (1999).

340

Items that M ay Belong to

Another Need warrant to search
unlocked containers contained in a
vehicle that the officer "knows or
should knows" belong to a person
other than the arrestee. State v.
Parker, 139 W n.2d 486, 987 P.2d
73 (1999)

Fourth Amendment
Rule

Const. art. I, 7
Rule

Search of Vehicles Incident to

Arrest When

If a person is arrested in a vehicle,

the vehicle c an be searched
incident to arrest without a
warrant when: (1) the arrestee is
unsecured and within reaching
distance of the passenger
compartment at the time of the
search; or (2) it is reasonable to
believe the vehicle contains
evidence of the offense of arrest.
Arizona v. Gant, 556 U.S. 332, 129
S. Ct. 1710, 173 L. Ed. 2d 485, 496
(2009).

W arrantless searches under Gants

relevant evidence test are not
permissible under Const. art. I, 7.
State v. Snapp, 174 W n.2d 177,
___ P.3d ___ (2012).

Automobile Exception to the

Warrant Requirement

T he inhe re nt m o b ility o f
automobiles allows officers to
conduct a warrantless search when
there is probable cause to believe
that the automobile contains
contraband. United States v. Ross,
456 U.S. 798, 823, 72 L. Ed. 2d
572, 102 S. Ct. 2157 (1982);
Carroll v. United States, 267 U.S.
132, 69 L. Ed. 543, 45 S. Ct. 280,
39 A.L.R. 790 (1925).

Const. art. I, 7 bars warrantless

searches of automobiles solely
based upon probable cause to
believe that the automobile contains
contraband. State v. Ringer, 100
W n.2d 686, 674 P.2d 1240 (1983).
Accord State v. Tibbles, 169 W n.2d
364, 236 P.3d 885 (2010) (exigent
circumstances exception based
upon destructibility of evidence and
mobility of vehicle not permitted
by Const. art. I, 7)

Consent Searches

Right to Refuse W arning.

Specific notice of right to refuse
consent to search not required.
United States v. Watson, 423 U.S.
411, 46 L. Ed. 2d 598, 96 S. Ct.
820 (1976). See also United States
v. Cormier, 220 F.3d 1103, 1111
(9th Cir. 2000), cert. denied, 531
U.S. 1174 (2001) (denying a
motion to suppress evidence
collected by state officers in
violation of State v. Ferrier because
such warnings are not required by
federal law).

Right to Refuse W arnings. Need

to advise an individual of his or her
right to refuse to consent to a search
and to limit the scope of search or
consent is invalid. State v. Ferrier,
136 W n.2d 103, 960 P.2d 927
(1998). (invalidating "knock and
talks")

Co-Habitant Consent. W hile an

express denial of access from one
co-habitant will invalidate another
co-habitants consent to search,
officers do not have to affirmatively
obtain consent from everyone who
is present prior to conducting a
warrantless search. Georgia v.
Randolph, 547 U.S. 103, 164 L.
Ed.2d 208, 126 S. Ct. 1515 (2006).

341

Co-Habitant Consent A consent

search is invalid unless officers
obtain express consent from each
person who shares equal control
over the property and who is
present when consent is requested.
State v. Leach, 113 W n.2d 735,
782 P.2d 1035 (1989); State v.
Morse, 156 Wn.2d 1, 123 P.3d 832
(2005) (someone can be present
even if asleep in another room).

Fourth Amendment
Rule

Authority to Consent. Evidence

obtained pursuant to a consent
search will only be admissible if the
police officer had a reasonable
good faith belief that the person
authorizing the search has the
authority to do so. Illinois v.
Rodriguez, 497 U.S. 177, 110 S. Ct.
2793, 111 L. Ed. 2d 148 (1990).
Traffic Stops.
The Fourth
Amendment does not require that a
lawfully seized driver be advised
that he is "free to go" after the
traffic citation is issued, before his
c o n sent to se a rch w ill b e
recognized as voluntary.
The
request for consent did not have to
be based upon any articulable facts
that the driver is engaged in
criminal conduct or that the car
contains contraband.
Ohio v.
Robinette, 519 U.S. 33, 117 S. Ct.
417, 136 L. Ed. 2d 347 (1996).

342

Const. art. I, 7
Rule
Authority to Consent. Evidence
obtained pursuant to a consent
search will only be admissible if the
person tendering consent had the
actual authority to do so. State v.
Morse, 156 Wn.2d 1, 123 P.3d 832
(2005)

Traffic Stops. An officer may not

extend a traffic stop for an
infraction in order to request
consent to search the vehicle unless
the officer has a reasonable
suspicion that evidence of a crime
will be found in the vehicle. See
generally, State v. Armenta, 134
W n.2d 1, 948 P.2d 1280 (1997);
State v. Veltri, 136 W n. App. 818,
150 P.3d 1178 (2007); State v.
Cantrell, 70 W n. App. 340, 853
P.2d 479 (1993), rev'd in part on
other grounds, 124 W n.2d 183
(1994); State v. Tijerina, 61 W n.
App. 626, 811 P.2d 241, review
denied, 118 W n.2d 1007 (1991).

Fourth Amendment
Rule

Const. art. I, 7
Rule

An arrest allows an officer to

monitor the movements of the
arrestee, even to the extent of
following the arrestee into another
room. Washington v. Chrisman,
455 U.S. 1, 7, 70 L. Ed. 2d 778,
102 S. Ct. 812 (1982).

An arrest does not allow the officer

to accompany the detainee into
another room. An arrest does not
allow the officer to accompany a
friend or relative of the detainee
when that person leaves the
officers sight to retrieve property
belonging to the detainee. State v.
Kull, 155 W n.2d 80, 118 P.3d 307
(2005) (officer who arrested
defendant in the laundry room on a
misdemeanor warrant violated the
defendants right to privacy when
they accompanied her and her
friend into her bedroom so the
defendant could retrieve her purse
which held her bail money; cocaine
located on top of the defendants
dresser and in her purse was
suppressed); State v. Chrisman,
100 W n.2d 814, 676 P.2d 419
(1984) (campus police officer who
arrested an underage college
student for the offense of minor in
possession of alcohol violated the
students privacy rights by entering
the students dorm room after the
officer who accompanied the
student into the dorm room to
retrieve his identification noticed
what the officer believed to be
marijuana).

Emergency Entries

The officers subjective motivation

is irrelevant in determining whether
a warrantless entry under the
emergency doctrine was reasonable.
Brigham City v.
Stuart, 547
U.S.398, 126 S. Ct. 1943, 164 L.
Ed. 2d 650 (2006).

The officers subjective motivation

is relevant in determining whether a
warrantless entry under the
emergency doctrine was lawful.
State v. Schultz, 170 W n.2d 746,
754, 248 P.3d 484 (2011).

Good Faith Exception to the

Exclusionary Rule

Evidence discovered in a search

incident to an arrest under a statute
that is later declared to be
unconstitutional is not subject to
exclusion. Michigan v. DeFillippo,
443 U.S. 31, 99 S. Ct. 2627, 61 L.
Ed. 2d 343 (1979).

The good faith exception to the

exclusionary rule, that allows the
use of evidence collected in cases
that involve police acting under a
mistaken but good faith belief that
their actions were constitutional, is
inconsistent with article I, section 7
o f the W a sh in gto n S tate
Constitution. State v. Adams, 169
W n.2d 487, 238 P.3d 459 (2010).

Control of
Individuals

Arrested

343

Fourth Amendment
Rule

Const. art. I, 7
Rule

GPS Devices

Officers do not need a search

warrant or judicial approval before
attaching a mobile tracking device
to a suspects vehicle while the
vehicle was parked in the suspects
driveway. United States v. PinedaMoreno, 591 F.3d 1212 (9th Cir.
2010).

A warrant is needed prior to

installing a GPS device on a
suspect's vehicle. State v. Jackson,
150 W n.2d 251, 76 P.3d 217
(2003).

Inevitable Discovery

T he federal doctrine allows

admission of illegally obtained
evidence if the State can establish
by a preponderance of the evidence
that the information ultimately or
inevitably would have been
discovered by lawful means. Nix v.
Williams, 467 U.S. 431, 444, 104 S.
Ct. 2501, 81 L. Ed. 2d 377 (1984).

The inevitable discovery doctrine is

inconsistent with Const. art. I, 7.
State v. Winterstein, 167 W n.2d
620, 220 P.3d 1226 (2009).

Inventory Searches

Police may inventory the contents

of closed containers and car trunks
when im pounding a vehicle
p u rsua nt to a sta nd a rd iz e d
procedure. Colorado v. Bertine,
479 U.S. 367, 107 S. Ct. 738, 93 L.
Ed. 2d 739 (1987).

Police may not enter a trunk of an

impounded vehicle to inventory the
contents. Nor may police open an
unlocked, but closed container to
inventory the contents. State v.
White, 135 W n.2d 761, 958 P.2d
982 (1998); State v. Houser, 95
W n.2d 143, 622 P.2d 1218 (1980).

A driver need not be offered an

o p p o rtunity to m a k e o th e r
arrangements for the safekeeping of
his property before a vehicle may
be impounded. See Colorado v.
Bertine, 479 U.S. 367, 371-73, 93
L. Ed. 2d 739, 107 S. Ct. 738
(1987); South Dakota v. Opperman,
428 U.S. 364, 368-69, 49 L. Ed. 2d
1000, 96 S. Ct. 3092 (1976);
United States v. Penn, 233 F.3d
1111, 1117 (9th Cir. 2000).

A vehicle may not be impounded

until an officer exhausts reasonable
alternatives.
See State v.
Williams, 102 W n.2d 733, 689 P.2d
1065 (1984).

The Fourth Amendment authorizes

the warrantless entry into open
fields. Oliver v. United States, 466
U.S. 170, 104 S. Ct. 1735, 80 L.
Ed. 2d 214 (1984) (forested area
and field located one mile from
farmhouse); Hester v. United
States, 265 U.S. 57, 44 S. Ct. 445,
68 L. Ed. 898 (1924).

Const. art. I, 7 protects fields as

well as curtilege from warrantless
entry. State v. Myrick, 102 W n.2d
506, 688 P.2d 151 (1984); State v.
Thorson, 98 W n. App. 528, 990
P.2d 446 (1990).

Open Fields

344

Phone Records, Electric

Records, Motel Records, Bank
Records, Etc.

Fourth Amendment
Rule

Const. art. I, 7
Rule

Telephone user has no legitimate

expectation of privacy in telephone
pen register showing the numbers
dialed. Smith v. Maryland, 442
U.S. 735, 99 S. Ct. 2577, 61 L.
Ed.2d 220 (1979).

Need judicial permission to get

phone records or install pen
register.
State v. Gunwall, 106
W n.2d 54, 720 P.2d 808 (1986)

A motel guest has no reasonable

expectation or privacy in motel
registration records, so police do
not require a warrant in order to
view such records.
States v.
Cormier, 220 F.3d 1103, 1108 (9th
Cir. 2000), cert. denied, 531 U.S.
1174 (2001).

Practice of randomly checking the

names of guests in motel registry
for outstanding warrants without
individualized or particularized
suspicion violated defendant's rights
under W ash. Const. art. I, 7.
State v. Jorden, 160 W n.2d 121,
156 P.3d 893 (2007).

There is no legitimate expectation

of privacy in a power company's
records of electrical consumption at
a persons residence. See, e.g.,
United States v. Porco, 842 F.
Supp. 1393, 1398 (D. W yo. 1994);
State v. Kluss, 125 Idaho 14, 867
P.2d 247 (Ct. App. 1993); People v.
Dunkin, 888 P.2d 305 (Colo. Ct.
App. 1994).

There is a privacy interest in

electric consumption records
preventing their disclosure by a
public utility district employee
without authority of law. In re
Personal Restraint of Maxfield, 133
W n.2d 332, 945 P.2d 196 (1997).

Bank customer has no legitimate

expectation of privacy in bank
records. United States v. Payner,
447 U.S. 727, 732, 65 L. Ed. 2d
468, 100 S. Ct. 2439 (1980).

Pretext Stops

Stop is valid under the Fourth

Amendment regardless of the
officer's true reasons if the facts
establish a violation of law). Whren
v. United States, 517 U.S. 806, 116
S. Ct. 1769, 1774-76, 135 L. Ed. 2d
89 (1996).

Need "clean thoughts" when

making an objectively reasonable
stop. State v. Ladson, 138 W n.2d
343, 979 P.2d 833 (1999).

Private Search Doctrine

A warrantless search by a state

actor does not offend the Fourth
Amendment if the search does not
expand the scope of the private
search. United States v. Jacobsen,
466 U.S. 109, 104 S. Ct. 1652, 80
L. Ed. 2d 85 (1984); Walter v.
United States, 447 U.S. 649, 100 S.
Ct. 2395, 65 L. Ed. 2d 410 (1980).

[T]he private search doctrine is

inapplicable under the W ashington
C onstitution, because [t]he
in d iv id ua l's p rivacy inte re st
protected by article I, section 7
survives the exposure that occurs
when it is intruded upon by a
private actor. State v. Eisfeldt, 163
W n.2d 628, 636, 638, 185 P.3d 580
(2008).

345

Fourth Amendment
Rule

Const. art. I, 7
Rule

Probable Cause

The moderate smell of marijuana

emanating from a vehicle, without
more, establishes probable cause to
arrest all occupants of the vehicle.
The Fourth Amendment does not
require individualized probable
cause for each occupant of the
vehicle. Maryland v. Pringle, 540
U.S. 366, 124 S. Ct. 795, 157 L.
Ed. 2d 769 (2003).

The moderate smell of marijuana

emanating from a vehicle, without
more, will not provide probable
cause to arrest any of the occupants
of the vehicle. Const. art. I, 7
requires individualized probable
cause for each occupant of the
vehicle, State v. Grande, 164
W n.2d 135, 187 P.3d 248 (2008).

Random School Drug Testing

Random drug testing of public

school athletes and of students
involved in extracurricular activity
is permissible under the Fourth
Amendment. Vernonia Sch. Dist.
47J v. Acton, 515 U.S. 646, 115 S.
Ct. 2386, 132 L. Ed. 2d 564 (1995);
Bd. of Educ. v. Earls, 536 U.S. 822,
122 S. Ct. 2559, 153 L. Ed. 2d 735
(2002).

Random and suspicionless drug

testing of student athletes violates
Const. art. I, 7.
York v.
Wahkiakum, 163 W n.2d 297, 178
P.3d 995 (2008)

Search Warrants

Information from an informant that

is offered in support of a search
warrant need not pass muster under
both prongs of the Aguilar-Spinelli
test. See Illinois v. Gates, 462
U.S. 213, 103 S. Ct. 2317, 76 L.
Ed. 2d 527 (1983) (abandoning the
"two prong test" announced in
Aguilar v. Texas, 378 U.S. 108, 12
L. Ed. 2d 723, 84 S. Ct. 1509 and
Spinelli v. United States, 393 U.S.
410, 21 L. Ed. 2d 637, 89 S. Ct.
584 and instead applying the
totality of the circumstances
analysis in which deficiency in one
of the two factors considered in the
Aguilar-Spinelli test, veracity and
basis of knowledge, may be
mitigated in proving probable cause
by a strong showing of the other).

Information from an informant that

is offered in support of a search
warrant must satisfy both the basis
of knowledge and veracity
prongs of the Aguilar-Spinelli test.
State v. Jackson, 102 W n.2d 432,
440, 688 P.2d 136 (1984).

346

Fourth Amendment
Rule

Const. art. I, 7
Rule

Sobriety Checkpoints

Stationary roadblocks for checking

drivers licenses and registration,
and for the interdiction of alcoholaffected drivers are permissible
under the Fourth Amendment.
Mich. Dep't of State Police v. Sitz,
496 U.S. 444, 110 S. Ct. 2481, 110
L. Ed. 2d 412 (1990); Delaware v.
Prouse, 440 U.S. 648, 663, 59 L.
Ed. 2d 660, 99 S. Ct. 1391 (1979).

Sobriety checkpoints violate the

right to not be disturbed in one's
private affairs guaranteed by article
1, section 7. City of Seattle v.
Mesiani, 110 W n.2d 454, 457, 755
P.2d 775 (1988).

Special Needs Doctrine

In the context of safety and

administrative regulations, a search
unsupported by probable cause may
acceptable under the Fourth
Amendment when special needs,
beyond the normal need for law
enforcement, make the warrant and
probable-cause requirement
impracticable. See, e.g., Griffin v.
Wisconsin, 483 U.S. 868, 873, 97
L. Ed. 2d 709, 107 S. Ct. 3164
(1987) (searches of probationers
homes); Skinner v. Railway Labor
Executives' Ass'n, 489 U.S. 602,
619, 103 L. Ed. 2d 639, 109 S. Ct.
1402 (1989) (collection of blood
and urine samples from railroad
workers who are involved in train
collisions); New York v. Burger,
482 U.S. 691, 699-703 (1987)
(search of premises of certain
highly regulated businesses); New
Jersey v. T. L. O., 469 U.S. 325,
334, 83 L. Ed. 2d 720, 105 S. Ct.
733 (1985) (school searches).

There is no "special needs"

exception to the search warrant
requirement under Const. art. I, 7.
York v. Wahkiakum, 163 W n.2d
297, 178 P.3d 995 (2008)

Standing

A defendant who is charged with a

possessory offense must establish
an "expectation of privacy in the
area searched"
before the
defendant can prosecute a motion to
suppress any seized evidence.
United States v. Salvucci, 448 U.S.
83, 65 L. Ed. 2d 619, 100 S. Ct.
2547 (1980).

A defendant who is charged with a

possessory offense may rely on the
automatic standing doctrine, and
need not establish ownership of the
seized item or an expectation of
privacy in the area searched. State
v. Jones, 146 W n.2d 328, 332-33,
45 P.3d 1062 (2002); State v.
Simpson, 95 W n.2d 170, 622 P.2d
1199 (1980).

347

Trash cans

Fourth Amendment
Rule

Const. art. I, 7
Rule

Because there is no reasonable

expectation of privacy in garbage
once it is placed at the can, officers
do not need a warrant to examine
the contents of a trash bag or trash
can. California v. Greenwood, 486
U.S. 35, 108 S. Ct. 1625, 100 L.
Ed.2d 30 (1988)

Officers need a warrant in order to

examine the contents of a trash can
or garbage bag either at the curb or
once in a garbage truck. State v.
Boland, 115 W n.2d 571, 800 P.2d
1112 (1990)

348