Spencer Leonardis

4-14-2015
Homework 2
Math 111B
Toolbox Math 111B
Definitions
Definition: Ring. A ring is a set R equipped with binary operations + : R R R and : R R R
satisfying the following axioms (note that we do not need to explictly state closure of addition and
multiplication, because binary operations defined this way are closed by definition):
I. R is abelian group under addition:
1. a + b = b + a (+ is commutative)
2. There exists 0 R such that 0 + a = a + 0 = a for every a R. (Additive identity)
3. For every a R there exists a R such that a + (a) = (a) + a = 0 (Existence of additive inverse)
4. a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c (+ is associative)
II. (Ring w/o identity). The multiplication of R, which we defined by : R R R is associative.
Or in other words, for every a, b, c R under : R R R, one has a (b c) = (a b) c.
II. (Ring with identity). R is a monoid under multiplication:
1. (ab)c = a(bc) ( is a associative)
2. There exists an element 1R R such that a 1R = 1R a = a for every a R.
The multiplication of R, which we defined by : R R R is associative. Or in other words, for every
a, b, c R under : R R R, one has a (b c) = (a b) c.
III. Multiplication distributes over addition
1. a(b + c) = ab + ac for every a, b, c R.
2. (b + c)a = ba + ca for every a, b, c R.
Definition: Commutative Ring. A ring R is called commutative if under the binary operation : R R R,
one has a b = b a for every a, b R.
Definition: Division Ring. A ring R is said to be a division ring if its nonzero elements form a group under
multiplication (R \ {0} forms a mult. group).
Definition: Field. A commutative division ring.
Definition: Zero-Divisor. Let R be a commutative ring. Then 0 6= a R is called a zero-divisor if there exists
a b R, b 6= 0, such that ab = 0.
Definition: Integral Domain. A commutative ring R is called an integral domain if ab = 0 implies that
a = 0 or b = 0 for every a, b R. In other words, a commutative ring R is called an integral domain if it
contains no zero-divisors.
Definition: Characteristic. Let R be a commutative ring. Then the characteristic of R, denoted Char(R) is
the smallest positive integer n such that na = |a + {z
+ a} = 0 for every a R. If there exists a positive
n summands

integer n such that Char(R) = n then we say R has finite characteristic. If no such n exists, we say that
Char(R) = 0.
Definition: Ring Homomorphism. Let R and S be rings. A mapping f : R S is called a homomorphism if
f (a + b) = f (a) + f (b) and f (ab) = f (a) f (b)
for every a, b R. We call a ring homomorphism f : a monomorphism if f is injective, an epimorphism if f
is surjective. Isomorphism: f bijective.
Definition: Kernel. The kernel of a ring homomorphism f , denoted ker( f ), is the set of all elements in R
that get mapped to 0 (ie. the preimage f 1 ({0}) of the zero ideal.) Or more explicitly,
ker( f ) = {a R : f (a) = 0}.
1

Definition: Ideal. For a ring (R, +, ) let (R, +) denote its additive group. A subset I is called a two-sided
ideal or simply an ideal) of R if it is an additive subgroup of R that "absorbs multiplication by elements of
R." Formally we mean that I satisfies the following conditions:
1. (I, +) (R, +).
2. For every x I and for every r R one has xr I (right ideal)
3. For every x I and for every r R one has rx I (left ideal)
Definition: Quotient ring. Let I
R. Then we define the quotient ring as R/I = { r + I : r R } (ie the set of
cosets of I (abelian addition) in R). We define the addition and multiplication of R/I as
(r + I) + (s + I) = r + s + I and (r + I)(s + I) = rs + I for every r, s R. We obtain that R/I is a ring under these
operations, since the addition of R/I forms an abelian group and the multiplication of R/I is associative.
The zero element of R/I is 0 + I = I.
Definition: Princiapl Ideal Generated by a (ideal of all multiples of a.) Defined by
(a) = { ra : r R } = Ra.
Definition: Principal Ideal Domain. An integral domain R with unit is called a principal ideal domain if
every ideal I is of the form I = (a) = Ra for some a R.
Definition: Maximal Ideal. An ideal M 6= R in a ring R is called a maximal ideal of R if whenever U is an
ideal of R such that M U R, then either R = U or M = U (ie. an Ideal M is maximal if we cannot fit an
ideal between M and the entire ring R).
Definition: Euclidean Domain. An integral domain R is called a Euclidean domain if there exists a map
: R \ {0} N such that
1. For all nonzero a, b R, one has (ab) (b).
2. For every a, b R, b 6= 0, there exists q, r R such that a = bq + r and r = 0 or (r) < (b).
Definition: Unit. Let R be a ring with 1. An element u R is called a unit if there exists v R such that
uv = 1. Notation: U(R) = all units of R.
Definition: Associates. Let R be a ring with 1. Two elements a, b R are called associates if b = ua for
some u U(R).
Definition: Prime. In a Euclidean domain R, a non-unit p is called prime if p = ab implies that a U(R) or
b U(R).
Definition: Relatively prime. In a Euclidean domain R, two elements are called relatively prime if their
greatest common divisor is a unit in R.
Definition: Degree of polynomial. If f (x) = a 0 + a 1 x + + a n x n and a n 6= 0 then the degree of f (x) is
deg f (x) = n.
Definition: Irreducible polynomial. A polynomial p(x) F[x] is called irreducible if whenever
p(x) = a(x)b(x) with a(x), b(x) F[x], then one of a(x) or b(x) has degree 0 (ie. either a(x) or b(x) are
constant (unit) polynomials).
Definition: Content. The content of a polynomial 0 6= f (x) = a 0 + + a n x n Z[x], denoted cont( f ) is the
greatest common divisor of a 0 , . . . , a n (ie the largest integer k such that f (x)/k still has integer coeficients).
Definition: Primitive polynomial. A polynomial 0 6= f (x) = a 0 + + a n x n Z[x], is called primitive if
cont( f ) = 1.
Definition: Monic polynomial. A polynomial 0 6= f (x) = a 0 + + a n x n Z[x], is called monic if a n = 1.
End definitions.

Theorems/Lemmas/Corollaries
Lemma 3.2.1: Ring properties. If R is a ring, then for every a, b R:
1. a0 = 0a = 0.
2. a( b) = (a)b = (ab).
3. (a)( b) = ab.
If in addition, R has unit element 1, then:
4. (1)a = a.
5. (1)(1) = 1.
Proof.
1. Using distributive properties of ring.
2. Additive identities and distributive properties.

1
3. By part 2. and the fact that a1
= a (we use additive (a) = a in this case, but its the same) for
every a in a group.
4. Additive identity and distributive property.
5. Part 3.
Lemma 3.2.2: A finite integral domain is a field.
Corollary: If p is prime, then Z/pZ, the ring of integers modulo p, is a field.
Lemma 3.3.1. Homomorphism properties: If is a ring homomorphism from R to S then
1. (0) = 0
2. (a) = (a) for every a R.
Lemma 3.3.2. Homomorphism properties: The kernel of a ring homomorphism : R toS satisfies:
1. ker() is an additive subgroup of R.
2. If a ker() and r R then ra, ar ker().
Lemma 3.3.3: A homomorphism : R S is injective if and only if ker() = {0} (ie is a monomorphism).
Proof. Assume that ker() = 0 and set (a) = (b). Then show that a + ( b) ker() a + ( b) = 0.
Lemma 3.4.1: Let I
R and define : R R/I, r 7 r + I. Then is an epimorphism (canonical projection
of R onto R/I) with ker() = I.
Theorem. Ring Isomorphism Theorems: Let R and S be rings. If : R S is a ring homomorphism, then:
1. ker()
R, Im() is a subring of S and R/ ker()
= Im().
2. x 7 (x) yields a bijection between subrings of R containing ker() and subrings of Im().
Im()
3. I (I) yields a bijection between ideals of R. In this case, R/I
.
=
(I)
I+J J
4. If I, J
R then I + J
R and
.
=
I
IJ
Lemma 3.5.1: Let R be a commutative ring with 1. Then R is a field if and only if its only ideals are (0)
and R.
Theorem 3.5.1: Let R be a commutative ring with 1 and let I
R. Then I is a maximal ideal if and only if
R/I is a field.
Theorem 3.6.1: Every integral domain can be embedded into a field. That is, given a an integral domain
D, one can construct a field of fractions F with a monomorphism : D F.
Lemma 3.6.1: Fix an integral domain D with S = {(a, r) : a, r D, r 6= 0}. Define a relation
(a, r) (b, s) as = br. Then is an equivalence relation. We denote the equivalence class of (a, r) by ar .
+ br
The addition is defined as ar + bs = asrs
and the multiplication is defined as ar bs = ab
rs . The additive identity
0
r
is 0 = r for every r 6= 0 and the multiplicative identity is 1 = r for every r 6= 0. We define the set of
equivalence classes (a, r) as F = { ar : a, r D, r 6= 0}.
Theorem 3.6.2: The set of equivalence classes Quot(D) = F = { ar : a, r D, r 6= 0} is a field.
Lemma 3.6.2: Let D be an integral domain and let F be its fraction field. Then the mapping
: D F, a ar
r is a monomorphism. In particular, every integral domain D can be embedded in a field.
Lemma 3.6.3: Let D denote an integral domain and F its fraction field. If K is a field and f : D K is a

monomorphism, then there exists a monomorphism g : F K, g ar = f (ar 1 ) = f (a) f (r)1 whenever

a, r D. The map g is a unique homomorphism such that g = f , where denotes the embedding of
integral domain D in fraction field F.
Corollary: Let D be an integral domain with field of fractions F. If K is a field containing D, then K
contains a subfield g(F) = Im(F)
= F such that D Im(F) K. (The image of fraction field F is mapped
into field K via a monomorphism)
Proof. By the above Lemma, the inclusion mapping : D F extends to a monomorphism g : F K such
that g(F) = Im(F)
= F.
Theorem 3.7.1: A Euclidean domain is a principal ideal domain.
Corollary: Let D be a Euclidean domain with Ideal I. Then I = Da = { da : d D, 0 6= a I } if and only if
(d) (ad) for every 0 6= a I.
Theorem: Every principal ideal domain contains unit element 1.
Theorem: If R is a principal ideal domain and a, b R (not both 0) then gcd(a, b) exists and there are
x, y R such that gcd(a, b) = xa + yb.
Corollary: If gcd(a, b) = 1 in R, then there exist x, y R if and only if 1 = xa + yb.
Corollary: If R is a principal ideal domain where a | c, b | c, and gcd(a, b) = 1, then ab | c. If a | bc and
gcd(a, b) = 1, then a | c.
Lemma 3.7.2: Let R be an integral domain with 1 and suppose that for every a, b R, one has a | b and
b | a. Then a = ub where u U(R).
Lemma 3.7.3: Let R be a Euclidean domain and let a, b R, a 6= 0. Then (ab) > (a) if b U(R).
Lemma: Let R be a principal ideal domain and let a, p R where p is prime. Then p - a if and only if
gcd(p, a) = 1.
Corollary: If R is a principal ideal domain and p R is prime, then p | ab implies that p | a or p | b.
Theorem: Any nonzero, nonunit element in a Euclidean domain can be expressed as a unique product of
primes unique up to associate and permutation.
Lemma: If p R is a prime, then u p is prime for any u U(R).
Theorem 3.8.1: The integral domain of Gaussian integers, denoted Z[i], is a Euclidean domain.
Lemma 3.8.1: Let p Z be prime, and suppose that for some c Z with (p, c) = 1, one has integers x, y Z
such that x2 + y2 = c p. Then p can be expressed as a sum two squared integers. In particular, there exist
a, b Z such that p = a2 + b2 .
Lemma 3.8.2: If p is a prime of the form 4n + 1, then we can solve the congruence x2 1 mod p.
Theorem: Let R be a principal ideal domain. Then p R is prime if and only if (p) = is a maximal ideal.
Corollary: If R is a principal ideal domain. Then p R is a prime if and only if the quotient ring R/(p), is
a field. In particular, an Ideal is maximal in R if and only if R/I is a field.
Lemma 3.9.1: If f (x) and g(x) are two nonzero elements in F[x], then deg ( f (x)g(x)) = deg f (x) + deg g(x).
Corollary: If f (x) and g(x) are two nonzero elements in F[x], then deg f (x) f (x)g(x).
Theorem: The polynomial ring F[x] is a Euclidean domain with norm deg f (x) (and hence F[x] is a PID
and Integral domain) equipped with the following division algorithm: Given f (x), g(x) 6= 0 F[x] there
exist polynomials q(x), r(x) F[x] such that f (x) = g(x)q(x) + r(x) with r(x) = 0 or deg r(x) < deg g(x).
Lemma: Let 0 6= f (x) F[x]. Then a F is a root of f (x) if and only if f (x) = (x a)g(x).
Lemma: Let f (x) F[x] and 2 deg f (x) 3. Then f (x) is reducible if and only if f (x) has a root a F.
Lemma 3.9.4: Every polynomial in F[x] can be expressed uniquely as a product of irreducible
polynomials.
Lemma 3.9.5: Given two polynomials f (x), g(x) F[x], there exists a greatest common divisor d(x) F[x]
such that d(x) = f (x)(x) + g(x)(x) for some (x), (x) F[x].
Lemma 3.9.6: The ideal (p(x)) F[x] is maximal if and only if p(x) is irreducible over F.
Theorem:

Theorem (One-step subgroup test). Let G be a group and let H 6= ; be a subset of G. Then H G if
and only if for every a, b H one has ab1 .
Proof.
Theorem: kernel is subgroup. If f : G H is a group homomorphism, then ker( f ) G.
Proof. We know that ker( f ) is non-empty since f (1G ) = 1H meaning that 1G ker( f ). Let a, b ker( f ) such
that f (a) = f (b) = 1H . Then f (a1 b) = f (a1 ) f (b) = f (a)1 f (b) = 1H 1 1H = 1H . Hence
a1 b ker( f ) ker( f ) G. 2
Let : R S be a ring homomorphism:
Theorem. ker() is a subring of R (If we do not require that rings or subrings have a multiplicative
identity).
Proof. We know that (ker(), +) (R, +) since the addition of a ring homomorphism is a group
homomorphism and the kernel of a group homomorphism is a subgroup. Suppose that a, b ker(). Then
(x y) = (x)(y) = 0S 0S = 0S . Thus x y ker().
Theorem. ker() is an ideal of R.
Proof. We know that (ker(), +) (R, +). Suppose a ker() and r R. Then (ar) = (a)(r) = 0S (r) = 0S .
Hence ar ker() and similarly ra ker(). Thus ker()
R. 2