2nd Ssem Contentg

SESSION PLAN II SEM
UNIT 1
S.
No
Topic
Description OF CONTENTS
No of
hours
VOCAB One word

substitution
EXERCISE BASED SESSION
SUBJECT AND VERB

AGREEMENT
FACULTY GUIDE+ CLASS EXERCISE
PRONOUNS
FACULTY GUIDE +PRACTICE EXERCISE
MODALS
FACULTY GUIDE+PPT+ CLASS EXERCISE
ACTIVE PASSIVE VOICE
FACULTY GUIDE + CLASS EXERCISE
UNIT 2
S.
NO
.
Topic
PHRASAL VERB
INTRO TO RC
NARRATION
FACULTY GUIDE + IN-BUILT CLASS
EXERCISE
FACULTY GUIDE + IN-BUILT CLASS
EXERCISE
FACULTY GUIDE (in PPT form)
No of hours
2
2
2
UNIT 3
S.
NO
.
Topic
MODIFIER AND PARALLELISM
PARAJUMBLES
CRITICAL REASONING
No of hours
UNIT 1 SESSION 1
ONE WORD SUBSTITUTION
Session objective :
To introduce students to the topic of One Word Substitution.
To make students learn maximum One word Substitution during the session.
What is to be done:
1. Introduce the concept of One Word Substitution (refer Faculty guide)
2. Discuss the exercise.
Faculty guide:
BASICS ON ONE WORD SUBSTITUTION
One Word Substitutes as the phrase indicates itself are the words that replace
group of words or a full sentence effectively without creating any kind of ambiguity
in the meaning of the sentences.
For Example : Autobiography can be used in place of the sentence The life
story of a man written by himself.
Why One Word Substitution?
These words are used to bring an effect of compression in any kind of writing
for example in business communication there are instances when we write a
lot within limitation of time and space, there these kind of words can prove
quite handy.
Questions based on this concept may be asked in every kind of competitive
exam.
Given below is list of some common words under different groups.
While discussing this list, the faculty is expected to explain each and every word
preferably with the help of etymology. This way one may also touch on other words
that are derived from the same root.
For example: While discussing AGNOSTIC, one may also discuss DIAGNOSE,
PROGNOSIS, COGNITION ETC.
ONE WORD SUBSTITUTION FOR PEOPLE

1. Agnostic
A.
B.
C.
D.
One who is not sure about God's existence.

One who believes in God's existence.
One having different style of living.
None of above.
Answer: Option A
2. Altruist
A.
B.
C.
D.
One who is lover of beauty.

One who never stops.
A lover of mankind.
A person who hates mankind.
Answer: Option C
3. Amateur
A.
B.
C.
D.
One
One
One
One
who
who
who
who
is not having experience.

does a thing for pleasure and not as a profession.
have all happiness.
remains sad.
Answer: Option B
4. Ambidexterous
A.
B.
C.
D.
Person who can eat veg and non veg.

One who feeds on flesh
One who can use either hand with ease.
None of above.
Answer: Option C
6. Arbitrator
A.
B.
C.
D.
a
a
a
a
person
person
person
person
appointed by two parties to solve a dispute.

who is appointed to give punishment.
who is always aggressive.
who always give blessings.
Answer: Option A
7. Ascetic
A.
B.
C.
D.
One
One
One
One
who
who
who
who
is in confusion.
make paintings.
leads an austere life.
is lover of beauty.
Answer: Option C
8. Bohemian
A.
B.
C.
D.
waves in the sea.

fresh mood.
irritatation.
an unconventional style of living.
Answer: Option D
9. Cacographist
A.
B.
C.
D.
One
One
One
One
who
who
who
who
is having ego.
has unique style.
is bad in spelling.
is good in spelling.
Answer: Option C
10. Chauvinist
A.
B.
C.
D.
A
A
A
A
person
person
person
person
displaying aggressive or exaggerated patriotism.

showing disappointment.
feeling low.
feeling very excited.
Answer: Option A
ONE WORD SUBSTITUTION FOR GENERAL OBJECTS

1. A formal resignation and renunciation of powers
A. Regalia
B. Axiom
C. Abdication
D. Fauna
Answer: Option C
2.
Almanac
A. A modern calender.
B. An annual calender with position of stars.
C. A calender only with holidays list.
D. A calender with historical information.
Answer: Option B
3.
Allegory
A. A story
B. A story
C. A story
D. A story
told by elders to younger ones.

with no moral.
that express ideas through language.
that express ideas through symbols.
Answer: Option D
4.
Infallible
A. Always failing.
B. Never failing.
C. Always stopping.
D. Never stopping.
Answer: Option B
5. Inevitable
A.
B.
C.
D.
Very greedy.
Very promising.
Highly uncertain.
Certain to happen.
Answer: Option D
6. Interregnum
A.
B.
C.
D.
A
A
A
A
period of intervals between two regimes.

period of a government or regime.
moment when a government fell down.
moment when a new government is formed.
Answer: Option A
7. Nostalgia
A.
B.
C.
D.
A sort of joyful moment.

A sort of horror.
A sentimental longing for the past.
Excitement for the coming future.
Answer: Option C
8. Panacea
A.
B.
C.
D.
A reason of the trouble.

A solution or remedy for all difficulties or diseases.
A solution of a complex problem of mathematics.
None of above.
Answer: Option B
9. Pedantic
A. A person above from material things.
B. A person needs mercy.

C. A style meant to display one's knowledge.
D. A style meant to display one's foolishness.
Answer: Option C
10. Sacrilege
A.
B.
C.
D.
Be a volunteer for country.

Making a disturbance.
Obeying a religious order.
Violation of what is regarded as sacred.
Answer: Option D
ONE WORD SUBSTITUTION FOR PLACES

1. Abattoir
A.
B.
C.
D.
A
A
A
A
lonely place.
crowded place.
place where animals are slaughtered.
place where animals are given protection.
Answer: Option C
2. Aviary
A.
B.
C.
D.
place
place
place
place
where birds are kept.

where animals are kept.
where children are kept.
for old people.
Answer: Option A
3. Cache
A.
B.
C.
D.
Destroyed place.
A rehabilitated place.
A place where ammunition is hidden.
A place where large number of animals are kept.
Answer: Option C
4. Decanter
A. a bottle having unique design on it.
B. a bottle which is made by different metals.
C. a bottle with a stopper for serving wine or water.
D. a very old bottle.

Answer: Option C
5. Granary
A.
B.
C.
D.
where
where
where
where
treasures are kept.

woods are kept.
clothes are kept.
grains are kept.
Answer: Option D
6. Infirmary
A.
B.
C.
D.
A
A
A
A
hospital.
picnic spot.
wonder place.
historical place.
Answer: Option A
7. Menagerie
A.
B.
C.
D.
a place where animals are treated.

a place for wild animals and birds.
a place for animals which is not appropriate for wild animals and birds.
none of above.
Answer: Option B
8. Monastery
A.
B.
C.
D.
a
a
a
a
place where monks and priests do not like to go.

place where monks and priests are prohibted.
place where monks and priests do meetings.
residence for monks and priests.
Answer: Option D
9. Sty
A.
B.
C.
D.
A
A
A
A
place
place
place
place
where
where
where
where
Answer: Option A
10. Sheath
pigs are kept.

cows are kept.
parrots are kept.
peacocks are kept.
A.
B.
C.
D.
A special weapon.
A dress of army used in a war.
Cover of sword.
Cloth for covering wound.
Answer: Option C
ONE WORD SUBSTITUTION FOR GROUPS

1. Anthology
A.
B.
C.
D.
A published collection of poems.

An unpublished article.
A secret message.
A file meant for official work.
Answer: Option A
2. Bale
A.
B.
C.
D.
A group of fishes.
A bundle of paper, cotton etc tightly wrapped.
A container.
None of above.
Answer: Option B
3. Brood
A.
B.
C.
D.
A
A
A
A
collection of notebooks.
family of young animals.
family of old animals.
family of young and old animals.
Answer: Option B
4. Caucus
A.
B.
C.
D.
a
a
a
a
group of people taking part in a procession.

group of people making noise.
closed political meeting.
group of people dancing.
Answer: Option C
5. Claque
A.
B.
C.
D.
a
a
a
a
group
group
group
group
of people at a meeting.
of people with evil intentions.
of people applaud at performance.
paid to applaud.
Answer: Option D
6. Congregation
A.
B.
C.
D.
A
A
A
A
group
group
group
group
of
of
of
of
dacoits.
thieves.
worshippers.
fishes.
Answer: Option C
7. Flotilla
A.
B.
C.
D.
A
A
A
A
fleet
fleet
fleet
fleet
of
of
of
of
cars in a rally.
motorcycles.
ships.
planes.
Answer: Option C
8. Hamlet
A.
B.
C.
D.
a
a
a
a
group
group
group
group
of
of
of
of
houses in a village.
trees in a village.
animals near river.
fishes in a river.
Answer: Option A
9. Posse
A.
B.
C.
D.
a
a
a
a
group
group
group
group
of
of
of
of
advocates.
policemen.
drivers.
workmen.
Answer: Option B
10. Torrent
A.
B.
C.
D.
A
A
A
A
boat tied with other boat in water.

slow moving cascade.
very slow stream of water.
strong and fast-moving stream of water.
Answer: Option D
ONE WORD SUBSTITUTION FOR SCIENCE AND ARTS

1. The study of sound is called
A.
B.
C.
D.
Acoustics
Aeronautics
Aesthetics
Agronomy
Answer: Option A
2. The study of duration of life is called
A.
B.
C.
D.
Calligraphy
Ceramics
Chronobiology
Chronology
Answer: Option C
3. The art of secret writings is called
A.
B.
C.
D.
Dactylography
Cytology
Cryogenics
Cypher
Answer: Option D
4. The technique of communication by signs made with the fingers is called
A.
B.
C.
D.
Ethnology
Ethology
Dactylology
Etymology
Answer: Option C
5. The study and tracing of lines of descent or development is called
A.
B.
C.
D.
Genealogy
Ergonomy
Eugenics
Genetics
Answer: Option A
6. The therapeutic use of sunlight is called
A.
B.
C.
D.
Gymnastics
Heliotherapy
Geology
Histology
Answer: Option B
7. The art or practice of garden cultivation and management is called

A.
B.
C.
D.
Iconography
Hagiology
Horticulture
Hydropathy
Answer: Option C
8. The science of law is called
A.
B.
C.
D.
Iconology
Jurisprudence
Lexicography
Numismatics
Answer: Option B
9. The study of rocks is called
A.
B.
C.
D.
Philately
Petrology
Philology
Phonetics
Answer: Option B
10. The art of elegant speech or writing is called
A.
B.
C.
D.
Palaeography
Physiognomy
Sericulture
Rhetoric
Answer: Option D
ONE WORD SUBSTITUTION FOR PHOBIAS

1. Fear of heights :
A.
B.
C.
D.
Acrophobia
Aerophobia
Aglophobia
Altiphobia
Answer: Option A
2. The fear of ugliness
A. Bathophobia
B. Cacophobia
C. Biblophobia
D. Catrophobia
Answer: Option B
3. Fear of old age :
A.
B.
C.
D.
Genophobia
Geraphobia
Gamophobia
Ergophobia
Answer: Option B
4. Fear of travel :
A.
B.
C.
D.
Hedonophobia
Hodophobia
Hydrophobia
Kleptophobia
Answer: Option B
5. Fear of old memories :
A.
B.
C.
D.
Maieusiophobia
Metrophobia
Monophobia
Menemophobia
Answer: Option D
6. Fear of darkness
A.
B.
C.
D.
Nyctophobia
Ophthalmophobia
Magalomania
Mysophobia
Answer: Option A
7. Fear of disease
A.
B.
C.
D.
Ochlophobia
Paedophobia
Pathophobia
Peniophobia
Answer: Option C
8. Fear of medicine :
A.
B.
C.
D.
Phasmophobia
Pharamacophobia
Xenophobia
Pyrophobia
Answer: Option B
9. Fear of number thirteen :
A.
B.
C.
D.
Hodophobia
Geraphobia
Triskaidekaphobia
Theomania
Answer: Option C
10. Fear of death :
A.
B.
C.
D.
Toxicophobia
Theophobia
Scelerophobia
Thanatophobia
Answer: Option D
Unit I Session -2
SUB-VERB AGREEMENT
Session Objective - To enable students to form grammatically correct sentences
by identifying the subject of the sentence and choosing the correct verb in
accordance with the number and person of the subject.
What is to be done 1
2
Conduct the activity PICK N MIX! and subsequently de brief.

Tell the students what they can expect from the course and what is expected
of them. Rules / discipline to be followed in the class can be announced
before closing the session.
Faculty guidance for conducting the activity PICK N MIX!

Objective: The activity is designed to relax learners, introduce them to
each other, and energize them in what is normally an unduly formal
atmosphere or situation. It is not related to the subject matter as
openers are related to the subject matter that is to be discussed. In
addition, it often helps to break up the cliques and invite people to form
random groupings in a non-threatening and fun way.
How to do it: Divide all the students of the class into four or five groups
each consisting 10 or 11 students depending on the strength of the class.
Ask each group to collect one bundle of chits (chits must have all the
matches of all the sentences randomly arranged in the bundle; all 4 or 5
bundles will have the same mix of sentences) [PRINTABLE SHEETS ARE
GIVEN AT THE BOTTOM OF THIS SHEET THAT YOU CAN REFER AS AN
EXAMPLE, HOWEVER YOU CAN PREPARE ONE AS PER YOUR CHOICE]
Take 5 minutes to explain the guidelines and give 10 minutes to all the
groups to arrange chits to form grammatically correct sentences.
De briefi ng:
After the activity is done, ask any student randomly from each group and
ask him/her to read all the sentences for their group.
During this, write common errors on the whiteboard based on sub-verb
agreement rules that we are going to explain in the session.
Once the expectation is set and students are engaged, take them to the
errors and explain the corrections with examples.
BASIC RULES
Being able to find the right subject and verb will help you correct errors of
agreement.
Example: The list of items is/are on the desk.
Being able to identify the subject and verb correctly will also help you with commas
and semicolons.
Basic Rule
The basic rule states that a singular subject takes a singular verb, while a
plural subject takes a plural verb.
NOTE: The trick is in knowing whether the subject is singular or plural. The
next trick is recognizing a singular or plural verb.
Hint: Verbs do not form their plurals by adding an s as nouns do. In order to
determine which verb is singular and which one is plural, think of which verb you
would use with he or she and which verb you would use with they.
Example:
laughs, laugh
Which one is the singular form?
Which word would you use with he?
We say, "He laughs." Therefore, laughsis singular.
We say, "They laugh." Therefore, laugh is plural.
Rule 1
Two singular subjects connected by orornor require a singular verb.
Example:
My aunt or my uncle is arriving by train today.
Rule 2
Two singular subjects connected by either/ororneither/nor require a singular verb
as in Rule 1.
Examples:
Neither Gopy nor Mukaish is available.
Either Buldaiv or Depak is helping today with stage decorations.
Rule 3
WhenIis one of the two subjects connected by either/ororneither/nor, put it
second and follow it with the singular verb am.
Example:
Neither she nor I am going to the festival.
Rule 4
When a singular subject is connected by orornorto a plural subject, put the plural
subject last and use a plural verb.
Example:
The serving bowl or the plates go on that shelf.
Rule 5
When a singular and plural subject are connected by either/ororneither/nor, put
the plural subject last and use a plural verb.
Example:
Neither John nor the others are available.
Rule 6
As a general rule, use a plural verb with two or more subjects when they are
connected by and.
Example:
A car and a bike are my means of transportation.
Rule 7
Sometimes the subject is separated from the verb by words such as along with, as
well as, besides, or not. Ignore these expressions when determining whether
to use a singular or plural verb.
Examples:
The politician, along with the newsmen, is expected shortly.
Excitement, as well as nervousness, is the cause of her shaking.
Rule 8
The pronouns each, everyone, every one, everybody, anyone, anybody,
someone, and somebody are singular and require singular verbs. Do not be
misled by what follows of.
Examples:
Each of the girls sings well.
Every one of the cakes is gone.
Rule 9
With words that indicate portionspercent, fraction, part, majority, some, all,
none, remainder, and so forth look at the noun in your of phrase (object of the
preposition) to determine whether to use a singular or plural verb. If the object of
the preposition is singular, use a singular verb. If the object of the
preposition is plural, use a plural verb.
Examples:
Fifty percent of the pie has disappeared.
Pie is the object of the preposition of.
Fifty percent of the pies have disappeared.
Pies is the object of the preposition.
One-third of the city is unemployed.
One-third of the people are unemployed.
NOTE: Hyphenate all spelled-out fractions.All of the tart is gone.

All of the tarts are gone.
Some of the tart is missing.
Some of the tarts are missing.
None of the garbage was picked up.
None of the letters were address correctly.
Of all her pencils, none have sold as well as the first one.
If in context none seems like a singular to you, use a singular verb; if it
seems like a plural, use a plural verb.
Rule 10
The expression the numberis followed by a singular verb while the expression
a number is followed by a plural verb.
Examples:
The number of people we need to hire is thirteen.
A number of people have written in about this subject.
Rule 11
When either and neither are subjects, they always take singular verbs.
Examples:
Neither of them is available to speak right now.
Either of us is capable of doing the job.
Rule 12
The words here and there have generally been labeled as adverbs even though they
indicate place. In sentencesbeginning withhere or there, the subject follows the
verb.
Examples:
There are four lanes to cross.
There is a big lane to cross.
Rule 13
Use a singular verb with sums of money or periods of time.
Examples:
Ten rupees is a high price to pay.
Five years is the maximum sentence for that offense.
Rule 14
Sometimes the pronoun who, that, or which is the subject of a verb in the middle
of the sentence. The pronouns who, that, and which become singular or
plural according to the noun directly in front of them. So, if that noun is
singular, use a singular verb. If it is plural, use a plural verb.
Examples:
Ram is the scientist who writes/write the reports.
The word in front of who is scientist, which is singular. Therefore, use the singular
verb writes.
He is one of the men who does/do the work.
The word in front of whois men, which is plural. Therefore, use the plural verb do.
Rule 15
Collective nouns such as team and staf may be either singular or plural
depending on their use in the sentence.
Examples:
The staff is in a meeting.
Staff is acting as a unit here.
The staff are in disagreement about the findings.
The staff are acting as separate individuals in this example.
The sentence would read even better as:
The staff members are in disagreement about the findings.
CLASS EXERCISE
1. Fifty percent of the class ____ looked through binoculars.
2. A cluster of stars _____ an interesting shape.
3. One of the planets ____ a year to complete an orbit.
4. Neither the students nor the teachers ____ ready for the test.
5. All the planets ____ denser than Saturn.
6. The public ____ star parties at the local planetarium.
7. Both Jupiter and Saturn _____ dense atmospheres.
8. Today the class ____ the stars.
9. Every one of the planets _____ the sun.
10. The 3 solar filters in your order ____ ready for pickup.
11. A few astronauts ____ living at the Space Station.
12. A star and a comet ____ across the sky.
Correct Verbs
has
forms
takes
are
are
attends
have
studies
orbits
are
are
shoot
UNIT 1 SESSION 3
PRONOUNS
Session objective : To discuss pronouns, their various types and the common
mistakes that people make while using them. Most people commit a lot of mistakes
in this area and needless to say a lot of questions can be framed from this area.
What is to be done
1. Define and discuss the most important types of pronouns.(refer faculty guide)
2. Focus on the errors that one is likely to commit. ( as highlighted in Faculty
Guide)
3. Make the students read the sentences numbered a. to o. and discuss them.
Faculty guide
1. What are pronouns? -Replacements of nouns.
Refer to the following paragraph. All the highlighted words are pronouns.
Running as fast as he could, Ramesh caught the bus just in time only to find that it
was jam-packed! Luckily for him, the conductor directed him to an empty seat. An
elderly lady gave him a toothless grin. This made him realise a simple fact of lifeman or woman, young or old nobody is spared from the rat race.
*discuss with the students what these words replace or stand for
VARIOUS TYPES OF PRONOUNS AND COMMON ERRORS THEREIN.

. PERSONAL , IMPERSONAL, REFLEXIVE AND EMPHATIC PRONOUNS
Subjecti
ve
Objective
Reflexive/emphatic
me
Possesive
pronoun/adjecti
ve*
My /mine
I
we
us
Our/ours
ourselves
you
you
Your/yours
Yourself/yourselves
he
him
his
himself
myself
she
her
Her/hers
herself
they
them
Their/theirs
themselves
it
it
its
itself
DEFINITION OF PERSONAL AND IMPERSONAL PRONOUNS

Personal pronouns : used to replace persons ( hence the name personal)
They are of three categories: Ist person ( I , we and all their forms)
2nd person ( you and all its forms) and 3rd person ( he, she, they and all their
forms)
Impersonal pronouns : used to replace things and animals not persons ( hence the
name impersonal)
It, they and all their forms are called impersonal pronouns
*One might notice that They is classified as 3rd person (which is a kind of personal
pronouns) as well as an impersonal pronoun. This is because they can act as both
personal and impersonal pronouns. Take a simple example to highlight this point .
Ask the students what the plural of It is. Many might not know. Ask the students to
imagine a broken chair.
We would describe it as :This is a chair. It is broken.
What would we say if there were 3 such broken chairs ? : These are chairs. They
are broken.
The above example makes it clear that they is the plural of It .We also know that
they is also the plural of he and she. Therefore they is an example of a pronoun
that can be used both as a personal and impersonal pronoun.
ORDER OF PERSONAL PRONOUNS : Some sentences necessitate the use of more
than one personal pronouns in an order. In such cases it is always advisable to
follow these two rules :
For neutral or positive sentences, we use the 2 nd , the 3rd and finally the
1st person (231 in short.)
b. For negative sentence (meaning describing adverse situations, blames etc),
we use the 1st , the 2nd and finally the 3rd person ( 123 in short)
a.
Therefore we say, You, he and I have passed the exam.

But I, you and he have failed.
SUBJECTIVE PRONOUNS used to replace subjects (doer of the action or the main
thing/person described in the sentence)
OBJECTIVE PRONOUNS- used to replace objects ( the receiver of the action).

*The above two are NOT INTERCHANGEABLE.
Eg. Me and my friends went for a movie.(wrong)
My friends and I went for a movie. (right)
Eg. The teacher gave my friends and I a lot of work. (wrong)
The teacher gave my friends and me a lot of work. (right)
*A slightly higher level application of the above concept

sentence:
Examine the following
Ram likes Hanuman more than Laxman.

Ram is clearly theSubject
But Laxman is it the Subject or the Object?
There can be two possibilities:
Possibility 1. If Laxman is the subject, the sentence means- Ram likes Hanuman .
Laxman also likes Hanuman and Rams liking for Hanuman is more than Laxmans
liking for Hanuman.
Possibility 2 If Laxman is the object, the sentence means- Ram likes Hanuman. Ram
also likes Laxman. But Rams liking for Hanuman is more than Rams liking for
Hanuman.
It is clear that the sentence is ambiguous.
So how does one improve the sentence ?
For possibility 1. The sentence should be Ram likes Hanuman more than
Laxman does.
For possibility 2 . The sentence should be Ram likes Hanuman more than he
likes Laxman.
Now in the original sentence, lets try replacing the noun Laxman with a pronoun.
Should we use He or Him?
In other words, Should it be- a. Ram likes Hanuman more than he (does)
Or
Should it be b. Ram likes Hanuman more than him.

If we revisit the table and the subsequent concepts, we will know that for possibility
1 we require sentence a. Ram likes Hanuman more than he (does)
And for possibility 2 we require sentence b. Ram likes Hanuman more than him.
(remember the table? he can replace only subjects and him can replace only
objects)
# Another common error is using an apostrophe after/ before the s in these
pronouns : yours, ours , hers, theirs, * its .So it is wrong to say : yours
faithfully or Yours faithfully. ( * but there is an exception. It is correct to use its
but one should be careful as this its is a short form of It is.. or It has.. This is
called a contraction and is very different from Its ) So, notice the subtle difference
between the two sentences : Its raining heavily and Its tail is very long.
REFLEXIVE AND EMPHATIC PRONOUNS

are pronouns ending in -self or selves.
Note: -self : singular. Eg HIMSELF, MYSELF, ITSELF etc but never THEMSELF,
OURSELF
-selves: plural eg THEMSELVES,OURSELVES but never
HIMSELVES,MYSELVES.
These pronouns are used in two cases:
CASE 1 :- to replace an object in a sentence wherein the object is the same entity
as the subject
Eg. In the sentence- Ram killed Ravan, try replacing Ravan with a pronoun.
Will it be Ram killed him
or
Ram killed himself ?
If we use himself, the sentence means Ram committed suicide ( the subject and
the object would be the same person Ram)
If we use him, the sentence means Ram killed somebody else ( Ravan, who is
entirely different from Ram)
CASE 2 :- to lay more emphasis on a person or thing.( hence the name emphatic)
For example look at the difference/change in meaning of the sentences before and
after the addition of a pronoun ending in self or selves.
I.
II.
I saw him stealing a car. And I myself saw him stealing a car
The parcel was received by Ram. And The parcel was received by
Ram himself.
Therefore Use these pronouns ending in -self or selves only for the above two
cases.
DEMONSTRATIVE PRONOUNS:
Singular
This
Plural
These
That
Those
These pronouns are used to point to persons and things. Hence the name
demonstratives. The difference between This and that is - That is used to refer to
things relatively farther away in the sense of distance/time.
So we say: This is mine and that is yours
These are mine; dont touch them.
Those are yours; you can have them .
And : These are hard times. Remember those good, old days!
RECIPROCAL PRONOUNS
Each other and one another are called reciprocal pronouns. The only thing that
we have to remember about them is that each other is used for two individuals
and one another for many.
So, - Rahul, Ravi and Seema have decided to help one another.( not each other)
Rahul and Ravi have always helped each other. ( not one another)
ANTECEDENTS OF PRONOUNS
Whatever comes before or is replaced by a pronoun is called its antecedent.
Look at the following example :
Ram is a good boy. He is always in time. ( Ram antecedent of the pronoun he)
Points to be taken care of:
1. Consistency between a pronoun and its antecedents.
Look at the following sentenceRavi has decided to change their stance. Here the pronoun their is
unsuitable as it is plural. What we require is a pronoun which can replace the
noun Ravi.(singular)
So we say- Ravi has decided to change his stance.
2. Ambiguous relation between antecedents and pronouns.
Imagine an army general giving an order like this- We can see that many
Indian States are infested with rebel groups; let us destroy all of these .
What will his soldiers destroy? The rebel groups? Or the Indian states that are
infested with these groups? This ambiguity is because the pronoun these can
refer to rebel groups as well as States. In short, rebel groups and states
can be both antecedents of the pronoun these and hence the ambiguity.
How then do we rectify this problem? Introduce a word or phrase that will
clarify what is the actual antecedent.For example say We can see that
many Indian States are infested with rebel groups; let us destroy all of these
rebel groups. The addition of the phrase rebel groups has made it clear that
the antecedent of the pronoun these can only be the rebel groups.
CLASS EXERCISE
Finally to sum up, give the following sentences to the students and ask them
to rewrite these sentences if necessary. The idea here is to reinforce
whatever we have learnt in the session so far. Please note that the given
sentences may or may not have any errors. This exercise will serve as a
foundation for grammar related questions ( like error spotting, error
replacement or fill in the blanks) that are commonly found in ALL kinds of
exams including placement exams.
a. The two brothers will never be able to find one another in this melee.
b. Anacondas are snakes with very large mouths and they are known to
devour creatures much larger than them.
c. Ram, Ravi and myself are responsible for the grand success of this project.
d. Sunita , you and me have been rusticated for being very irregular.
e. Seemas hair is much longer than her sister.
f. The university has decided to implement some changes in their policies.
g. It is evident that many Indian citizens keep wild animals as pets ; the
government will put all of them in jail.
h.
i.
j.
k.
l.
m.
n.
o.
Why dont you give the work to she ?

Hi everybody! Myself Dominic from Goa.
Sunils eyes are sharper than that of his brother.
Ravi can eat more ice-cream than me.
Lets not wait for the government ; lets do it ourself.
My relatives and me are well known in my native place.
If one is not careful with ones money, he will end up sing it wasting it.
Every expert in crime says that may times, its the money involved and
its subsequent benefits that cause people to take up crime.
Grammar (Topic) - Modals
Session Objective (Specific): To make students familiar with rules of Modals and to enable
them to use modals. Various modals and their examples will be introduced to students to enable
them to differentiate among modals.
Session Flow: (i) Please refer to/use the attached PPT on MODALS.
(ii) Trainers may also explain modals drawing a table on the whiteboard like the one given forth
below:
Past
Present
Future
Used to
..
..
Could/could have + v3
can
be able to
Needed to
need
Will need to
Dared to
dare
Will dare to
Should have + v3
should
...
Had to
Have to/Has to
Will have to
Must/may/might+have+
v3
Must/may/might+be+Vi
ng+
May/might
Would
..
will
Wrapping Up: Summarization of taught concept: (A planned wrap-up for the lesson)
Main modals are as- can, could, may, might, will, would, shall, ought to etc.
Modal is never used alone but with the main verb. Only the first form of verb can be used
after a modal.
Modals express such ideas as ability, possibility, probability, duty, obligation or

permission etc.
Student Exercise
Grammar - Modals
Exercises: Can, Could, Be able to
Fill in the correct form of can, could or be able to as in the examples.
_______ Tony run long distances when he was a boy?
______ you please call a tow truck for me? My car broke down. (polite)
The students _______ to buy their textbooks today. The bookstore is all out of them.
______ you teach me how to fix my computer? Youre so good at it.
______ you ______ reach the customer if you call him at 4:00 his time?
Exercises: May / Might

Fill in the correct form of may or might as in the example.
They ______ finish the project on time. The main engineer is ill.
You _____ want to stop by the museum gift shop on your way out.
_____ I have your autograph?
He _______ visit the Louvre. Hes in Paris anyway.
You ______ park your car here. Its reserved for guests of the hotel only.
Exercises: Should, Shouldnt, Ought To
Fill in should, shouldnt or ought in the following sentences as in the example.
You _____ get your teeth cleaned at least once a year.
The house ______ be ready to move into by next month. Its almost finished.
Ron ________ to improve his attitude. If he doesnt, he might get fired.
________ I get your jacket? Its cold in here.
You ________ put your feet on the table. Its not polite.
Exercises: Must, Have to, Need to, Dont have to, Neednt
Necessity or Requirement
Present and Future:
must / have to / need to + base form of the verb
You ____ have a passport to cross the border. (Necessity)
Elisabeth ____ apply for her visa by March 10th. (has to/have to)
I ____ to drop by his room to pick up a book. (Requirement)
Necessity/compulsion/requirement in the past
I ____ work late last night.
I ____ drink a few cups of coffee in order to stay awake.
Student Handout: Trainers should upload the same ppt to the Web SIM as
Handout for the students to refer.
Note: Click on the link to get connected to PPT on modals.
UNIT 1 SESSION 5
ACTIVE AND PASSIVE VOICES
Session Objective : To introduce students to Voices both active and passive. It is
to make them clear about the situations when passive sentences will be more
effective than active. It will help them to use correct helping verbs in active and
passive voices.
What is to be done :
1. Impart tips and strategies to change active to passive.

2. Students will solve the class exercise and discuss on some questions.
Faculty Guide
Begin the session with the tenses (active sentence) chart that has the correct usage
of auxiliary verbs, and then introduce them passive voices with the situations why
passive voices are important. Discuss the rules of passive voices in different
sentences (refer to the ppt). At the end of the session share some questions for
voice changes (active to passive or passive to active)
The ideal approach
1. Start the session with the activity that has some active sentences and some
passive sentence.
2. Ask students to discuss the difference between both the voices (on Grammar
rules and sentence structure)
3. Introduce concept of passive voices.
Unit 2 SESSION 1
PHRASAL VERBS
Session Objective: To make students understand the meaning and importance of
phrasal verbs. To let them know that phrasal verb are usually two-word phrases
consisting of preposition or adverb which creates a meaning different from the

original verb.
What is to be done:
3. Impart tips and strategies to solve questions (refer Faculty Guide for Class
flow)
4. Make students solve the class exercise and discuss some/all of the questions.
Faculty Guide:
Begin by citing few examples and getting the students to tell the meaning, like,
drop of - decline gradually
The hill dropped off near the river
drop of(2) - fall asleep
While doing his homework, he dropped off.
drop of(3) - stop and give something to someone
Would you drop this off at the post office?
drop out - cease to participate
After two laps, the runner dropped out.
Then, explain
What is a phrasal verb?
Many verbs in English are followed by an adverb or a preposition (also called a

particle), and these two-part verbs, also called phrasal verbs, are different from
verbs with helpers. The particle that follows the verb changes the meaning of the
phrasal verb in idiomatic ways
Some particles can be separated from the verb so that a noun or pronoun can be
inserted, and some particles can't be separated from the verb. In addition, some
phrases are intransitive, meaning they cannot take a direct object.
Separable
add up (meaning: to add)
Correct: She added up the total on her calculator.
Correct: She added it up on her calculator.
Inseparable
get around (meaning: to evade)
Correct: She always gets around the rules.
Incorrect: She always gets the rules around (This construction makes no
sense in English.)
Intransitive
catch on (meaning: to understand)
Correct: After I explained the math problem, she began to catch on.
Incorrect: She began to catch on the math problem. (catch on cannot take
a direct object in this meaning.)
Correct: She began to catch on to the math problem. (the word to makes
the math problem an indirect object, which is acceptable in this meaning.)
Why they are used?

Phrasal verbs and other multi-word verbs are an important part of the English
language.
However, they are mainly used in spoken English and informal texts. They should
be
avoided in academic writing where it is preferable to use a formal verb such as to
postpone
rather than to put off.
Phrasal verbs are part of a large group of verbs called multi-part or "multi-word
verbs.
The preposition or adverb that follows the verb is sometimes called a particle.
Transitive and intransitive phrasal verbs :
Some phrasal verbs are transitive. (A transitive verb always has an object.)
Example : I made up an excuse. ('Excuse' is the object of the verb.)
Some phrasal verbs are intransitive. (An intransitive verb does not have an
object.)
Example : My car broke down.
Separable or inseparable phrasal verbs :
Some transitive phrasal verbs are separable. (The object is between the verb and
the preposition.) Example : I looked the word up in the dictionary.
Some transitive phrasal verbs are inseparable. (The object is placed after the
preposition.)
Example : I will look into the matter as soon as possible.
Some transitive phrasal verbs can take an object in both places.
Example : I picked up the book.
I picked the book up.
However, if the object is a pronoun, it must be placed between the verb and the
preposition.
Example : I picked it up.
Grammar notes: phrasal verbs a-b
account for something
to explain
to give an explanation for something
Well, how do you account for the fact that there's `2,00,000 missing?
There's a lot of money not accounted for.
add something on (to)

to include in a calculation or on a list
It'll cost more once you've added the VAT on.
Buying a house is very expensive after you've added on the solicitor's costs.
OK, so we need a printer, a scanner and a webcam. What
speakers? Add them on to the list as well.
about
add something up
to total by adding
add up
to be satisfactory when you think about it
I've added all my expenses up and you owe me 250.
They say the company is very successful and there aren't any problems with staff,
suppliers or customers. But they're selling it at a very low price. It just doesn't add
up.
back down
to abandon your position in an argument
The argument lasted for hours because neither of them would back down.
He backed down when it became clear that nobody else supported him.
back out (of something)
to break an agreement
to not do what you said you would
The two companies were going to merge, but one of them backed out at the last
minute.
One company backed out of the deal because of rumours about the other
company's finances.
back someone/something up
to support
Everyone backed him up when he complained about the conditions at work.
I'll listen to your complaints about the conditions at work when you have some
evidence to back them up.
Whenever you write a new report, remember to back it up on CD.
back-up (noun)
If you have problems with the new system, just phone our office and our staff will
give you all the back-up
you need.
You must have a back-up copy in case anything goes wrong with the computer.
be down
to have decreased
to not be working (computers/phones)
Sales are down by nearly 30%, so we'll have to start thinking about reducing the
number of staff.
The computers are down again, so we can't get the plane tickets over the internet.
The phones were down for three days after the floods.
be in on something
to know something that isn't common knowledge
to be involved in something
The takeover was a complete surprise to me. Were you in on it?
I wasn't in on the plan at the beginning, but then someone asked me to join.
be of
to not be at work
She's not here. She's off today. I think she's got a hospital appointment.
That's the fourth time she's been off this month.
be out of something
to not have any more
The printer's out of ink again. Have you got another cartridge?
The machine's out of coffee. You'll have to have tea or chocolate.
be up
to have increased
Profits are up 60% this year, so we'll be able to pay a dividend.
Sales were up so much we had to employ extra staff.
boss someone around
to tell people what to do (often and needlessly)
You'd think he owned the company the way he bosses everyone around.
Stop bossing me around! I've been working here longer than you have.
branch out (into something)
to expand into new areas
If you want the company to grow, the business will have to branch out into new
areas.
We're involved in all areas of the hotel business now, but we started with a
restaurant and then branched out.
break down
to stop working
break something down (by)
to analyse
to show separately
We must get a new photocopier. This one's always breaking down.
I don't want a total figure. I want everything broken down by departments so I can
see who's spending what.
When you break the figures down by category, you can see that most of our
spending is on R&D.
breakdown (noun)
There was a breakdown on the tube this morning, so everyone got to work late.
I want a complete breakdown of all those figures.
bring something forward
to arrange to have or do earlier

Next week's meeting has been brought forward from Tuesday to Monday.
We've decided to bring the launch date forward to take advantage of the preChristmas increase in trading.
bring something out
to launch a product
They're bringing out a new line of summer clothing next month.
That's not a new computer program,. They brought that out years ago.
bring something up
to mention
Who brought up the question of wage rises in the meeting?
Well, I was waiting for the manager to bring it up, but he didn't. So I had to.
brush something up
to renew your knowledge of something
Either the existing staff will have to go to evening classes to brush up their Spanish,
or we'll have to employ
new staff who actually know the language.
If you brush your languages up, then that will help you get a better job.
Grammar notes: phrasal verbs c
call for something
to need
to demand
This situation calls for urgent action before it's too late.
The job calls for a great deal of tact as you'll be dealing with the public at all times.
You've been promoted to manager? This calls for champagne.
The shareholders are calling for a change in management because of last year's bad
results.
call something of
to cancel
We had to call off the meeting because the manager was on a trip.
No one told me you'd called it off. I came all the way from Barcelona!
call (someone) up
to phone
call something up (on the computer)
to look for and open
I tried to call you up to tell you about the meeting, but your mobile was switched
off.
It's difficult to get any work done because people are calling up all day.
I called up the document and added the new paragraphs.
When I tried to call the file up it wasn't there. I must have deleted it by mistake.
carry on
carry on (doing something)
carry on (with something)

to continue
Please don't let me interrupt you. Carry on as if I wasn't here.
The fire alarm is always ringing. Now people ignore it and carry on working.
I'll be out of the office this afternoon, so you can just carry on with whatever you
were doing this morning.
carry something out
to do
to complete or perform
The job was carried out by an outside consultancy firm.
We're carrying out a survey at the moment to see which of our products is the most
popular.
catch up (with someone)
to reach the same standard
catch up (on something)
(to reach the required standard)
to do work you should already have finished
You all know much more than I do about computers, but I haven't got time to study.
I'll never catch up.
You've already finished two reports today. I'll have to stay late to catch up with you.
I'm afraid there was no one to cover you when you were off sick last week, so
you've got a lot of work to
catch up on.
I'll just have a sandwich at my desk so I can catch up on the backlog.
change over (to something)
to change to a new system or position
Spain changed over to the euro at the beginning of 2002.
Your computer's got the program I need. We'll have to change over.
I'm on a late shift this week, but we change over next Monday.
We'll have to change over to a new computer system soon because the old system
is overloaded.
changeover (noun)
Everything seemed to be cheaper before the changeover to the euro.
We had nothing but problems with the computers for a couple of months after
the changeover.
climb down
to admit you were wrong
He had to climb down after his colleagues proved him wrong.
The others had a much stronger argument, and in the end he climbed down and
admitted they were right.
climb-down (noun)
First he said we couldn't have a pay rise, but then when we threatened to go on
strike he said he'd negotiate.
It was a complete climb-down.
close (something) down

to close permanently
If we don't improve production we'll have to close down the factory.
When the supermarket opened, the grocer's shop on the corner closed down.
close-down (noun)
The factory close-down made a lot of people unemployed.
come out
to be published or made public
When the annual report came out, there was a sudden rush to sell shares.
News of the merger came out last week. Now everyone's worried about losing their
jobs.
come up
to be mentioned, to appear
Did anything interesting come up in the meeting?
The idea of moving the company out of the city came up in the meeting.
A new vacancy has come up because one of the managers has retired.
come up against something
to meet or face
You come up against all sorts of discrimination when you work for a big company.
We came up against a number of problems when we tried to open a branch in
France.
come up with something
to think of
The manager's secretary came up with a really good idea in the meeting.
We've been trying to find a solution to the problem for a long time now, but we still
haven't come up with anything.
crack down (on something)
to act more strictly
Staff have been told they can't send personal emails from work. Management will
be cracking down in future.
If we want to save money we should begin by cracking down on personal phone
calls made from work.
crop up
to appear or happen unexpectedly
Something's cropped up, so I won't be able to come to the meeting.
If any problems crop up while I'm on holiday, just ask one of the other managers.
cross something/someone of (a list)
cross something out
to delete, to draw a line through
OK, I've phoned those two clients, so they can be crossed off.
The sales manager will be in London next week and can't come to the meeting, so
you can cross him off.
Yes or No. Cross out whichever doesn't apply.

That's not how you spell it. Cross it out and write it again.
cut back (on) (something)
to reduce
If sales continue to fall, we'll have to cut back production until things improve.
We were spending far too much money on entertaining clients, but we've managed
to cut back.
They need to cut back on their investment programme.
cut down (on something)
to reduce consumption
I'm still smoking too much. I've tried to cut down, but it's impossible.
If we cut down on photocopies we won't need to buy so much toner.
cut someone of
disconnect a phone call
I was just talking to someone in the sales department, but I was cut off.
I pressed the wrong button on the switchboard and cut him off. He'll phone back in a
minute.
Grammar notes: phrasal verbs d-f
deal with something/someone
to take action on something
to be responsible for
to have as its subject
to do business with
We should deal with the staff problems now before they get too serious.
The computer maintenance team can deal with any type of emergency.
The report deals with the introduction of new technology.
This company has many years of experience in dealing with customers from abroad.
We have been dealing with a number of multinationals ever since we opened our
office in London.
do away with something
to abolish
We've finally done away with the manual system for goods registration.
The profit margin has been much higher ever since the company did away with its
labour intensive production system.
drag on
to continue slowly and boringly
The meeting dragged on for hours and we still didn't come to a decision.
The chairman's speech seemed to drag on for ever. I had difficulty staying awake.
drag something out
to prolong unnecessarily
The presentation should only last two hours, but they want me to drag it out for
three.
It's usually a four-day course, but I can drag it out with some practice sessions if you
like.
draw something up
to prepare
to compose
If you decide to buy the company, we can draw up a contract within seven days.
We'll have to draw up a list of all the people who might want to attend the
conference.
end up as something
end up somewhere
end up doing something
to eventually become
to eventually find oneself/itself
She started in the company as a secretary. Who would have thought she would end
up as the managing director?
The plane was diverted because of fog, so we ended up in Barcelona instead of
Valencia.
That temporary secretary is completely useless! He made so many mistakes in the
report that I ended up doing it myself.
face up to something
to accept a situation and take action
You have to face up to the fact that things have changed since you opened the
company. You need to modernise.
We argued for hours, but he finally faced up to the problem and he's going to call a
meeting to discuss it next week.
fall of
to decrease
Sales have fallen off ever since we introduced the new packaging. Nobody likes it.
The number of people coming into the office has fallen off since we set up the
website.
fall through
to not succeed
The plans we had to relocate the company fell through because we couldn't get
planning permission.
We've put so much effort into this project that I'll be very annoyed if it falls through.
fill something in
to complete
fill in (for someone)
to substitute for someone at work
fill someone in (on something)
to give information about
Please fill in the application form and return it to us as soon as possible.
You have to fill in all the boxes marked with an asterisk, otherwise the computer
rejects it.
Our usual receptionist is on maternity leave at the moment, but one of the
secretaries is filling in for her.
I don't usually do this job. I'm just filling in.
Come into my office and I'll fill you in on everything that happened in the meeting.
Have you heard the news? Come down to the bar and I'll fill you in.
find (something) out
find out (about something)
to discover
Did you know that the sales manager is being replaced? I've only just found out.
You've got the number of his private line? How did you find that out? I've been
trying to get it for months.
He found out about the redundancy plans from the union representative.
fit in (with something/people)
to work well with others in a group
to complement or be in harmony with
fit something/someone in
to have/find enough time
The new designer fits in really well. The team has done some excellent work since
he arrived.
I think we'll have to terminate his contract because he doesn't fit in with the other
people in the office.
No, I don't want to expand abroad. That doesn't fit in with the plans I have for the
company.
Well, I'm busy on Monday and Tuesday, but I could fit you in on Wednesday morning
at about 11 o'clock.
Everyone's got lots of work, but we've got to fit the meeting in before the end of the
week.
Grammar notes: phrasal verbs g
get something across
to make people understand
The advertising campaign should get it across to people that our product is the best.
The company is in financial trouble, and this meeting has been called to get that
message across.
get down to something
to start
I'll just introduce everyone, and then we'll get down to business.
We've been chatting far too long. It's time we got down to some work.
get on (with something)
to continue
to progress
get on (with someone)
to have a good relationship

I must get on now or I'll never finish this report before the deadline.
You started a new job last month, didn't you? How are you getting on?
How are you getting on with that report? Nearly finished?
I wish my old boss hadn't retired. My new boss and I don't get on.
The old manager was very easy to get on with.
It's difficult to get on well with the new manager.
get through (to someone)
to contact by phone
At last! I've been ringing all morning. It's taken me ages to get through.
I was ringing you all day yesterday, but I couldn't get through.
I finally got through to the department I wanted, but they said it would be best to go
to the office in person.
give something away
to give without receiving payment
When we renewed our computer system we gave all the old equipment away to the
local secondary school.
It's such a terrible product you couldn't give it away.
give something out
to distribute
We'll be giving out copies of the chairman's speech at the end of the morning.
You need to give these feedback forms out before the end of the session. And make
sure you collect them back in again.
go ahead (with something)
to proceed
You're the expert. Go ahead and do whatever you think best.
I've spoken to the client and he says we can go ahead with the advertising
campaign.
go-ahead (noun)
Have you got the go-ahead for the plans yet?
We have to wait for the director to give us the go-ahead.
go along with something
to agree to
OK, I'll go along with that idea.
He never has any suggestions to make. He just goes along with what everyone else
says.
go down (well/badly etc)
to be received
The ideas we had for the future didn't go down well at the meeting.
How did your suggestion go down?
So you told your boss that he didn't know how to manage people. I can imagine how
that went down.
go into something
to talk about in detail
"What about the plans for the new building?" " We can go into that later, after this
meeting."
You don't need to go into all the details. Just tell me yes or no.
go on (with something)
go on (doing something)
to continue
go on
to happen
Sorry I'm late. Please go on.
OK, go on. I'm ready.
While everyone else was looking out of the window at what was happening in the
street, he just went on with his work.
She went on working until the day before she had the baby.
What's going on? Why isn't anyone working?
go through
to be completed successfully
go through something
to check/examine
to experience
If we get the buyer's signature this afternoon, the deal can go through by the end of
the week.
My application to join the club went through last month.
Go through your notes before the presentation to make sure you haven't forgotten
anything.
Don't mention taxes! We don't want to go through that again.
I don't want to go through a journey like that again. It took nine hours to get here
from Madrid.
go under
to go bankrupt
We'll have to cut the number of staff, otherwise the company will go under.
Some of our smaller competitors have gone under because they got into too much
debt.
Grammar notes: phrasal verbs h-l
hand something out
to distribute
Can you hand out the brochures to everyone who attends the presentation, please?
Wouldn't it be better to hand them out afterwards? People might not concentrate on
what we're saying otherwise.
hand-out (noun)
The hand-outs need to be photocopied.
Stop asking me for money! If you want a hand-out, ask someone rich!
hand something over
to give to someone else
When the managing director retired, she handed over the running
company to her son.
Responsibility will be handed over to you at the end of the financial year.
of the
handover (noun)
The official handover took place at the Shareholders' Annual Meeting.
hang on (and hold on)
to wait
hang on to something
to keep in your possession
Hang on a minute. I've just got to make a phone call.
Can you hang on while I check for you, or would you like me to ring you back?
Do we really need to hang on to these old files? They're all on computer now.
You should hang on to those old typewriters - they're really useful for completing
forms.
hit on something
to think of
We've hit on a brilliant idea for the new advertising campaign!
I think you've hit on something very important there.
hold on (see hang on)
hold something up
to delay
Sorry I'm late. I was held up by my last appointment.
We can hold the process up till the end of the week, but we'll need to have
everything ready for Monday.
hold-up (noun)
The leaflets aren't ready yet. There's been a hold-up at the printer's.
keep someone on
to not dismiss from work
When the factory closed, the only person kept on was the accountant.
I realise we'll have to lose a lot of the staff, but the minimum number we
need to keep on is twenty.
key something in
to type into the computer
All the new data needs to be keyed in. Make sure you take a break from time to time
so you don't strain your eyes.
The figures don't tally. Someone must have keyed the information in wrongly.
lay someone of
to dismiss from work
We're going to have to lay off some staff until we get some more orders.
It's seasonal work, so he generally gets laid off at the end of October.
lay-of (noun)
There's not much money around because of all the lay-offs at the factory.
leak out
to become known
News of the redundancies has leaked out, and now the union representatives want
to have a meeting with you.
Well, I don't know how that leaked out, but it was only discussed by the Board of
Directors yesterday.
look down on someone
to consider inferior
He looks down on everyone else because he's the only one in the department who
went to Oxford.
He's not the right person to be in charge of customer services because he looks
down on anyone who hasn't got the same accent as he has.
look forward to something
to anticipate with pleasure
I look forward to hearing from you.
I'm looking forward to the weekend. At last I'll be able to have a good rest.
look into something
to investigate
What about that problem with the agency? Have you looked into it yet?
I apologise for the delay. We're looking into the causes now, and hope to have
everything back to normal by this afternoon.
look up
to improve
look something up
to find information (when you know where it is)
We've got new orders worth 25,000. Things are looking up at last!
Things must be looking up - we're getting a Christmas bonus this year!
Can you look the phone number up for me, please?
I looked it up in the dictionary, but it wasn't there. Maybe it's under a different
spelling.
look up to someone
to respect
If the staff don't feel they can look up to you, then you can't be the right person for
the job.
Everyone looked up to the old manager because he always listened to what people
had to say.
Grammar notes: phrasal verbs m-p
make something out
to manage to see or hear
make it out to someone
to write a cheque
What's this figure here in the accounts? I can't make it out.
You'll really have to improve your accent when you speak Spanish. I can't make
out what you're saying.
Who shall I make it out to?
Shall I make the cheque out for cash?
make up for something
to compensate for
At least the sales contract from the Ministry will make up for the orders we
lost because of the transport strike.
When everyone comes back from holiday we'll have to work extra hours to make up
for lost time.
miss something out
to not include
Can you check through the list and see if I've missed anything out?
If you miss out the @ in an email address, the message won't get sent.
own up (to something)
to admit to
OK. Own up! Who's taken my cigarettes?
The boss is never going to forget about that report being lost. I suppose I
should own up to having left it in a taxi.
pass someone over
to not consider for promotion
If they pass me over for promotion again this year I'm going to find a new job.
He's depressed because he's been passed over again.
pay something of
to finish paying money you owe
Once we pay off the bank loan, we'll be able to invest our profits in the company.
If you took out a 25-year mortgage in 1995 to buy your house, it won't be paid
off until 2020.
phase something in
to introduce gradually
The changes in pension contributions can be phased in gradually as people join the
firm.
We'll be phasing the changes in over the next few years so as to minimise
disruption to the production process.
pick up
to improve
pick something up
to learn by experience
Sales are often slow in the summer. Things should pick up around October.
If orders don't pick up soon we'll have to think about reducing production.
Probably the best way to learn the job is to sit with one of the staff and see what
they do. You'll soon pick it up.
The new secretary speaks four languages. Apparently she picked them up while
travelling around Europe.
point something out
to draw attention to
I really must point out how important this meeting is. The company's future
depends on it.
I pointed it out to him in the meeting but he didn't seem to think it was important.
pull something of
to succeed in doing something
The negotiations went on and on, but he finally pulled off the deal.
He's pulled it off! We've won the order!
pull out (of something)
to not continue
Once the other company discovered the size of the order, they pulled out.
We made it completely clear that we wouldn't sell for less than 3m, so the
buyer pulled out of the deal.
put something forward
to make a suggestion
The new manager put forward her ideas for cutting costs as soon as the meeting
started.
She wanted a ban on overtime, but I put that forward at the last meeting and
everyone thought it was a terrible idea.
put in for something
to request officially
I've put in for three weeks' holiday next August, but they probably won't let me
have more than two.
There's a job going now that the Head of Personnel has retired. Why don't you put in
for it?
put something of
to postpone
put someone of
to dissuade
to distract
The report isn't finished yet, so we'll have to put the meeting off until next week.
The expansion programme has been put off until the economy improves.
What do you mean, he wants to come to the office this afternoon? Can't
you put him off?
Can I borrow your office? The roadworks outside my window are putting me off my
work.
put someone through
to connect by phone
Hello, could you put me through to the Sales Department, please?
I'm sorry, you were put through to this extension by mistake. I'll transfer you to the
right department.
Grammar notes: phrasal verbs r-s
reckon on something
to expect
He's decided to resign from his job? Well, I hadn't reckoned on that happening.
I think we can probably reckon on a minimum of 25 people coming to the training
course.
ring (someone) back
to phone again
He'll be in the office after 3 o'clock, if you'd like to ring back then.
Sorry, I've got a meeting now. I'll ring you back as soon as it's finished.
ring of
to end a phone call
I was speaking to him earlier, but his boss called him into the office so he rang
off without telling me the news.
I'll have to ring off now because the meeting's about to start. See you later.
rule something/someone out
to eliminate
So who gets the manager's job when he leaves? Well, both of us can be ruled
out because we've only been working here six months.
If we lower the prices of our products, we can't rule out the possibility that our
competitors will do exactly the same.
run out (of something)
to have no more
I can't print any more copies. The ink's run out.
I can't print any more copies. The printer's run out of ink.
run through something
to check by repeating
I want to run through the presentation just once more to make sure I've got it right.
Let's run through the names again and see if we can think of anyone else.
rush into something
to decide too quickly
I'm not going to rush into anything now. Leave me the details and I'll look at them
when I have a bit more time.
Let's not rush into a decision on this. Think about it over the weekend, and we'll
meet back here at 10 o'clock on Monday morning.
scale something down
to reduce in size
We're going to have to scale down the plans for expansion until there's an upturn in
the economy.
Your projected costs will have to be scaled down. Remember, there are other
departments that want money for new equipment too!
see to something
to do, to deal with
I'll see to the arrangements for next week's meeting if you deal with the work
outstanding for today.
The photocopier needs seeing to. It hasn't been working properly for at least a
week.
set someone back something
to cost
I know that this building isn't big enough for us now, but a new building will set the
company back millions of pounds.
The new equipment we bought for the R&D Department set us back over 500,000.
set of
to leave on a journey
I had to book you on the early flight because the usual one was full. You'll need
to set off really early.
If we set off from here at around eleven, we should be there in plenty of time for the
meeting.
set something up
to start, to establish, to install equipment
The company was set up by the current director in 1987.
We can set up a committee to look at the possibility of changing the company's
pension scheme.
Set up the screen and the camera in front of the table so we can see them and
they'll be able to see us.
shoot up
to increase rapidly
The number of accidents in the factory has shot up recently. We'll have to check our
safety measures because something's clearly going wrong.
The price of raw materials is shooting up, and soon we'll have to think about
passing the cost on to the consumer.
sink in
to be slowly understood
How long is it going to take to sink in? The company's in trouble and something
needs to be done about it now!
The news of the company cutbacks may take a while to sink in, but you should
prepare yourself to deal with lots of queries from the staff.
sort something out
to solve a problem
I'll speak to you as soon as I've sorted out this problem with the Inland Revenue.
We're still having problems with the internet connections. I thought you were going
to sort it out.
speak up
to speak more loudly
I'm sorry, this is a very bad line. Can you speak up?
You'll have to speak up or the people at the back won't be able to hear.
stand for something
to represent
This company has always stood for quality and reliability, and that's not going to
change.
The letters R&D stand for Research and Development.
stand in (for someone)
to take someone's place
I'm sorry, I can't help you. I'm just standing in (for her) until she comes back to work
tomorrow. Could you ring back then?
The personnel manager's just phoned in sick, so we need to find someone to stand
in for him on the training course.
step something up
to increase
If we get any more orders we'll need to step up production.
The speed with which we deal with complaints needs to be stepped up.
sum (something) up
to summarise the main points
So, to sum up, the main points to remember are that we need to find new markets,
invest in new
technology....
If I had to sum it up in one word, I would say that the image of this company is
reliability.
Grammar notes: phrasal verbs t-z
take something down
to note information
You'll need to take down everything we say in the meeting, enter it on the
computer, then print it out and give everyone a copy.
OK, I'll take down all your details and then your complaint can be passed to the
relevant department.
take something on
to assume responsibility
to employ
Your secretary can take on the extra work until we find a permanent replacement.
I don't really want to be promoted because I don't want to take on the extra
responsibility.
We'll need to take on extra staff over the summer to cover the people on holiday.
take something out

to obtain a legal or official document
The company can take out a short-term loan to pay for the new computer system,
and then pay it back with the money saved by reducing the number of staff.
We took out extra insurance to cover possible losses caused by computer viruses.
take something over
to gain control
take over from someone
to replace
The shop was taken over by one of its competitors.
We took the company over in 1996, and since then we have doubled profits.
We need to recruit a new secretary to take over from yours while she's on maternity
leave.
touch on something
to mention
I'd like to touch on a number of subjects in this meeting.
The manager didn't touch on the subject of staff reductions in the meeting with the
union rep.
turn something down
to refuse, reject, to reduce
I'm afraid your application has been turned down again.
I'd love to accept your offer of a job, but I'll have to turn it down because I'm happy
with my present
company.
It's so hot in this office! Can't we turn the heating down?
turn (something) out
to produce
turn out to be
turn out that
to end as
Once we get the new machinery installed, the factory will be able to turn out twice
the number of cars it produces today.
Your plan for cutting costs turned out to be very successful, so we've decided to
give you a bonus.
It turned out that the new manager went to school with the director, but they hadn't
seen each other for 20 years.
walk out
to leave in protest
The factory staff walked out when they heard that the union representative had
been disciplined for attending a meeting.
If you walk out now you won't have the opportunity to come back!
weigh something up
to assess
We'll have to weigh the situation up very carefully before we take any action.
I weighed up all the pros and cons before I decided to leave the old job and take the
new one.
wind (something) down
to reduce business
The business has been winding down ever since the director left it to his brother.
When production was relocated to Manchester, the London branch was
gradually wound down.
work something out
to solve a problem
work out
to be all right in the end
Can you give me a hand? I can't work this calculation out at all.
I've read the instructions, but I still can't work out how this program works.
UNIT 2 SESSION 2
Intro to Reading Comprehension

Objectives:
Why is Reading Comprehension important

Discuss various strategies to improve Reading Comprehension
Classroom Reading exercises.
By the end of the session, students will be able to:
Understand and Implement various strategies to improve their Reading
Comprehension
Session Flow:
This module explores comprehension strategies and their benefits. Examine
descriptions of each type of comprehension strategy, instructional implications for
teaching comprehension, and sample lessons.
Although word recognition, decoding, and fluency are building blocks of effective
reading, the ability to comprehend text is the ultimate goal of reading instruction.
Comprehension is a prerequisite for acquiring content knowledge and expressing
ideas and opinions through discussion and writing.
Comprehension is evident when readers can:
Interpret and evaluate events, dialogue, ideas, and information
Connect information to what they already know
Adjust current knowledge to include new ideas or look at those ideas in a

different way
Determine and remember the most important points in the reading
Read between the lines to understand underlying meanings
Comprehension strategies work together like a finely tuned machine. The reader
begins to construct meaning by selecting and previewing the text. During reading,
comprehension builds through predicting, inferring, synthesizing, and seeking
answers to questions that arise. After reading, deeper meaning is constructed
through reviewing, rereading portions of the text, discussion, and thoughtful
reflection. During each of these phases, the reader relates the text to his own life
experiences.
Comprehension is powerful because the ability to construct meaning comes from
the mind of the reader. Therefore, specific comprehension instructionmodeling
during read-alouds and shared reading, targeted mini-lessons, and varied
opportunities for practice during small-group and independent readingis crucial to

the development of strategic, effective readers.
Types of Comprehension Strategies

There are six main types of comprehension strategies (Harvey and Goudvis; 2000):
1. Make ConnectionsReaders connect the topic or information to what they
already know about themselves, about other texts, and about the world.
2. Ask QuestionsReaders ask themselves questions about the text, their
reactions to it, and the author's purpose for writing it.
3. VisualizeReaders make the printed word real and concrete by creating a
movie of the text in their minds.
4. Determine Text ImportanceReaders (a) distinguish between what's
essential versus what's interesting, (b) distinguish between fact and opinion,
(c) determine cause-and-effect relationships, (d) compare and contrast ideas
or information, (e) discern themes, opinions, or perspectives, (f) pinpoint
problems and solutions, (g) name steps in a process, (h) locate information
that answers specific questions, or (i) summarize.
5. Make InferencesReaders merge text clues with their prior knowledge and
determine answers to questions that lead to conclusions about underlying
themes or ideas.
6. SynthesizeReaders combine new information with existing knowledge to
form original ideas, new lines of thinking, or new creations.
Students quickly grasp how to make connections, ask questions, and visualize.
However, they often struggle with the way to identify what is most important in the
text, identify clues and evidence to make inferences, and combine information into
new thoughts. All these strategies should be modeled in isolation many times so
that students get a firm grasp of what the strategy is and how it helps them
comprehend text.
However, students must understand that good readers use a variety of these
strategies every time they read. Simply knowing the individual strategies is not
enough, nor is it enough to know them in isolation. Students must
know when and how to collectively use these strategies.
Teaching Strategies
Modeling through think-alouds is the best way to teach all comprehension

strategies. By thinking aloud, teachers show students what good readers do. Thinkalouds can be used during read-alouds and shared reading. They can also be used
during small-group reading to review or reteach a previously modeled strategy.
Wilhelm (2001) describes a think-aloud as a way to:
Create a record of the strategic decision-making process of going through

text
Report everything the reader notices, does, sees, feels, asks, and
understands as she reads
Talk about the reading strategies being used within the content being read
There are many ways to conduct think-alouds:
The teacher models the think-aloud while she reads aloud, and the students
listen.
The teacher thinks aloud during shared reading, and the students help out.
Students think aloud during shared reading, and the teacher and other
students monitor and help.
The teacher or students think aloud during shared reading while writing on an
overhead, on self-stick notes, or in a journal.
Students think aloud in small-group reading, and the teacher monitors and
helps.
Students individually think aloud during independent reading using self-stick

notes or a journal. Then students compare their thoughts with others.
(Wilhelm, 2001)
When you introduce a new comprehension strategy, model during read-aloud and
shared reading:
1. Decide on a strategy to model.
2. Choose a short text or section of text.
3. Read the text ahead of time. Mark locations where you will stop and model
the strategy.
4. State your purposename the strategy and explain the focus of your thinkalouds.
5. Read the text aloud to students and think aloud at the designated points.
6. If you conduct a shared reading experience, have students highlight words
and phrases that show evidence of your thinking by placing self-stick notes in
the book.
7. Reinforce the think-alouds with follow-up lessons in the same text or with
others.
(Wilhelm, 2001)
Use the following language prompts to model the chosen strategy :
Make Connections
1. This reminds me of a time when I
2. I know about this topic because I
3. The setting of this book is just like
4. This book is something like
5. What's going on in this book is just like what's happening in
Ask Questions
1. Before I read this text, I wonder about
2. While I'm reading, I try to figure out
3. After I read, I ask myself
4. I wonder why
5. What does this word mean?
6. Why did ____________ do that?
7. What is going to happen next?
8. Why did the author put that part in there?
9. I have questions about this part because it doesn't make sense. I need to
make sure I read it right. If I reread and fix a mistake, that might answer my
question.
Visualize
1. The author gives me a picture in my mind when he or she describes
2. I can really see what the author talks about when he or she
3. I can draw a picture of what the author describes.
Determine Text Importance
1. I know these parts of the story are important because they match my
purpose for reading, which was
2. I believe the author thinks ____________ is important because
3. I think the author's opinion about _____ is ______ because
4. This text uses the (cause/effect, problem/solution, description,
compare/contrast, sequence/steps in a process) text structure. I can use a
graphic organizer to help me understand it.
5. I see lots of information right here. I need to identify which parts are
important and which parts are just interesting.
6. All these ideas are important, but I think some are more important than
others. I need to determine which ideas are the most important.
7. This (chart, table, graph, time line) helps me understand that
8. These (boldfaced words, font changes, bullets, captions) help me locate what
is important.
9. Let me take the big ideas and summarize the text.
Make Inferences
1. The author says this, but means
2. If I read between the lines, the author tells me that
3. The clues to prove my inference are
4. Because of what the author said, I know that
5. From the clues or information the author gives, I can conclude that
6. I think that ____________ will happen next because the author says
____________.
Synthesize
1. This story or passage is really about My views on this are
2. My opinion of _________ is
3. I first thought ________ about the topic. Now I think

4. I've read a lot of information. Let me stop and think about this for a minute.
5. My judgment of this information is
6. From this information, I can generalize that
Additional Tips
Revisit the same text to model more than one strategy. For example, on Monday,
use a text to model what's important versus what's interesting. On Tuesday, use the
text to model how to identify big ideas. On Wednesday, use the big ideas to
summarize and synthesize.
Extend the text as a reader-response activity. For example, on Monday, use a text
as a shared reading lesson to model how cause-and-effect relationships help
determine text importance. On Tuesday, extend thinking: map the cause-and-effect
relationships onto graphic organizers, synthesize big ideas, and draw conclusions.
Sample Shared Reading Lesson

Strategy: Determine Text Importance (Main Idea/Supporting Details)
Text: greeting card, Benchmark Education Company's Comprehension Strategy
Poster Safety Signs
Day 1
1. Say: Sometimes when we read a piece of text, we have a hard time choosing
the most important parts. This lesson will help us learn to do that. Here is a
card that I received. First I'll think of the main idea about the card, and then
I'll think of some details that help to prove the main idea. This isn't a playing
card or a note cardit's a greeting card. That is the most important concept.
I'll write This is a greeting card on the graphic organizer where it reads Main
Idea.
2. Read the card aloud to students.
3. Use the following think-aloud to model how to determine details: Now I'll
think of some details about the card. These details describe the main idea
and let people know that the main idea is true. I'll look for details that prove
that this is a greeting card. First, I see that the card has a picture on the
front. I'll write It has a picture in the first Supporting Details box. Next, I
notice that the card is signed by the person who sent it. I'll write It has a
signature in the next Supporting Details box. Can you think of another detail
about the greeting card? Let's add that to the graphic organizer.
Day 2
1. Say: Yesterday we looked at a greeting card and identified the main idea and
supporting details. Today we're going to read a text about road signs and pay
attention to what the words tell us. Please listen to find out the main idea and
supporting details of the text.
2. After reading aloud the text, draw a main idea and supporting-details graphic
organizer on chart paper. Ask students to help complete it with information
from the text. If they have difficulty, guide them with the following prompts:
Main Idea: Read the title and the first sentence. Ask: Is the author telling us the
main idea here? Model thinking about the strategy: The title of the selection
is Signs. This is the topic, which gives us a clue about the main idea. In the first
sentence, the author states that it is easy to read road signs if you look at their
colors. That sounds as though it is an important concept the author wants us to
know about signs. Now I'll keep reading to see what types of signs the author
mentions to support this idea.
Supporting Details: Read the second, third, and fourth sentences. Ask: Does the
author tell us supporting details here? How do you know? Model your thinking: The
author describes three different colors of signsred stop sign, a yellow be
careful sign, and an orange work sign. These examples support the main idea that
colors help us read road signs.
Sample Small-Group Reading Lesson

Strategy: Determine Text Importance (Implied Main Idea/Supporting Details)
Text: Benchmark Education Company's text PlantsLevel 12 (G)
Part 1
Use a real-life example to model how to infer.
Say: Listen carefully to the following sentence: Even though the children wore heavy
coats, they were shivering as they waited for the bus. I'm giving you a hint as to
what season it might be. I don't tell you, but you can use the clues in the sentence
to infer that it is winter. Many times, authors do not directly state information in the
text. To be good readers, we have to infer as we read. We use clues and evidence to
figure out what the author hints or implies.
We're going to find an implied main idea for two different parts of a book. We know
that the main idea is the most important information that the writer wants us to
understand. In this case, the topic is plants. We'll need to think carefully about what
the authors tell us about plants so that we can understand the implied main idea.
Remember, the main idea will not be directly stated.
Create a graphic organizer.
To activate students' prior knowledge about plants, creating a KWL chart. Record
what they already know about plants in the K column and what they would like to
know in the W column. Tell them that they will complete the L column after they
read.
Topic: Plants
K
(What I Know)
(What I Want to Know)
Plants have roots and leaves.
What other plant parts are

there?
Plants need water and light to

grow.
We can eat plants.
L
(What
I Learned)
How does a plant get water?

How does a plant get food?
What parts of a plant can we
eat?
Do we use plants in other ways?
Some animals eat plants.

How can we grow a plant?
Preview the book.

Hold up the book. Ask: What do you see in the photograph on the cover? What do
you think the girl is doing? What kind of plant is shown on the cover?
Look at the title page. Ask: What do you think these children are doing? How are
plants involved? What things are the children using as they work with the plants?
Preview the photographs in the book, reinforcing the language used in the text. For
example, say: On page 2, I see three kinds of plants. What are some ways that
plants are alike?
Set a purpose for reading.
Say: I want you to see if you can find answers to the questions on our KWL
chart. Monitor students' reading and provide support as necessary.
Discuss the reading and complete the graphic organizer.
Ask students to share answers to any questions from the KWL chart that they found
during the reading. Complete the L column of the chart.
Topic: Plants
K
(What I Know)
(What I Want to
Know)
Plants have roots

and leaves.
What other plant Plants have roots, leaves, stems, and

parts are there? flowers.
Plants need water

and light to grow.
(What I Learned)
How does a plant Water falls as rain. The ground soaks it up.
get water?
The roots help get water from the ground.
How does a plant The leaves use light from the sun to make
get food?
food.
What parts of a
plant can we eat? We can eat some roots, stems, leaves,
We can eat plants.
Do we use plants flowers, and seeds.
in other ways?
Some animals eat
plants.
How can we grow We can put soil and a seed in a cup, water it,
a plant?
and give it sunlight to grow our own plant.
Sample Small-Group Reading Lesson

Part 2
Model how to determine the implied main idea utilizing a graphic

organizer.
Remind students that to infer means to understand clues and evidence that the
author has provided for us in the text. Implications are not directly stated.
Say: The first part of the book (pages 211) gives me many details about the parts
of a plant. One detail is that roots help a plant stay in the ground. The book also
tells me that roots help a plant get water. I'll write these facts in the first Supporting
Details box. Now I'll look for other details to add to my chart. Leaves make food for
the plant. Stems take water to the leaves and flowers. Flowers make seeds. New
plants grow from seeds. All these details tell me how the parts of a plant help it
grow and stay alive. Even though the author didn't directly state this as the main
idea, the clues and evidence imply it. I'll write this on the chart where it reads Main
Idea #1.
Main Idea/Supporting Details
Topic: Plants
Part 3
Guide students to identify the second implied main idea.
Briefly review pages 1216. Then ask students to select the most important details
and use those as clues and evidence to find the implied main idea. If students need
additional modeling and think-alouds, complete the remainder of the graphic
organizer together. If they seem to understand the concept, allow them to complete
the graphic organizer in small groups, pairs, or individually. Monitor their work and
provide guidance as necessary. Allow time for students to share their recorded
information.
Main Idea/Supporting Details
Topic: Plants
Student Handout
How to Improve you Reading Comprehension
1. Monitoring comprehension
Students who are good at monitoring their comprehension knows when they
understand what they read and when they do not. They have strategies to "fix"
problems in their understanding as the problems arise. Research shows that
instruction, even in the early grades, can help students become better at
monitoring their comprehension.
Comprehension monitoring instruction teaches students to:
Be aware of what they do understand
Identify what they do not understand
Use appropriate strategies to resolve problems in comprehension
2. Metacognition
Metacognition can be defined as "thinking about thinking." Good readers use
metacognitive strategies to think about and have control over their reading. Before
reading, they might clarify their purpose for reading and preview the text. During
reading, they might monitor their understanding, adjusting their reading speed to fit
the difficulty of the text and "fixing" any comprehension problems they have. After
reading, they check their understanding of what they read.
Students may use several comprehension monitoring strategies:
Identify where the difficulty occurs
"I don't understand the second paragraph on page 76."
Identify what the difficulty is
"I don't get what the author means when she says, 'Arriving in America was a
milestone in my grandmother's life.'"
Restate the difficult sentence or passage in their own words
"Oh, so the author means that coming to America was a very important event in her
grandmother's life."
Look back through the text
"The author talked about Mr. McBride in Chapter 2, but I don't remember much
about him. Maybe if I reread that chapter, I can figure out why he's acting this way
now."
Look forward in the text for information that might help them to
resolve the difficulty
"The text says, 'The groundwater may form a stream or pond or create a wetland.
People can also bring groundwater to the surface.' Hmm, I don't understand how
people can do that Oh, the next section is called 'Wells.' I'll read this section to
see if it tells how they do it."
3. Graphic and semantic organizers

Graphic organizers illustrate concepts and relationships between concepts in a text
or using diagrams. Graphic organizers are known by different names, such as maps,
webs, graphs, charts, frames, or clusters.
Regardless of the label, graphic organizers can help readers focus on concepts and
how they are related to other concepts. Graphic organizers help students read and
understand textbooks and picture books.
Graphic organizers can:
Help students focus on text structure "differences between fiction and

nonfiction" as they read
Provide students with tools they can use to examine and show relationships
in a text
Help students write well-organized summaries of a text
Here are some examples of graphic organizers:
Venn-Diagrams
Used to compare or contrast information from two sources. For example, comparing
two Dr. Seuss books.
Storyboard/Chain of Events
Used to order or sequence events within a text. For example, listing the steps for
brushing your teeth.
Story Map
Used to chart the story structure. These can be organized into fiction and nonfiction
text structures. For example, defining characters, setting, events, problem,
resolution in a fiction story; however in a nonfiction story, main idea and details
would be identified.
Cause/Effect
Used to illustrate the cause and effects told within a text. For example, staying in
the sun too long may lead to painful sunburn.
4. Answering questions
Questions can be effective because they:
Give students a purpose for reading
Focus students' attention on what they are to learn
Help students to think actively as they read
Encourage students to monitor their comprehension
Help students to review content and relate what they have learned to what
they already know
The Question-Answer Relationship strategy (QAR) encourages students to learn how

to answer questions better. Students are asked to indicate whether the information
they used to answer questions about the text was textually explicit information
(information that was directly stated in the text), textually implicit information
(information that was implied in the text), or information entirely from the student's
own background knowledge.
There are four different types of questions:
"Right There"
Questions found right in the text that ask students to find the one right answer
located in one place as a word or a sentence in the passage.
Example: Who is Frog's friend? Answer: Toad
"Think and Search"
Questions based on the recall of facts that can be found directly in the text. Answers
are typically found in more than one place, thus requiring students to "think" and
"search" through the passage to find the answer.
Example: Why was Frog sad? Answer: His friend was leaving.
"Author and You"
Questions require students to use what they already know, with what they have
learned from reading the text. Student's must understand the text and relate it to
their prior knowledge before answering the question.
Example: How do think Frog felt when he found Toad? Answer: I think that Frog felt
happy because he had not seen Toad in a long time. I feel happy when I get to see
my friend who lives far away.
"On Your Own"
Questions are answered based on a students prior knowledge and experiences.

Reading the text may not be helpful to them when answering this type of question.
Example: How would you feel if your best friend moved away? Answer: I would feel
very sad if my best friend moved away because I would miss her.
5. Generating questions
By generating questions, students become aware of whether they can answer the
questions and if they understand what they are reading. Students learn to ask
themselves questions that require them to combine information from different
segments of text. For example, students can be taught to ask main idea questions
that relate to important information in a text.
6. Recognizing story structure

In story structure instruction, students learn to identify the categories of content
(characters, setting, events, problem, resolution). Often, students learn to recognize
story structure through the use of story maps. Instruction in story structure
improves students' comprehension.
7. Summarizing
Summarizing requires students to determine what is important in what they are
reading and to put it into their own words. Instruction in summarizing helps
students:
Identify or generate main ideas
Connect the main or central ideas
Eliminate unnecessary information
Remember what they read
Effective comprehension strategy instruction is explicit

Research shows that explicit teaching techniques are particularly effective for
comprehension strategy instruction. In explicit instruction, teachers tell readers why
and when they should use strategies, what strategies to use, and how to apply
them. The steps of explicit instruction typically include direct explanation, teacher
modeling ("thinking aloud"), guided practice, and application.
Direct explanation
The teacher explains to students why the strategy helps comprehension and when
to apply the strategy.
Modeling
The teacher models, or demonstrates, how to apply the strategy, usually by

"thinking aloud" while reading the text that the students are using.
Guided practice
The teacher guides and assists students as they learn how and when to apply the
strategy.
Application
The teacher helps students practice the strategy until they can apply it
independently.
Effective comprehension strategy instruction can be accomplished through
cooperative learning, which involves students working together as partners or in
small groups on clearly defined tasks. Cooperative learning instruction has been
used successfully to teach comprehension strategies. Students work together to
understand texts, helping each other learn and apply comprehension strategies.
Teachers help students learn to work in groups. Teachers also provide modeling of
the comprehension strategies.
UNIT 2 SESSION 3
NARRATION
Session Objective: To introduce students to Narration both direct and indirect. It
will help them to use correct tenses, verbs, adverbs, pronoun, and other changes in
direct and indirect narration.
What is to be done:
1. Impart tips and strategies to change from direct to indirect and vice versa.
2. Students will solve the class exercise and discuss on some questions.
Faculty Guide
Begin the session by introducing Narration and explaining the difference between
Direct and Indirect speech. Then discuss the changes in tenses, pronouns, verbs,
adverbs and other changes which come along when converting from Direct to
Indirect. Exercises in the presentation will help to understand the concept better.
The entire session flow is clearly indicated in the attached PPT. The ppt also
contains Exercises/quizzes to be done the class.
UNIT 3 SESSION 1
Session Objective: To make the students aware of parallelism
in sentence
formation and to emphasize the function of modifiers in writing sentences.
What is to be done:
1. Faculty to go through the following information ( titled Faculty
Guidance+ the parallelism document and the modifiers) before
the class.
2. The concept of parallelism has been explained with the help of a
number of examples in the initial part of the document. One
reading through this should be sufficient to make the idea clear as
the concept deals with symmetry and the idea of series. The
practice exercise will clarify this idea further.
3. The latter part of this document contains input related to the
concept and applications related to modifiers, i. e. Adjective and
Adverb: this consists of a number of issues regarding the use of
modifiers.
4. Conduct the class on the basis of this document and initiate a
discussion along the lines here. This document tries to describe
the role of parallelism not only in the context of writing sentences
but also in terms of understanding the meaning of these
sentences. Theres also the idea of redundancy associated with
parallelism that can be discussed by the trainer to throw light on
the idea. As the latter section of this document throws light on the
use of modifiers, the trainer can make a list of these issues/ideas
and can discuss them first.
5. Finally, make the students read the attached content and attempt
the questions at the end of this document. These questions carry a
lot of variety and can serve as the practice exercise for this
session.
F aculty Guidance: The concept of parallelism has been explained with

the help of a number of examples in the initial part of the document. One
reading through this should be sufficient to make the idea clear as the
concept deals with symmetry and the idea of series. The practice exercise
will clarify this idea further.
This idea becomes clearer when the trainer compares the wrong sentences
with the correct sentences, In order to achieve this objective, this document
carries a number of examples along these lines, thus, a discussion along
these lines should be very helpful.In addition to this, a number of scenarios
where the idea of parallelism is expected, have been described towards the
middle part of this document. The trainer can discuss examples along the
lines of these scenarios.
Both Adjectives and Adverbs have been described with their definition and
application in this document. The trainer can encourage students to look into
the mistakes they make in their everyday lives, while using these modifiers.
A constructive approach towards language- correction is advised. As this
document describes a number of mistakes people make while using
modifiers, a discussion on both the correct and incorrect sentences should
pave the way for fruitful results in this direction.
The information in this document has been given in a way that should facilitate
learning even for a layman, thus it is advised that the examples be explained to the
students first. The definition and the related explanation can be done after that. The
practice exercise at the end of the document is meant to explain the point further.
Parallelism:
Definition: Parallelism refers to using elements in sentences that are
grammatically similar or identical in structure, sound, meaning, or meter. This
technique adds symmetry, effectiveness and balance to the written piece.
Not Parallel:
The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and in a
detailed manner.
Parallel:
The production manager was asked to write his report quickly, accurately, and
thoroughly.
Not Parallel:
The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute
to study for the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and his
motivation was low.
Parallel:
The teacher said that he was a poor student because he waited until the last minute
to study for the exam, completed his lab problems in a careless manner, and lacked
motivation.
Clauses:
A parallel structure that begins with clauses must keep on with clauses. Changing to
another pattern or changing the voice of the verb (from active to passive or vice
versa) will break the parallelism.
Not Parallel:
The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not
eat too much, and to do some warm-up exercises before the game.
Parallel:
The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, that they should not
eat too much, and that they should do some warm-up exercises before the game.
Parallel:
The coach told the players that they should get a lot of sleep, not eat too much, and
do some warm-up exercises before the game.
Not Parallel:
The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there
would be time for him to show his slide presentation, and that questions would be
asked by prospective buyers. (passive)
Parallel:
The salesman expected that he would present his product at the meeting, that there
would be time for him to show his slide presentation, and that prospective buyers
would ask him questions.
Lists after a Colon: Be sure to keep all the elements in a list in the same
form.
Not Parallel:
The dictionary can be used to find these: word meanings, pronunciations, correct
spellings, and looking up irregular verbs.
Parallel:
The dictionary can be used to find these: word meanings, pronunciations, correct
spellings, and irregular verbs.
Strategies: Pause at the words "and" and "or." Check on each side of these words
to see whether the items joined are parallel. If not, make them parallel.
If you have several items in a list, put them in a column to see if they are parallel.
Listen to the sound of the items in a list or the items being compared. Do you hear
the same kinds of sounds? For example, is there a series of "-ing" words beginning
each item? Or do your hear a rhythm being repeated? If something is breaking that
rhythm or repetition of sound, check to see if it needs to be made parallel.
Parallelism in Sentences: simple sentences
You need to work quickly and decisively.
He was a prolific author, writing poems, short stories, novels, and screenplays.
Like father, like son.
This is not only just what I wanted, but also just what I needed.
Congress needs to either reduce spending or raise taxes.
She is sneaky and manipulative.
In the parade the Boy Scouts presented the colors, the band marched and the
mayor rode in a convertible.
The escaped criminal was wanted dead or alive.
Mother was very busy gathering the laundry, dusting the furniture and washing the
dishes.
Easy come, easy go.
How you live your life is more important than how many millions you have.
To survive you need: water, food and shelter.
I want to have both a new house and a new wardrobe.
For exercise, I prefer swimming to calisthenics.
You may respond by calling, visiting or e-mailing.
What goes around comes around.
I am neither a Catholic nor a Protestant.
My favorite foods are pizza, chocolate, steak and donuts.
He likes television shows that have deep characters, interesting stories and good
actors.
My face is washed, my hair is combed and my teeth are brushed.
We are giving away our furniture, selling our house and moving to Spain.
Flying is fast, comfortable, and safe.
To succeed in life, you need to take advantage of opportunities and to follow your
dreams.
The problem was not in planning or in development, but rather in production.
Whether in class, at work or at home, Shasta was always busy.
Vote for Thomas because he is intelligent, caring, honest and hardworking.
Nancy read a book while Joe watched television.
Examples of parallelism in longer texts:

My fellow Americans, ask not what your country can do for you, ask what
you can do for your country. - John F. Kennedy
In the Beatitudes from the book of Matthew in the Bible, they begin with Blessed
are the ... as in Blessed are those who mourn, for they will be comforted
and Blessed are the meek, for they will inherit the Earth.
"I dont want to live on in my work. I want to live on in my apartment." - Woody
Allen
"Today's students can put dope in their veins or hope in their brains. If they can
conceive it and believe it, they can achieve it. They must know it is not their
aptitude but their attitude that will determine their altitude." - Jesse Jackson
"For the end of a theoretical science is truth, but the end of a practical science is
performance." - Aristotle
My fellow citizens: I stand here today humbled by the task before us, grateful for
the trust you have bestowed, mindful of the sacrifices borne by our ancestors. Barack Obama
These different sentences and blocks of text show how parallelism works and how it
can be used as a useful literary tool.
Words or Phrases in a Series (Parallelism)
Phrases in a series need to be in the same form in order to make sense easily in a
sentence. That is, if you have a series of coordinate (equally important) phrases in a
sentence, you need to put them into the same grammatical form (all '-ing' words, all
past tense, all starting with nouns, etc.).The form itself doesn't matter; the
consistency does.
Objective behind parallelism: Avoiding The Repetition of Words in Writing.
When using parallel structure, the main rule to remember is that the things in the
list must be the same grammatical form. This is best summed up in the following:
The items in the list must be all nouns, all infinitives, all prepositional
phrases, all gerunds, or all clauses.
There are a number of situations which require you to use parallel
structure:
Both X and Y . . .
Not X but Y
Not only X but also Y . . .
Neither X nor Y . . .
Either X or Y . . .
Remember the rule of parallel structure: the words in the list must be the same
grammatical form. In this situation, the X and Y must be the same grammatical
form.
Practice Exercise:
Q1.Henry James Sr. liked reading and writing philosophy, discussing his ideas with
his sons William and Henry, and to offer opportunities to his children to pursue
whatever interests they developed.
Correction: Henry James Sr. liked reading and writing philosophy, discussing his
ideas with his sons William and Henry, and offering opportunities to his children to
pursue whatever interests they developed.
Q2.William James was a famous psychologist, writer, philosopher, and belonged to
the illustrious James family; he was a not-so-famous artist.
Correction: William James was a famous psychologist, writer, philosopher and
member of the illustrious James family; he also was a not-so-famous artist.
Q3.Henry James Jr., William's brother, wrote many short stories and novels,
becomes part of the English literary scene, although he was an American, and
completing a major revision of his already published works toward the end of his
life.
Correction: Henry James Jr., William's brother, wrote many short stories and
novels, became part of the English literary scene (although he was American) and
completed a major revision of his already published works toward the end of his life.
Q4.Alice James, William and Henry's sister, experienced a life in her father's and
siblings' shadows, consulted numerous doctors about her nerves, had a series of
breakdowns and never fully realizes a life of her own.
Correction: Alice James, William's and Henry's sister, experienced a life in her
father's and siblings' shadows, consulted numerous doctors about her nerves, had a
series of breakdowns and never fully realized a life of her own.
Modifiers:
Adjectives:
Adjectives are words that describe or modify another person or thing in the
sentence.
Adjectives can also be defined as words that describe nouns, pronouns, or
verbs that show feeling or states of being ("feel" or "be").
Adjectives add to the reader's understanding by adding fuller information.
The Articles a, an, and the are adjectives.
If a group of words containing a subject and verb acts as an adjective, it is called an
Adjective Clause : My sister, who is much older than I am, is an engineer.
If an adjective clause is stripped of its subject and verb, the
resulting modifier becomes an Adjective Phrase: He is the man who is
keeping my family in the poorhouse.
Adjectives nearly always appear immediately before the noun or noun
phrase that they modify, however, When indefinite pronouns such as
something, someone, anybody are modified by an adjective, the adjective
comes after the pronoun
Anyone capable of doing something horrible to someone nice should be
punished. Something wicked this way comes.
And there are certain adjectives that, in combination with certain words, are
always "postpositive" (coming after the thing they modify):
The president elect, heir apparent to the Glitzy fortune, lives in New York
proper.
Adjectives which already express an extreme of comparison unique, for
instance although it probably is possible to form comparative forms of most
adjectives: something can be more perfect, and someone can have a fuller figure.
absolute
impossible
principal
adequate
inevitable
stationary
chief
irrevocable
complete
sufficient
main
unanimous
devoid
manifest
unavoidable
entire
minor
fatal
paramount
final
perpetual
universal
ideal
preferable
whole
unbroken
unique
The as as construction is used to create a comparison expressing equality:
He is as foolish as he is large.
She is as bright as her mother.
Occasionally, the comparative or superlative form appears with a determiner and

the thing being modified is understood:
Of all the wines produced in Connecticut, I like this one the most.
The quicker you finish this project, the better.
Of the two brothers, he is by far the faster.
Less versus Fewer:

When making a comparison between quantities we often have to make a choice
between the words fewer and less. Generally, when we're talking about countable
things, we use the word fewer; when we're talking about measurable quantities that
we cannot count, we use the word less. "She had fewer chores, but she also had
less energy."
We do, however, definitely use less when referring to statistical or

numerical expressions:
It's less than twenty miles to Dallas-less is what,' the distance'
He's less than six feet tall-what is less, the height.
Your essay should be a thousand words or less-what should be less, the essay
or the length of the essay.
We spent less than forty dollars on our trip-spent what, the amount/money.
The town spent less than four percent of its budget on snow removal-four
percent of what, the budget.
Taller than I / me :
We also want to be careful in a sentence such as "I like him better than she/her."
The "she" would mean that you like this person better than she likes him; the "her"
would mean that you like this male person better than you like that female person.
(To avoid ambiguity and the slippery use of than, we could write "I like him better
than she does" or "I like him better than I like her.")
The Order of Adjectives in a Series:
I.
Determiners articles and other limiters. See Determiners
II.
Observation postdeterminers and limiter adjectives (e.g., a real hero, a
perfect idiot) and adjectives subject to subjective measure (e.g., beautiful,
interesting)
III.
Size and Shape adjectives subject to objective measure (e.g., wealthy,
large, round)
IV.
Age adjectives denoting age (e.g., young, old, new, ancient)
V.
Color adjectives denoting color (e.g., red, black, pale)
VI.
Origin denominal adjectives denoting source of noun (e.g., French,
American, Canadian)
VII.
Material denominal adjectives denoting what something is made of (e.g.,
woolen, metallic, wooden)
VIII. Qualifier final limiter, often regarded as part of the noun (e.g., rocking
chair, hunting cabin, passenger car, book cover)
1.The deliberate and brutal aggression integral to some forms of competitive
athletics..........
2.The old, beautiful, French painting was kept in a small, black, metal box.
Collective Adjectives: When the definite article, the, is combined with an
adjective describing a class or group of people, the resulting phrase can act as a
noun: the poor, the rich, the oppressed, the homeless, the lonely, the unlettered,
the unwashed, the gathered, the dear departed. The difference between a
Collective Noun (which is usually regarded as singular but which can be plural in
certain contexts) and a collective adjective is that the latter is always plural and
requires a plural verb:
The rural poor have been ignored by the media.
The rich of Connecticut are responsible.
The elderly are beginning to demand their rights.
The young at heart are always a joy to be around.
Adverbs: Adverbs are words that can modify a verb, an adjective and another
adverb in a sentence. Usually, adverbs can be identified with the suffix, ly,
however, not all the adverbs carry this suffix. Thus, it becomes important to identify
these words on the basis of their function.
The usual placement of these adverbs is, immediately after the appearance of the
first verb (usually, the helping verb) in a sentence (though, there are other issues
related to this aspect).
Quite, an adverb, only describes adjectives.
It's important to note that adverbs do not describe all verbs; they describe only
action verbs and not "state of being" verbs (such as "feel" or "be"). "State of being"
verbs use adjectives to describe them. In other words, the person who ate too much
food feels "bad," not "badly," since the descriptive word here refers to a feeling or
state of being and not an actual action.
Good versus Well :In both casual speech and formal writing, we frequently have
to choose between the adjective good and the adverb well. With most verbs, there
is no contest: when modifying a verb, use the adverb.
He swims well/He knows only too well who the murderer is.
However, when using a linking verb or a verb that has to do with the five
human senses, you want to use the adjective instead.
How are you? I'm feeling good, thank you.
After a bath, the baby smells so good.
Even after my careful paint job, this room doesn't look good.
Many careful writers, however, will use well after linking verbs relating to health,
and this is perfectly all right. In fact, to say that you are good or that you feel good
usually implies not only that you're OK physically but also that your spirits are high.
"How are you?"
"I am well, thank you."
Bad versus Badly :When your cat died (assuming you loved your cat), did you feel
bad or badly? Applying the same rule that applies to good versus well, use the
adjective form after verbs that have to do with human feelings.
You felt bad.
If you said you felt badly, it would mean that something was wrong with your
faculties for feeling.
variations of the word "bad," which can be used as either an adjective or an
adverb: "Feel badly" is rarely correct. Use "feel badly" only if you are trying to say
that your sense of touch is impaired.
Adjective:
I feel bad about the accident I caused. ("Feel" in this sentence is used as a "state of
being" verb describing the person's emotional state, so the adjective form is
correct)
Adverb:
I feel badly when my hands are cold from cleaning the freezer. ("Feel" is
used as an action verb here to denote the act of using one's hands, so the adverb
form, "badly," is correct.)
I feel bad when my child is ill. ("Feel" in this sense is used as a state of being, so
the adverb form, "badly," is not correct.
She runs exceptionally good. (adj.)
She runs exceptionally well.(adverb)
Compound Nouns and Modifiers:

The formation of modifiers when words are connected: a four-year-old child, a
nineteenth-century novel, an empty-headed fool.
The ten feet tall, black stone idol of Lord Krishna was kept at the entrance
of the ashram.
Adjective-Participles: Adjectives that are really Participles, verb forms with -ing
and -ed endings, can be troublesome for some students. It is one thing to be a
frightened child; it is an altogether different matter to be a frightening child. Do
you want to go up to your professor after class and say that you are confused or
that you are confusing? Generally, the -ed ending means that the noun so described
("you") has a passive relationship with something something (the subject matter,
the presentation) has bewildered you and you are confused. The -ing ending means
that the noun described has a more active role you are not making any sense so
you are confusing (to others, including your professor).
Exercise: order of Adjectives
1. He was wearing a ________ shirt.
dirty old flannel
flannel old dirty
old dirty flannel
2. Pass me the ________ cups.
plastic big blue
big blue plastic
big plastic blue
3. All the girls fell in love with the ________ teacher.
handsome new American
American new handsome
new handsome American
4. I used to drive ________ car.
a blue old German
an old German blue
an old blue German
5. He recently married a ________ woman.
young beautiful Greek
beautiful young Greek
beautiful Greek young

6. This is a ________ movie.
new Italian wonderful
wonderful Italian new
wonderful new Italian
7. She is a ________ supermodel.
beautiful slim Brazilian
Brazilian beautiful slim
slim Brazilian beautiful
8. It's in the ________ container.
large blue metal
blue large metal
blue metal large
9. He sat behind a ________ desk.
big wooden brown
big brown wooden
wooden big brown
10. She gave him a ________ vase.
small Egyptian black
black Egyptian small
small black Egyptian
ans; 1,2,1,3,2,3,1,1,2,3
UNIT 3 SESION 2
PARAJUMBLES
Session Objective : To introduce students to parajumbles a kind of question that is
commonly asked in all kinds of competitive exams(including Placement Exams) and
to impart methods/strategies that will help in solving this kind of question.
What is to be done :
5. Impart tips and strategies to solve parajumble questions (refer Faculty Guide
for Class flow)
6. Make students solve the class exercise and discuss some/all of the questions.
Faculty Guide
Begin the class by defining what parajumble questions are - questions wherein
numbered sentences from the same context/paragraph are given but in a jumbled
sequence. They have to be rearranged in the most logical sequence from among the
given options.
The ideal approach
4. Do not begin by eliminating the answer options. First read and understand
the given sentences one by one.
5. Look for clues that suggest mandatory pairs/ sequences in the given
sentences.
6. Eliminate the options on the basis of the mandatory pairs/ sequences that
you have established.
Clues that suggest mandatory pairs/ sequences :
A. Obvious openings or endings- Sometimes in the given sequence one
might see obvious openings or endings. For example, look at the following
sequence of sentences numbered i. to iv.
i.
The plastic particles are found in three size ranges microplastic (less than
4.75 mm), mesoplastic (4.75-200 mm) and macroplastic (above 200 mm).
ii.
This estimate takes into account the amount of plastic waste found in the
shorelines, on the seabed and in the water column .
iii.
Believe it or not, nearly 269,000 tonnes of plastic comprising an estimated

5.25 trillion plastic particles are present in the worlds oceans.
iv.
All of these size ranges are equally harmful and all nations should consider
phasing them out.
In the above example, Sentence c) introduces the entire idea. It gives us a general
idea of what is going to come in the sequence the polluting presence of plastic.
This is clearly the introductory sentence. On the other hand, look at sentence d) . It
includes a suggestion (of phasing out) that can help in alleviating the problem. It
also has a certain sense of finality to it. This is the closing or ending.
B. Pronouns As we know, they are mostly replacers. When we see one, we
should check if the antecedent is present in any of the other sentences. If
so, quickly establish a link between the sentence containing the pronoun
and the sentence containing the antecedent.
For example, examine the following sentences Ravi Duggal ,the CEO of Dabur is of the opinion that Europe is a potential
market for Dabur products. He should know as he has spent an entire year touring
all across Europe, researching on this matter.
Focus on the underlined words. Both are pronouns. It is also quite apparent that
Ravi Duggal is the antecedent of both the pronouns.
C. Possessive and demonstrative adjectives. Possesive adjectives are words
like his,her,your,their,our etc. In fact , they are derived from pronouns and
the same approach described for pronouns can be applied here.
Demonstrative adjectives are words like this, that,these,those and they
can also be used like adjectives and the same applies to these words.
Look at the following sentencesBelieve it or not, nearly 269,000 tonnes of plastic comprising an estimated 5.25
trillion plastic particles are present in the worlds oceans. This estimate takes
into account the amount of plastic waste found in the shorelines, on the seabed
and in the water column . The word This is an example of a demonstrative
adjective. It is also evident that this estimate refers to the nearly 269,000
tonnes of plastic mentioned in the previous sentence.
D. Chronology There might be a sequence in terms of time. If so make sure
to arrange the sentences in a logical order. One word of caution-- logical
sequences might be in chronological or reverse chronological order. Make
sure you do not break this order.
Refer to the following paragraphs Buddhism originated in India and spread to China about four centuries
after the time of the historical Buddha Skyamuni (fifth to fourth
century, b.c.). It was transmitted to Japan from China via the Korean
peninsula around the middle of the sixth century A.D. It took around 3
centuries after this for the religion to gain ground and eventually flourish.
By the 10th century A.D, 90% of the Japanese population had adopted
Buddhism.
Today is the day Mary accepted Roberts proposal of marriage (back in
1946). They met for the first time in 1945 and over the next twenty
months exchanged many letters. What Elizabeth did not know was that
Robert was already married and had three children. This marriage was
solemnized in the year 1933, the year Roberts father died.
What we need to notice here is the fact that the first paragraph is
organized in a chronological order. Events are listed in the order of the
year in which they took place. The second paragraph is different. Notice
the years 1946 is followed by 1945 and eventually by 1933 in the
narrative. This is what we call a reverse chronological order. Both the
paragraphs are logically organized and any change in the order would
have interrupted the natural order of things.
E. Linking words/phrases These are words used mostly at the beginning of
the sentence to indicate its relation to the previous idea. Look at the
following examples :
i.
Words/phrases like : Therefore, As a result, Consequently,.etcThese indicate a cause- effect relation between the two consecutive
ideas.
ii.
Words/phrases like : On the other hand, Nevertheless,Nonetheless

etc. These indicate a contrast/contradiction between two
consecutive ideas.
iii.
Words/phrases like : Moreover,Furthermore,Also, Inaddition etc

These Indicate the beginning of an extra/additional information.
There can be countless other such examples. The moot point here is one
should be on the look-out for linking words/phrases. They will tell us what
is to be expected in the sentence before that. Use this as a clue to
establish a mandatory pair.
F. Relation between Point and Examples : This is an inherent relation

between two ideas. A sentence might present a point and there could be
another sentence which presents an example of that point. Notice this
relation and establish a mandatory pair. Look at the following eg.
India is a land of contradictions . The struggle between the ancient
spiritualism and modern materialism, the friction between the majority
communitys religion and the other religions India nurtures, the battle for
power between the central and state governments (to name a few ) have
tormented the country for decades. At the same time, these dualities have
strengthened the young nation, helping India become more pluralistic and
resilient.
In this paragraph, It is evident that the second sentence
presents examples of the contradictions mentioned in the first sentence.
Hence a mandatory pair is established here.
G. Relation between questions and answer or problems and solution: In many
questions we might come across two sentences such that one presents a
question/problem and the other presents an answer/solution to the same.
Establish a mandatory right then and there.
For example: What avenue is your wandering soul searching for ?

What ,in short, are you looking for ? Look no further than your inner self ;
therein lies not only the answer to your quest but also the key to unlock
the entire consciousness of the cosmos. We can observe that the first
sentence presents a questions, the second summarises the question and
the third provides the answer. This sequence of ideas should, therefore ,
never be broken.
CLASS EXERCISE
Re-arrange the sentences marked with letters to form a logical sequence and
choose the correct option.
1)
A. For example, when the early homo-sapiens left their homes in search for food,
they would risk death and injury from dangerous animals.
B. Throughout human history, the universe has presented an innumerable amount
of dangers to explorers.
C. Today, many adventure enthusiasts seek to find the thrills and adrenaline rush
which their ancestors had experienced in the wild.
D. The tradition of humans going out to experience the dangers of unknown nature
still exists.
1) ABCD
2) ABDC
3) BADC
4) DABC
Ans. 3) BADC
2)
A. If you are used to having your stimulation come in from outside, your mind never
develops its own habits of thinking and reflecting
B. Marx thought that religion was the opiate, because it soothed people's pain and
suffering and prevented them from rising in rebellion
C. If Karl Marx was alive today, he would say that television is the opiate of the
people.
D. Television and similar entertainments are even more of an opiate because of
their addictive tendencies.
1) BACD
2) ADBC
3) BDCA
4) CBDA
Ans. 4) CBDA
3)
A. By the time he got to Linjeflug four years later, he had learned many lessons, in
fact, he began his second stint as top dog by calling the entire company together in
a hanger and asking for help, a far cry from his barking out commands just 48
months back.
B. At SAS, he arrived at a time crisis.
C. This book is chock-a-block full of intrusive stories and practical advice, describing
Carton's activities at Vingresor (where he assumed his first presidency at age 32),
Linjeflug, and SAS in particular.
D. He began at Vingresor as an order giver, not a listener - neither to his people nor
to his customers and made every mistake in the book.
1) BADC
2) BACD
3) CBAD
4) CDAB
Ans. 4) CDAB
4)
A. The potential exchanges between the officials of IBBF and the Maharashtra BodyBuilding Association has all the trappings of a drama we are accustomed to.
B. In the case of sportspersons, there is room for some sympathy, but the apathy of
the administrators, which has even led to sanctions from international bodies, is
unpardonable.
C. A case in the point is the hefty penalty of US $10,000 slapped on the Indian BodyBuilding Federation for not fulfilling its commitment for holding the Asian
Championships in Mumbai in October.
D. It is a matter of deep regret and concern that the sports administrators often
cause more harm to the image of the country than sportsmen and sportswomen do
through their dismal performances.
1) CABD
2) DBCA
3) DABC
4) CDBA
Ans. 2) DBCA
5)
A. Then two astronomers-the German, Johannes Kepler, and the Italian, Galileo
Galilei-started publicly to support the Copernican theory, despite the fact that the
orbits it predicted did not quite match the ones observed.
B. His idea was that the sun was stationary at the centre and that the earth and the
planets move in circular orbits around the sun.
C. A simple model was proposed in 1514 by a Polish priest, Nicholas Copernicus.
D. Nearly a century passed before this idea was taken seriously.
1) CDBA
2) CBDA
3) BCAD
4) CADB
Ans. 2) CBDA
6)
A. Its cargo consisted of 38 sacks of spices and Magellan himself had been hacked
to pieces on the beach of Mactan in the Phillipines
B. So contrary to popular belief it was the crew of the Victoria who were the first
men to have sailed around the globe
C. In September 1522 Victoria , the sole survivor of the Armada, limped into the
spanish port San Lucar , manned by a skeleton crew of 15, so weak they could not
talk
D. In September 1519 the Armada de Molucca of five ships and 250 sailors has set
out from San lucar de Barrameda under the command of Fernando de Magellan
E. It was to sail to the spice islands of the Malayan Archipelago where they were to
exchange an assortment of bells , mirrors , and scissors for cinnamon and cloves.
1) DECAB
2) AEDCB
3) CDEAB
4) DEABC
Ans. 1) DECAB
7)
A. Michael Hofman, a poet and translator, accepts this sorry fact without approval or
complaint.
B. But thanklessness and impossibility do not daunt him.
C. He acknowledges too in fact he returns to thepoint often that best translators of
poetry always fail at some level.
D. Hofman feels passionately about his work, and this is clear from his writings.
E. In terms of the gap between worth and rewards, translators come somewhere
near nurses and street cleaners.
1) EACDB
2) ADEBC
3) EACBD
4) DCEAB
Ans. 3) EACBD
8)
A. To, much of the Labour movement, it symbolises the brutality of the upper
classes.
B. And to everybody watching, the current mess over foxhunting symbolises the
governments weakness.
C. To foxhuntings supporters, Labors 1991 manifesto commitment to ban it
symbolises the partys metropolitan roots and hostility to the countryside.
D. Small issues sometimes have large symbolic power.
E. To those who enjoy thundering across the countryside in red coats after foxes,
foxhunting symbolises the ancient roots of rural lives.
1) DEACB
2) ECDBA
3) CEADB
4) DBAEC
9)
A. In the case of King Merolchazzars courtship of the Princess of the Outer Isles,
there occurs a
regrettable hitch.
B. She acknowledges the gifts, but no word of a meeting date follows.
C. The monarch, hearing good reports of a neighbouring princess, dispatches
messengers with gifts
to her court, beseeching an interview.
D. The princess names a date, and a formal meeting takes place; after that
everything buzzes along
pretty smoothly.
E. Royal love affairs in olden days were conducted on the correspondence method.
1) ACBDE
2) ABCDE
3) ECDAB
4) ECBAD
Ans. 3) ECDAB
10)
A. Luckily the tide of battle moved elsewhere after the American victory at Midway
and an Australian victory over Japan at Milne Bay.
B. It could have been no more than a delaying tactic.
C. The Australian military, knowing the position was hopeless, planned to fall back
to the south-east in the hope of defending the main cities.
D. They had captured most of the Solomon Islands and much of New Guinea, and
seemed poised for
an invasion.
E. Not many people outside Australia realize how close the Japanese got.
1) EDCBA
2) ECDAB
3) ADCBE
4) CDBAE
Ans. 1) EDCBA
11)
A. The wall does not simply divide Israel from a putative Palestinian state on the
basis of the 1967 borders.
B. A chilling omission from the road map is the gigantic 'separation wall' now being
built in the West Bank by Israel.
C. It is surrounded by trenches, electric wire and moats; there are watchtowers at
regular intervals.
D. It actually takes in new tracts of Palestinian land, sometimes five or six
kilometres at a stretch.
E. Almost a decade after the end of South African apartheid, this ghastly racist wall
is going up with
scarcely a peep from Israel's American allies who are going to pay for most of it.
1) BCADE
2) BADCE
3) AEDCB
4) ECADB
Ans. 2) BADCE
12)
A. The celebrations of economic recovery in Washington may be as premature as

that "Mission Accomplished" banner hung on the USS Abraham Lincoln to hail the
end of the Iraq war.
B. Meanwhile, in the real world, the struggles of families and communities continue
unabated.
C. Washington responded to the favourable turn in economic news with enthusiasm.
D. The celebrations and high-fives up and down Pennsylvania Avenue are not to be
found beyond the Beltway.
E. When the third quarter GDP showed growth of 7.2% and the monthly
unemployment rate dipped
to 6%, euphoria gripped the US capital.
1) ACEDB
2) CEDAB
3) ECABD
4) ECBDA
Ans. 4)
UNIT 3 SESSION 3
Critical Reasoning
Session objective : To introduce students to the topic of Critical Reasoning. This is a
concept which cannot be learnt through theory alone. Hence after discussing the
concept, application of the concept should be stressed upon.
What is to be done:
3. Introduce the concept of Critical Reasoning (refer Faculty guide)
4. Discuss the application of the concepts using the exercise.
Faculty guide:
Definition:
In the term critical thinking, the word critical, (Grk. = kritikos = critic)
derives from the word critic, and identifies the intellectual capacity and the means
of judging, of judgement, for judging, and of being able to discern. Thus,
Critical thinking is the study of clear, reasoned thinking.
Critical reasoning questions compose a little less than one fourth of all the questions
on the verbal section of the Placement Paper. What the Placement Paper expects is
that the test-takers must take the role of an outside observer and identify and/or
judge parts of the argument. This is a vital task in the business world: to be able to
come to a new and unfamiliar situation, quickly determine the relevant information
and the causal relationships, and judge whether a particular conclusion is merited,
or what additional information may be needed to verify that conclusion.
Question Structure:
Every critical reasoning question has three componentsan argument, a question
stem, and answer choices. The argument is a short passage (three to four
sentences, on average) that explains a specific situation; the question stem
defines your task in that particular question; and the answer choices either
provide new evidence or list possible inferences, assumptions, conclusions, or flaws.
Understanding the Structure of Critical Reasoning Questions
One of the basic but essential skills for Critical Reasoning questions is to understand
the structure of the arguments, for example, recognizing the conclusion or an
assumption. You cannot evaluate, weaken, or strengthen a conclusion if you do not
know what was concluded. You cannot find an assumption if you do not know what
an assumption is. So lets learn to identify structural parts of the arguments.
In general, CR arguments include three types of information:
Evidence (factual information), stated or unstated Conclusion (based on the
evidence), and Assumptions (unstated but essential information). Lets see how to
identify each of these.
-Evidence is factual information presented as true, and its truthfulness must be
accepted. Evidence can be identified by the presence of dates (last year, in 2003,
over the last decade) or data (percentages, statistics, general info) and can be
introduced by words such as because, since, owing to, according to, etc. The
function of the evidence is to provide grounds for the conclusion, to support it.
-Conclusion is the main point that the argument attempts to make. It is often
placed at the very beginning or end of the argument. An argument often introduces
conclusion with words such as so, therefore, mean that, indicate that, etc. . A good
way to identify a conclusion is to find the one sentence or phrase in the argument
that best conveys its message.
For example:
Lets identify the Conclusion and Evidence in the following Question.
Question : Jyoti knows everything about college admission, because she
has been working for us since the college was established in 2009.
Therefore, she will be the best choice for this position.
To identify the main conclusion, think about the purpose of this argument. What
does the author seek to prove? What is the one statement that captures the
message of this paragraph?
Jyoti will be the best choice for this position (Conclusion )
All the other information in this argument is only there to support this statement,
so that is the main conclusion of the argument; you also could identify it by the
presence of the word therefore.
Hence, the conclusion is WHAT the author thinks and the evidence is WHY the
author thinks so.
- Assumptions are not stated in the argument, but they are vital to the arguments
logic. Some assumptions are obvious; others are more subtle.
Lets identify the assumption in the following Argument:
Argument: Jatin did not feed his dog today; therefore, Rex must be
hungry.
Evidence is the factual information: Jatin did not feed his dog.
Conclusion is what the author tries to prove: Rex must be hungry.
Assumption is information that must be true to maintain the logic of the argument
but is not explicitly stated. For example, in the above argument, to derive the
conclusion, from the evidence, the following must be true.
It must be true (assumed) that Rex is Jatins dog;
It must be true (assumed) that Rex cannot find food on his own;
Each of these statements is an essential, but unstated, part of the argument; each
must be true for the argument to remain valid. Hence , each of these statements is
an assumption made in the argument.
Now you have learned how to recognize stated and unstated but essential parts of
CR arguments.
How to tackle the different types of Critical Reasoning questions?

1. Conclusion
How to recognize a conclusion question:
You can be certain that you are dealing with a Conclusion problem if you see a
question stem similar to one of the following:
Which
Which
Which
Which
of
of
of
of
the
the
the
the
following
following
following
following
is a valid conclusion?
best represents the theme of the passage?
can be concluded from the passage given above?
must be true?
How to solve a Conclusion Question-
The argument in a Draw a Conclusion question typically consists of a series of

facts. The word argument is in quotes because there usually isnt a real argument,
or major claim, made in the question. Our first task is to read the argument and
make sure that we understand what we have (and have not) been told. The test
writers want us to find the answer choice that must be true according to the given
premises (the information in the argument); we should not be able to argue with the
correct answer. The test writers are not asking us to infer anything.
Lets solve a question:
Question: William Shakespeare was an actor, poet, and playwright. His
plays are timeless because he deals with the motivating forces behind the
daily choices that man makes. He expresses himself in a lyrical way. He
was born in England in 1564 and died in 1616. He understood man so well
that what he had to say years ago still is appropriate about man today. He
continues to influence many philosophers and writers.
It can safely be conclude that
A. That Shakespeare couldn't understand the people in his time.
B. That people are able to relate to Shakespeare's characters.
C. Shakespeare was most successful as an actor.
D. No one reads Shakespeare's plays.
The best way to solve Conclusion questions is to make sure you know what you
know and you know what you dont know. Look for the answer choice you can prove
to be true, based upon the premises. Eliminate anything that doesnt have to be
true!
In the question given above, all sentences are premises/evidence.
Premise 1: William Shakespeare = actor, poet, and playwright.
Premise 2: His Plays motivate man for daily choices
Premise 3: Understood man well his work is appropriate even today
On evaluating the answer choices available, Option A is incorrect as the passage
does not support the idea. Option B seems correct as the author builds this up in
Premise 3. Option C is invalid as the passage does not support it. Option D is also
incorrect as the author has suggested mentioned just the opposite in the passage.
Thus Option B is correct.
2. Strengthen
How to recognize a Strengthen Question
You can be absolutely certain that you are dealing with a Strengthen problem if you
see a question stem similar to one of the following:
Which
Which
Which
Which
of
of
of
of
the
the
the
the
following,
following,
following,
following,
if
if
if
if
true,
true,
true,
true,
most strongly supports the conclusion above?

does most to justify the authors point of view?
would most strengthen...?
provides the most support for the argument above?
Although easily recognizable, Strengthen questions require you to spot the answer
choice supported BY the argument.
How to solve a Strengthen Question
A Strengthen argument typically will consist of a premise or two plus a conclusion
based on the information in the premises. The first step in effectively strengthening
an argument is to identify its conclusion. Even though some questions might ask
you to support the whole argument, not specifically its conclusion, remember that it
is still the authors opinion that we want to strengthen.
After you have separated the premises from the conclusion, look for a weakness in
the reasoning. If you spot a potential flaw or a gap in the argument, you can
strengthen its conclusion by selecting an answer choice with new information that
at least partially closes this gap. Sometimes it helps to think of what assumptions
the author makes and see whether any of them is unsupported. In those cases, you
can strengthen the argument by proving that an assumption is actually valid.
Look at the following simple example:
Question:
Dietician: A kiwi contains twice as much vitamin C as an orange does.
Nevertheless, those seeking to get their daily dose of Vitamin C from
fruits do not need to replace oranges with kiwis in their diet.
Which of the following, if true, would lend the most support to the
dieticians conclusion?
A. Oranges also contain several other vitamins that are beneficial to
human health.
B. In certain regions, kiwis might be harder to obtain than oranges.
C. Unlike that derived from oranges, Vitamin C from kiwis is easier for a
human body to process.
D. An orange contains a necessary daily dose of Vitamin C.
A premise here is that a kiwi has more Vitamin C than an orange does. The dietician
concludes, however, that people dont need to replace oranges with kiwis. Is it clear
from this argument why replacement isnt necessary even though kiwis can supply
more Vitamin C? No, so your goal is to find some additional information explaining
why people may stick to oranges after all.
How to pick the right choice
A correct answer choice will rarely make the conclusion one hundred percent true.
Therefore, it is essential that you compare answer choices and pick the one that
does the best job of strengthening the argument, even if it makes the conclusion
only a little more likely to be true.
Look at the answer choices for the Kiwi versus Orange question:
Here the best choice is D because it explains why people need not necessarily
switch from oranges to kiwis: a dose of Vitamin C from an orange is already enough
and there is no need for more Vitamin C daily.
How to avoid the wrong choices
Typically wrong answers for Strengthen questions are like those for the Weaken
type. They may have no tie to the conclusion, repeat the information presented in
the premises, or attempt to explain why else a plan might work, but they fail to fix
the weakness of the conclusion or validate the assumptions of the argument.
Choices A and B in the kiwi/orange argument belong to this category; they explain
why oranges are better than kiwis but without reference to Vitamin C. Other wrong
choices might go in the opposite direction and weaken the conclusion instead of
strengthening it. Choices C above gives reasons why kiwis may be preferred to
oranges and therefore SHOULD replace oranges. Be careful with such an option.
Because of its seeming relevance to the conclusion, such choices can be very
tempting.
The last category of wrong answers includes those that appeal to your real-life
experience. Remember, you are not assessing the plausibility of answer choices, or
their real-life truthfulness; all that matters is the arguments structure and the
soundness of its reasoning.
In summary, you strengthen an argument in three simple steps:
1) Identify the arguments conclusion.
2) Find the arguments weakness or an unsupported assumption.
3) Pick the choice that best fixes the weakness or supports the assumption,
avoiding those that contain irrelevant information or go in the wrong direction, and
keeping in mind that you dont have to prove the argument, just strengthen it.
3. Weaken
How to recognize a Weaken Question
You can be absolutely certain that you are dealing with a Weaken problem if you see
a question stem similar to one of the following:
Which of the following, if true, most undermines...?
Which of the following most seriously weakens...?
Which of the following, if true, would most weaken the claim that...
How to solve a Weaken Question:
At the core of each typical Weaken question is an argument; the author draws a
conclusion based on stated premises. Weakening such an argument requires
demonstrating that the author has failed to account for some circumstance or
possibility that might alter the conclusion. Your goal is to follow the authors logic
and separate facts from opinion. Having done that, you usually will be able to
identify conditions not stated in the argument that would have to be true for the
conclusion to be valid. Ideally, isolating the conclusion from the premises should
yield a couple of such assumptions.
Consider the following Question:
Question: An airplane engine manufacturer developed a new engine
model with safety features lacking in the earlier model, which was still
being manufactured. During the first year that both were sold, the earlier
model far outsold the new model; the manufacturer thus concluded that
safety was not the customers primary consideration.
Which of the following, if true, would most seriously weaken the
manufacturers conclusion?
A. Both private plane owners and commercial airlines buy engines from
this airplane engine manufacturer.
B. Many customers consider earlier engine models as having better
safety risks than new engine models, since more is usually known
about the safety of the earlier models.
C. Many customers of this airplane engine manufacturer also bought
airplane engines from manufacturers who did not provide additional
safety features in their newer models.
D. The newer engine model can be used in all planes in which the
earlier engine model can be used.
The manufacturers conclusion would be weakened if it could be argued that, in the
opinion of customers, safety considerations favor the earlier model. Choice B
supports such an argument and is the best answer.
The groups mentioned in Choice A would both expected to consider safety
important, so their failing to buy the new model would be striking, without casting
doubt on the conclusion; thus, choice A is incorrect. Choice C might support the
conclusion, because customers bought other engine support the conclusion,
because customers bought other engine models that might not include the newer
safety features. Choice D suggests that usability is not the customers primary
consideration in favoring the earlier model. Choice B weakens the conclusion that
safety was not their primary consideration as it suggests that customers prefer the
old model due to better knowledge about its safety features.
4. Assumption
How to recognize an Assumption Question
You are dealing with an Assumption problem if you see a question stem similar to
one of the following:
The above argument relies on which of the following assumptions?
The argument above is based on which of the following assumptions?
Which of the following is an assumption that supports drawing the conclusion

above...?
How to solve an Assumption Question:
An assumption is something we take for granted or presuppose. Although all the
assumption questions follow the same general logic, knowing the common types of
assumptions you will encounter in arguments will help you predict what the correct
answer might be by simply looking at an argument. Ability to recognize assumptions
on which an argument relies will give you a great advantage in managing weaken,
strengthen, and evaluate the argument questions. More often than not, the correct
solution to any of these problems is the answer choice that tends to disprove
(weaken), prove (strengthen), or evaluate at least one of the assumptions on which
the argument relies.
The universal role played by ALL the assumptions in Critical Reasoning problems is
to CONNECT EVIDENCE GIVEN TO THE CONCLUSION STATED. In every single CR
question that asks you to find an assumption on which the argument depends, the
correct answer choice will provide grounds to show that the conclusion is valid. The
unstated assumption will always strengthen support for the conclusion stated.
Hence look for gaps between the premises and the conclusion. Ask yourself why the
conclusion is true. Before you progress to the answer choices, try to get feel of what
assumption is necessary to fill that gap between the premises.
Beware of extreme language in the answer choices of assumption questions.
Assumptions usually are not extreme. "Extreme" answer choices usually contain
phrases such as always, never, or totally.
Consider the following Question:
Question: Because no employee wants to be associated with bad news in
the eyes of a superior, information about serious problems at lower levels
is progressively softened and distorted as it goes up each step in the
management hierarchy. The chief executive is, therefore, less well
informed about problems at lower levels than are his or her subordinates
at those levels.
The conclusion drawn above is based on the assumption that
a) Problems should be solved at the level in the management hierarchy
at which they occur
b) Employees should be rewarded for accurately reporting problems to
their superiors
c) Problem-solving ability is more important at higher levels than it is
at lower levels of the management hierarchy
d) Chief executives obtain information about problems at lower levels
from no source other than their subordinates

The first sentence of the argument is a premise its designed to support what the
author wants to claim. The second sentence is the conclusion what the author is
actually claiming. The author didnt give any opposing information in this argument.
Choice A is tempting to choose because it seems like a pretty good assumption to
make in the real world; Answer A is wrong, though, because how the problems
should be solved doesnt tell me anything about how well-informed the chief
executive is about those problems.
Choice B is tempting to choose because it sounds like a good way to resolve the
problem described in the argument. Answer B is wrong, though, because we werent
asked to resolve the problem; we were asked to articulate a belief (an assumption)
of the author who is pointing out the problem.
Choice C is tempting to choose because it sounds like a pretty good assumption to
make in the real world. Answer C is wrong, though, because the ability to solve a
problem still doesnt tell me anything about how well-informed the chief executive is
about those problems.
Choice D is tempting to eliminate because it sounds like a pretty bad assumption
to make in the real world; its probably not true that a CEO only gets info from
subordinates. Choice D is right, though, because this is exactly the (bad!)
assumption that the author makes to draw his conclusion. If CEOs really cant get
info from anyone other than their subordinates, and if those subordinates dont
want to tell them any bad news, then those CEOs are not going to be well-informed
about problems.
5. Inference
How to recognize an Inference Question
You are dealing with an Inference problem if you see a question stem similar to one
of the following:
Which of the following inferences is best supported by the statement made above?
Which of the following can properly be inferred from the statement above?
Which of the following can be most properly inferred from...?
If the statements above are true, which of the following must be true?
An inference is a step of the mind, an intellectual act by which one concludes that
something is true in light of something elses being true, or seeming to be true. If
you come at me with a knife in your hand, I probably would infer that you mean to
do me harm. Inferences can be accurate or inaccurate, logical or illogical, justified

or unjustified.
Difference between Inferences and Conclusions

There is a very subtle difference between an inference and a conclusion. A
conclusion is very specific to the argument that is given in the passage, while an
inference is more generic and more generally applicable. Let's take a very basic
example:
Argument: When lions are injected with certain specific chemicals (X and
Y) they start showing erratic and overly aggressive behavior.
Inference Chemical injections are not good for lions' behavioral patterns.
Conclusion If particular chemicals X and Y are given to the lions they will
always behave aggressively.
Another important difference (that is easier to identify) Conclusions might or might
not be stated in the passage (directly or indirectly), but an inference is never stated
in the passage and is almost never directly related to what is said in the passage (it
is more of a generic statement that covers the argument made in the passage).
Difference between Inferences and Assumption

We can see from the definitions that there are some critical differences between an
inference and an assumption:
Question stem Structure - If the statements above are true, which of the following must
Inference is a statement which must be true, if the given information is true
An inference can always be logically deducted from the given information
Its very rare for an inference question to have a conclusion in the passage or the
How to solve an Inference Question:
Analyze scope: Inference junk answers will typically go outside the direct
scope of the passage. Be careful to look directly at the scope of the question.
Inference answers must be within the scope of the passage. Your opinions or
information outside of the passage are always outside of the scope.
Don't jump into the Assumption Hunt. These questions usually don't carry
much in the way of glaring assumptions. Instead, these questions generally
test your ability to derive a conclusion from stated premises.
Knock out answers with extreme wording. Inference answers typically do not
use only, always, never, best or any strong words that leave little wiggle
room. The right answers on Inference questions will generally use more
qualifiers and less extreme language.
Try to fully understand what the passage's point is and the exact reasoning so
that if the question asks you to extend that reasoning, you are able to
accurately do so.
Use the process of elimination. Inference questions typically have two or
three good answers that are semi-plausible. The best way to tackle these
questions is to gradually eliminate the possible answers until you have one or
two and then choose the last one by scope.
Lets solve a question now:

Question: The fewer restrictions there are on the advertising of legal
services, the more lawyers there are who advertise their services
and the lawyers who advertise a specific service usually charge less
for that service than the lawyers who do not advertise. Therefore, if
the Government removes any of its current restrictions, such as the
one against advertisements that do not specify fee arrangements,
overall consumer legal costs will be lower than if the Government
retains its current restrictions.
If the statements above are true, which of the following must be
true?
A. Some lawyers who now advertise will charge more for specific
services if they do not have to specify fee arrangements in the
advertisements.
B. More consumers will use legal services if there are fewer
restrictions on the advertising of legal services.
C. If the restriction against advertisements that do not specify
fee arrangements is removed, more lawyers will advertise
their services.
D. If more lawyers advertise lower prices for specific services,
some lawyers who do not advertise will also charge less than
they currently charge for those services.

The answer to this question is Choice C, which one can see, is primarily a logical
deduction from the first line of the passage. The fewer restrictions there are on the
advertising of legal services, the more lawyers there are who advertise their
services and the lawyers who advertise a specific service usually charge less for
that service than the lawyers who do not advertise. Therefore, if the government
removes any of its current restrictions, such as the one against advertisements that
do not specify fee arrangements, overall consumer legal costs will be lower than if
the state retains its current restrictions.
In inference questions, its important to always consider whether an answer choice

has to be true. If it always has to be true, then its the correct answer. If theres one
(or more) situation in which it doesnt hold, then it cannot possibly be correct.
Hope that you would have understood the basic concepts related to Critical
Reasoning and now you will be able to apply them to solve CR questions properly.
All the Best!!
Class Exercise- Critical Reasoning

Directions: Each of the paragraphs given below is followed by a question.
Choose the option that best answers the question.
1) The attainment of individual and organizational goals is mutually

interdependent and linked by a common denominator - employee work
motivation. Organizational members are motivated to satisfy their personal
goals, and they contribute their efforts to the attainment of organizational
objectives as means of achieving these personal goals.
Which of the following is a valid conclusion?
a) Motivation encourages an individual to achieve organizational goals in order
to fulfill personal goals.
b) Motivation is crucial for the survival of an individual and organization.
c) Achievement is the product of an individual's physical and mental energy.
d) Motivation is the external force which induces an individual to contribute his

efforts to fulfill organizational goals.
Ans. a
2) Sanchit must be a better football player than Ankit because their teammates
rated him as the better football player.
The argument above assumes that a better football player is
a) one whom teammates like better.
b) one whom teammates evaluate more highly.
c) one who has a greater amount of experience.
d) one from whose play teammates benefit more.
Ans. b
3) It is better for the environment if as much of all packaging as possible
made from materials that are biodegradable in landfills. Therefore, it
always a change for the worse to replace packaging made from paper
cardboard with packaging made from plastics that are not biodegradable
landfills.
Which of the following, if true, weakens the argument above?
is
is
or
in
a) The paper and cardboard used in packaging are usually not

biodegradable in landfills.
b) Some plastic used in packaging is biodegradable in landfills.
c) In the landfills there is no space for discarded packaging.
d) It is impossible to avoid entirely the use of packaging materials that
are not biodegradable in landfills.
Ans. a
4) The future of women in India is quite bright and let us hopes that they will
justify their abilities by rising to the occasion. Napoleon was right when he
declared that by educating the women we can educate the whole nation.
Because a country can never rise without the contribution of 50% of its
population.
a) India is striving hard for the emancipation of women.
b) All women should be well educated.
c) A nation can progress only when women are given equal rights and
opportunities as men.
d) Women ought to be educated so that they can prove their worth and
contribute to the progress of the nation.
Ans. d
5) The prevention of industrial accidents makes it necessary not only that safety
devices be used to guard exposed machinery but also that mechanics be
instructed in safety rules which they must follow for their own protection, and
that lighting in the factory be adequate.
a) Industrial accidents are always avoidable.
b) Accidents are always due to ignorance.
c) Accidents cannot ever be entirely prevented.
d) Industrial accidents can be largely prevented if safety rules are followed.
Ans. d
6) In India, last year, women who ran for state and national offices were about
as likely to win as men. However, only about fifteen percent of the candidates
for these offices were women. Therefore, the reason there are so few women
who win elections for these offices is not that women have difficulty winning
elections but that so few women want to run.
Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens the conclusion given?
a) Last year the proportion of women incumbents who won reelection was
smaller than the proportion of men incumbents who won reelection.
b) Few women who run for state and national offices run against other
women.
c) Women have no desire to be a politician.
d) Many women who want to run for state and national offices, do not
run, because they cannot get adequate funding for their campaigns.
Ans. d
7) Era is twelve years old. For three years, she has been asking her parents for a
dog. Her parents have told her that they believe a dog would not be happy in
an apartment, but they have given her permission to have a bird. Era has not
yet decided what kind of bird she would like to have.
a)
b)
c)
d)
Which of the following is a valid assumption?

Era's parents like birds better than they like dogs.
Era does not like birds.
Era and her parents live in an apartment.
Era and her parents would like to move.
Ans. c
8) There is a shift in our economy from a manufacturing to a service orientation.

The increase in service-sector will require the managers to work more with
people rather than with objects and things from the assembly line.
Which of the following is a valid inference?

a)
b)
c)
d)
Managers should have a balanced mind.

Assembly line will exist in service organizations.
Interpersonal skills will become more important in the future work place.
Manufacturing organizations ignore importance of people.
Ans. c
9) In many pre-schools, children tend to commonly get colds before their

resistance develops and the colds become much less frequent later. It is clear
that a child requires several colds before white blood cell concentrations rise
high enough to effectively deal with colds.
Which of the following, if true, most seriously weakens this theory?
a) Children commonly spread viruses and bacteria in a small closed
environment.
b) The use of Vitamin C increases resistance to the common cold and
decreases its frequency.
c) Parents stock up on cold medicine after a child gets sick that alleviate
the symptoms of a cold.
d) There are many strains of the cold virus and children develop
resistance to individual strains.
Ans. d
10)
The virtue of art does not allow the work to be interfered with or
immediately ruled by anything other than itself. It insists that it alone shall
touch the work in order to bring it into being. Art requires that nothing shall
attain the work except through art itself.
Which of the following is a valid conclusion of the passage given above?
a)
b)
c)
d)
Art is governed by external rules and conditions.

Art is for the sake of art and life.
Art is for the sake of art alone.
Artist realizes his dreams through his artistic creation.
Ans. c
11)
Some groups want to outlaw burning the flag. They say that people
have fought and died for the flag and that citizens of India ought to respect
that. But I say that respect cannot be legislated. Also, most citizens who have
served in the military did not fight for the flag; they fought for what the flag
represents. Among the things the flag represents is freedom of speech, which
includes, I believe, the right of a citizen to express displeasure with the
government by burning the flag in protest.
Which of the following, if true, would weaken the speaker's argument?

a)
b)
c)
d)
An action is not considered a part of freedom of speech.

People who burn the flag usually commit other crimes as well.
The flag was not recognized by the government until 1812.
State flags are almost never burned.
Ans. a
12)
Giving children computers in early school years is a waste of money
and teachers time. These children are too young to learn how to use
computers effectively and need to spend time on learning the basics, like
arithmetic and reading. After all, a baby has to crawl before she can walk.
Which of the following, if true, would weaken the speaker's argument?
a) Computers can be used to teach reading and arithmetic.
b) Buying new computers is more cost-effective than repairing old
computers.
c) Even adults do not know how to use computers.
d) Recent grade reports of students in the computer classes show that they
are very skillful in the subject.
Ans. a
13)
Yoga has become a very popular type of exercise, but it may not be for
everyone. Before you sign yourself up for a yoga class, you need to examine
what it is you want from your fitness routine. If you're looking for a highenergy, fast-paced aerobic workout, a yoga class might not be your best
choice.
Which of the following is a valid inference?
a) Yoga is more popular than high-impact aerobics.
b) Before embarking on a new exercise regimen, you should think about your
needs and desires.
c) Yoga is changing the world of fitness in major ways.
d) Yoga benefits your body and mind.
Ans. b
14)
Because no employee wants to be associated with bad news in the
eyes of a superior, information about serious problems at lower levels is
progressively softened and distorted as it goes up each step in the
management hierarchy. The chief executive is, therefore, less well informed
about problems at lower levels than are his or her subordinates at those
levels.
The conclusion drawn above is based on the assumption that
a) Problems should be solved at the level in the management hierarchy at

which they occur.
b) Employees should be rewarded for accurately reporting problems to their
superiors.
c) Problem-solving ability is more important at higher levels than it is at
lower levels of the management hierarchy.
d) Chief executives obtain information about problems at lower levels from
no source other than their subordinates.
Ans. d
25) Time and again it has been shown that students who attend schools with
low teacher/student ratios get the best-rounded education. As a result, when
my children are ready to attend school, I'll be sure they attend a school with a
very small student population.
Which of the following, if true, weakens the argument given above?
a) A low faculty/student ratio is a rare phenomenon in schools in India.
b) Intelligence is the not the result of childhood environment, but of advanced
education.
c) A very small student population does not, by itself, ensure a low
faculty/student ratio.
d) Parental desires and preferences rarely determine a child's choice of school.
Ans. d

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SESSION PLAN II SEM

VOCAB One word

EXERCISE BASED SESSION

SUBJECT AND VERB

FACULTY GUIDE+ CLASS EXERCISE

FACULTY GUIDE +PRACTICE EXERCISE

FACULTY GUIDE+PPT+ CLASS EXERCISE

ACTIVE PASSIVE VOICE

FACULTY GUIDE + CLASS EXERCISE

MODIFIER AND PARALLELISM

FACULTY GUIDE + CLASS EXERCISE

FACULTY GUIDE + CLASS EXERCISE

FACULTY GUIDE + CLASS EXERCISE

ONE WORD SUBSTITUTION FOR PEOPLE

One who is not sure about God's existence.

One who is lover of beauty.

is not having experience.

Person who can eat veg and non veg.

appointed by two parties to solve a dispute.

waves in the sea.

displaying aggressive or exaggerated patriotism.

ONE WORD SUBSTITUTION FOR GENERAL OBJECTS

told by elders to younger ones.

period of intervals between two regimes.

A sort of joyful moment.

A reason of the trouble.

B. A person needs mercy.

Be a volunteer for country.

ONE WORD SUBSTITUTION FOR PLACES

where birds are kept.

D. a very old bottle.

treasures are kept.

a place where animals are treated.

place where monks and priests do not like to go.

pigs are kept.

ONE WORD SUBSTITUTION FOR GROUPS

A published collection of poems.

group of people taking part in a procession.

boat tied with other boat in water.

ONE WORD SUBSTITUTION FOR SCIENCE AND ARTS

7. The art or practice of garden cultivation and management is called

ONE WORD SUBSTITUTION FOR PHOBIAS

Conduct the activity PICK N MIX! and subsequently de brief.

Faculty guidance for conducting the activity PICK N MIX!

NOTE: Hyphenate all spelled-out fractions.All of the tart is gone.

2. A cluster of stars _____ an interesting shape.

3. One of the planets ____ a year to complete an orbit.

5. All the planets ____ denser than Saturn.

6. The public ____ star parties at the local planetarium.

7. Both Jupiter and Saturn _____ dense atmospheres.

8. Today the class ____ the stars.

9. Every one of the planets _____ the sun.

11. A few astronauts ____ living at the Space Station.

12. A star and a comet ____ across the sky.

VARIOUS TYPES OF PRONOUNS AND COMMON ERRORS THEREIN.

DEFINITION OF PERSONAL AND IMPERSONAL PRONOUNS

Therefore we say, You, he and I have passed the exam.

OBJECTIVE PRONOUNS- used to replace objects ( the receiver of the action).

*A slightly higher level application of the above concept