Complex Numbers

Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

Advanced Level Pure

Mathematics

10

Algebra
Chapter 10
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
10.7

Complex Numbers

Introduction
Geometrical Representation of a Complex Number
Polar Form of a Complex Number
Complex conjugate
Geometrical Applications
Transformation
DeMoivre's Theorem and nth Roots of a Complex Number 22

2
4
4
8
11
19

i 1
2

10.1
A

Introduction

Fundamental Concepts

(1) A complex number

is a number of the form a bi where a, b are real numbers and i 2 1 .

Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 1

Complex Numbers
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

(2) The set C of all complex numbers is defined by

C a bi : a, b R and i 2 1
where

a is called the real part of z and a Re(z ) and

b is called the imaginary part of z and b Im(z ) .

(3)

is said to be purely imaginary if and only if Re( z ) 0 and Im( z ) 0 .

(4) When Im( z ) 0 , the complex number z is real.

i 3 i 2 i i ,

N.B.

i4 i2 i2 1,

i5 i 4 i i ,

i 6 i 4 i 2 1 .

Solve x 2 x 1 0 in terms of i .

Example
Solution

Operations On Complex Numbers

Let
(1)
(2)
(3)

z1 a bi and z 2 c di . Then

z1 z 2 (a c) (b d )i
z1 z 2 (a c) (b d )i
z1 z 2

= (a bi )(c di )

= (ac bd ) (ad bc)i

(4)

z1
a bi c di ac bd (bc ad )

2
i , where z 2 0 .
=
=
z2
c di c di c 2 d 2
c d2

N.B. (i)
(ii)
Example

1 i
i
2
i ;
i i
1
1
1
c di
1

2
2
z2 .
2
z 2 c di c d
c d2

If z1 2 3i and z 2 1 4i , find
(a)

z1 2z 2

(b)

z 2 iz1

(c)

z1 z 2

(d)

z1
z2

Solution
Example

Express the following in the form of x yi , where x, y are real numbers.

Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 2

Complex Numbers
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

(a)

2 z
, where z 1 i
2z

(b)

1 cos 2 i sin 2
1 cos 2 i sin 2

(c)

1
1 cos 2 i sin 2

Solution

Example
Solution

Find the square roots of the complex number 3 4i and 5 12i .

10.2

Geometrical Representation of a Complex Number

From the definition of complex numbers, a complex number z a bi is defined by the two real numbers a
and b . Hence, if we consider the real part a as the x coordinate in the rectangular coordinates system
and the imaginary part b as the y coordinate , then the complex number z can be represented by the
Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 3

Complex Numbers
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

point ( a, b) on the plane. This plane is called the complex plane or the Argand diagram. On this plane, real
numbers are represented by points on x axis which is called the real axis; imaginary numbers are
represented by points on the y axis which is called the imaginary axis. The number 0 is represented by
the origin O.

Any point ( a, b) on this plane can be used to represent a complex number z a bi .

For example, as shown in Figure, the z1 , z 2 , z 3 represents respectively the complex numbers.
z1 3, z 2 2i, z 3 4 3i

10.3

Polar Form of a Complex Number

A. Polar Form
A complex number z a bi can be represented by a vector

The length of the vector

by

OP

r OP

. The angle between the vector

amplitude of

OP

as shown in Figure.

, is called the modulus of the complex number

OP

z , and it is denoted

and the positive real axis is defined to be the argument or

and is denoted by arg z or amp z .

arg z is infinitely many-valued, that is,

arg z 2k

, where k Z .

If arg z lies in the interval , we call this value the principal value.
Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 4

Complex Numbers
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

Theorem

Example
Solution

B.

a r cos

b r sin

tan

a2 b2

b
a

Express the complex number z1 5 12i and z 2 3 3 3i in polar form.

Use of Polar Form in Multiplication and Division

Theorem

Let z1 r1 (cos 1 i sin 1 ) , z 2 r2 (cos 2 i sin 2 )

arg( z1 z 2 ) arg z1 arg z 2 .
(1) z1 z 2 z1 z 2 ,
Or z1 z 2 r1 r2 cos( 1 2 ) i sin( 1 2 )
z1
z
z1
arg( 1 ) arg z1 arg z 2

(2)
,
z2
z2
z2
Or

z1 r1
cos( 1 2 ) i sin( 1 2 )
z 2 r2

proof

Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 5

Complex Numbers
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

Example

Let z1 1 3i and z 2 3 3i .
(a) By expressing z1 and z 2 in polar form, find z1 z 2 and

z1
.
z2
iz

(b) Find the modulus and the principal value of the argument of 2
z1
Solution

Example

Prove that if

z 1

and z 1 , then

1 z
is purely imaginary.
1 z

Solution

Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 6

Complex Numbers
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

Example
Solution

Show that z1 z 2 and z1 z 2 are both real , then either z1 and z 2 are both real or z1 z 2 .

10.4

Complex conjugate

A.

Complex Conjugate

Definition

Let z a bi , where a, b R . The complex conjugate of

z , denoted by

is defined as

z a bi

Theorem

Properties of Complex Conjugate

Let z be a complex number. Then
(1) z is real if and only if z z .
2
(2) z z
(3) z z z
(4) z z
(5) arg z arg z ( z 0)
(6) z z 2 Re( z )
(7) z z 2i Im( z )

proof
Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 7

Complex Numbers
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

Theorem

Properties of Complex Conjugate

(Continued)
Let z1 and z 2 be two complex numbers. Then
(1) z1 z 2 z1 z 2
(2) z1 z 2 z1 z 2
z
z
(3) 1 1
z2
z2

Example

( z 2 0)

Prove that, for any complex numbers z1 and z 2 .

z1 z 2

z1 z 2

2( z1

z2 )

Solution

Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 8

Complex Numbers
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

Example

Let z

1 i
. Find Re(z ) .
2i

Solution

Example

Prove that if

z 1

and z 1 , then

1 z
is purely imaginary.
1 z

Solution

Example

Let u, v and w be complex numbers with modulus equal to 1.

Show that if u v w 0 , then uv vw wu 0 .

Solution

Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 9

Complex Numbers
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

B.

Roots of Polynomials with Real Coefficients Occurs in Conjugate Pairs

Let f ( x) a n x n a n 1 x n 1 a1 x a 0 0 ( a n 0 ) be a polynomial with real coefficients and
degree n ( 2 ). If z a bi ( b 0 ) is a root of this polynomial, then z a bi is also a root.

10.5

Geometrical Applications
Vectors

Addition
Subtraction
Scalar multiplication

( ai bj ) (ci dj )

= ( a c)i (b d ) j

( ai bj ) (ci dj )

= (a c)i (b d ) j

(ai bj ) ai bj , R

Complex Numbers
(a bi ) (c di )

= (a c) (b d )i
(a bi ) (c di )

= (a c ) (b d )i
(a bi ) a bi, R

In the set C of all complex numbers, if z a bi is regarded as a vector v ai bj ; then as far as the above
three operations are concerned complex numbers behave similar to those of vectors.

Geometrical Meaning of the Difference of Two complex Numbers

Suppose the complex numbers representing the points Z and P on the Argand diagram be z x yi and
p a bi representing the points Z and P on the Argand diagram respectively.
(1) The complex number z p represents the vector PZ ;
(2) The modulus z p represents the length of PZ ;
(3) arg( z p ) represents the angle between the vector PZ and the positive x-axis.

Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 10

Complex Numbers
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

Usually, if the point Z on the Argand diagram is represented by the complex number z , we use Z (z ) to
denote it. Therefore, for any four points Z 1 ( z1 ) , Z 2 ( z 2 ) , P1 ( p1 ) and P2 ( p 2 ) on the Argand diagram, the
angle between the vectors P1 Z 1 and P2 Z 2 , as shown in Figure, is given by
= 1 2
arg( z1 p1 ) arg( z 2 p 2 )
=
=

arg(

Theorem

z1 p1
)
z 2 p2

Angle between Two Line Segments

Let Z 1 ( z1 ), Z 2 ( z 2 ), P1 ( p1 ) and P2 ( p 2 ) be four points on the Argand diagram. If is the angle between
the line segments P1 Z 1 and P2 Z 2 , then
z p1
arg( 1
)
z 2 p2

is considered to be positive if it is obtained by rotating anti-clockwise the vector

denominator to the vector P1 Z 1 representing the numerator.

P2 Z 2

representing the

Collinear
Theorem

Let P1 , P2 , P3 be three distinct points in the Argand diagram representing respectively the
z 3 z1
,
complex numbers z1 , z 2 , z 3 . Then P1 , P2 , P3 are collinear if and only if
z 2 z1
Where is a non-zero real number.

Proof

Equation of a Circle
Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 11

Complex Numbers
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

Let A be a point in the complex plane and the complex number corresponding to it be
the circle with A as centre and radius r is given by

a . The equation of

z a r,

where z is the complex number corresponding to any point P on the circle.

This equation is then rewritten as
2
za
=
r2
( z a )( z a )
=
r2
z z az a z a a =
r2
z z az a z ( r 2 a a )

This equation is in the form z z az a z k , where k is a real constant.

Example
Find the centre and radius of the circle with equation z z (1 2i ) z (1 2i ) z 4 in the
complex plane.
Solution

Theorem

Given that Z 1 ( z1 ), Z 2 ( z 2 ) and P ( p ) are three points on the Argand diagram. Then
z1 p

p
2

(1) Z 2 PZ1 arg

(2) The three points Z 1 , Z 2 , P are collinear if and only if

(3)

Example

z1 p
is real.
z2 p

Z 1 P and Z 2 P are mutually perpendicular if and only if

z1 p
is purely imaginary.
z2 p

1
3
Let z1 be a non-zero complex number and w
i . If the points A, B and C are
2

respectively represented by the complex numbers z1 , z 2 wz1 and z 3 w 2 z1 , show that

ABC is an equilateral triangle.
Solution
Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 12

Complex Numbers
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

Example

Let z1 and z 2 be two non-zero complex numbers. Prove that if

arg z1 arg z 2 n

, where
2

z1 z 2 z1 z 2

, then

n is a non-negative integer.

Solution

Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 13

Complex Numbers
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

Example

Suppose the vertices P, Q and R of an equilateral triangle represent the complex numbers
z1 , z 2 and z 3 respectively.
2

(a) Show that z1 z 2 z 2 z 3 z 3 z1 z1 z 2 z 3 .

(b) If z1 , z 2 and z 3 are the roots of the equation z 3 3 pz 2 3qz r 0, show that
p2 q .
Solution

Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 14

Complex Numbers
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

Theorem

Corollary

More Properties on Moduli

Let z1 and z 2 be complex numbers. Then
(1) Re( z ) z , Im( z ) z
(2) z1 z 2 z1 z 2
(Triangle Inequality)
z1 z 2 z n z1 z 2 z n

Proof

This property can be proved by using mathematical induction on

Example

Let z1 and z 2 be complex numbers.

Prove that z1 z 2 z1 z 2

n.

Solution

Loci
When a variable complex number z has to satisfy some specific conditions, there is a set of points in the
Argand diagram representing all the possible values of z . The graph of this set of points is called the locus
of the complex number z .
Example

Interpret the following loci in the Argand diagram.

( a , b, r R )
(a) z (a ib) r
(b)

z i
1
z 1

(c)

z
2
z i

Solution

Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 15

Complex Numbers
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

Example

If

z i
is pure imaginary, interpret the locus of
zi

in the Argand diagram.

Solution

Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 16

Complex Numbers
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

Example

Let be a complex constant and k a real constant.

Show that the equation z z k represents a straight line.

Solution

Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 17

Complex Numbers
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

10.6

Transformation

Translation or Displacement
Definition

Let b be a fixed complex number. The function f ( z ) z b, z C is called a translation.

Example

Given a translation f defined by f ( z ) z 1 2i, z C.

(a) Plot the point f ( 2 3i ) .
(b) Sketch the image of the set S z C : z 2 1 under f .

Solution

Enlargement
Definition

Let p be a fixed real number, the function f ( z ) pz , z C is called an enlargement.

Example

Given two enlargements defined by f ( z ) 2 z and g ( z ) z , z C .

1
2

(a) Plot the point f (1 2i ) .

(b) Sketch the image of the (i) ellipse (E ) in Figure A under f .
(ii) triangle (T) in Figure B under g .
Solution

Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 18

Complex Numbers
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

Rotation
Definition

Let be a fixed real number. The function f ( z ) z (cos i sin ), z C is called a

rotation and is the angle of rotation.

Example

Given a rotation f ( z ) z (cos120 i sin 120), z C.

(a) Plot the point f (2 i ) .
(b) Sketch the image of region R in figure under f .

Solution

Example

Let w 3 z
z 1,

1
. If the locus of
z

on the z plane is a unit circle centred at the origin, i.e.

show that the locus of the points represented by

w on the

w plane

is an ellipse.

Solution

Example

The complex numbers

and

w are represented by points P and

in an Argand diagram.
Prepared by K. F. Ngai

Page 19

Complex Numbers
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

If z (1 w) w and P describes the line 2 x 1 0 , prove that Q describes a circle whose

centre is at the origin.
Solution

Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 20

Complex Numbers
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

10.7

DeMoivre's Theorem and nth Roots of a Complex Number

For any real number 1 , 2 , (cos 1 i sin 1 )(cos 2 i sin 2 ) cos( 1 2 ) i sin( 1 2 )
In particular, if 1 2 , we have (cos i sin ) 2 cos 2 i sin 2 .
For any positive integer

n , by induction on n , the result may be generalized as

(cos i sin ) n cos n i sin n

()

and this is known as the DeMoivre's Theorem for integral index.

For any negative integer

n , we may let n m . Then

(cos i sin ) n

Hence, () also holds for negative integers

For any rational number

n . Put

(cos i sin ) m

1
(cos i sin ) m

1
cos m i sin m

cos m i sin m
cos 2 m sin 2 m

cos( m ) i sin( m )

cos n i sin n

n.

p
, where p, q Z and no loss of generality if q is taken as to be
q

positive. Then
(cos n i sin n ) q

cos n i sin n

cos nq i sin nq

cos p i sin p

(cos i sin ) p

(cos i sin )

p
q

(cos i sin ) n

In general, for any real number , positive number

and rational number

n , we have

[ r (cos i sin )] n r n (cos n i sin n )

The nth roots of a complex number

w are the n values of z which satisfy the equation

z n w . If we

write w cos i sin and assuming that the equation is satisfied by z cos i sin , then
Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 21

Complex Numbers
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics
1
n

(cos i sin ) cos i sin

()

cos i sin (cos i sin ) n cos n i sin n

By equating the real parts and imaginary parts on both sides, we have
sin sin n

cos cos n

n 2k

2k
n

()

where k Z .
For k 0,1,2, , n 1 , since
We obtain the

2k 2n 2

2
n
n
n
n
n

n distinct complex roots for

() with the values of obtained in () .

For k 0 or k n 1 , the root obtained is equal to one of the roots mentioned above. Hence, the equation
() has only

n distinct complex roots.

Theorem

DeMoivre's Theorem for Rational Index

Let

n be a positive integer and be a real number. Then

1

(cos i sin ) n cos

2k
2 k
, where k 0,1,2, , n 1
i sin
n
n

Using the DeMoivre's Theorem, we will have the following properties.

(i)

z m z n z mn

(ii)

zm
z mn
n
z

(iii)

z0 1

(iv)

( z m ) n z mn

Application of DeMoivre's Theorem to Trigonometry

A

Direct application of DeMoivre's Theorem and the binomial theorem, we are able to express

(i)

multiple angles such as sin n and cos n in terms of sin and cos , and
Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 22

Complex Numbers
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

(ii)

powers of sin and cos back again into multiple angles.

Example

Verify that cos 3 4 cos 3 3 cos

< Express cos n , sin n in terms of powers of sin and cos >

Solution

Example

(a) Show that sin 4 4 sin ( 2 cos 3 cos )

(b) Prove

Solution

Example

sin 6
32 cos 5 32 cos 3 6 cos .
sin

For what values of that the result is not true?

Prove that cos 6 32 cos 6 48 cos 4 18 cos 2 1.

Hence show that the roots of the equation 64 x 3 96 x 2 36 x 3 0 are cos 2 (
cos 2 (

5
7
) and cos 2 (
) , and deduce that
18
18

5
7
sec 2 ( ) sec 2 ( ) sec 2 ( ) 12 .
18
18
18

),
18

Solution
Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 23

Complex Numbers
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

If z cos i sin , we have

1
2
1
sin ( z z 1 ) .
2i

z z 1 2 cos ,

cos ( z z 1 ) ;

z z 1 2i sin ,

As z n cos n i sin n and z n cos n i sin n

z n z n 2 cos n , cos n

1 n
( z z n )
2
Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 24

Complex Numbers
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

z n z n 2i sin n ,

sin n

1 n
( z z n ) .
2i

Example
Solution

Express cos 4 and sin 4 in terms of functions of multiple angles.

Example
Solution

Prove 16 sin 5 sin 5 5 sin 3 10 sin

Example

(a) Prove that 32 cos 6 cos 6 6 cos 4 15 cos 2 10 .

(b) Prove that 32 cos 4 sin 2 2 cos 2 2 cos 4 cos 6 .

Solution

Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 25

Complex Numbers
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

Example

By expanding (1 i ) 2n , show that

n
n
( 1) k C 22kn 2 n cos
,

2
k 0

n 1

(1)
k 0

C 22kn1 2 n sin

n
2

Solution

Example

(a) Show that cos 5 16 cos 5 20 cos 3 5 cos .

(b) Using (a), or otherwise, solve 16 cos 4 20 cos 2 5 0 for values of between
0 and 2 . Hence find the value of cos 2

3
cos 2
.
10
10

Solution

Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 26

Complex Numbers
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

The nth roots of a Complex Number

1

2k
2k k 0,1,2, n 1
If w n z r (cos i sin ) , then w r n (cos
.
i sin
),
n
n
Example
Solution

Find the three cube roots of 8 and locate them in the complex plane.

Example

Find the fifth roots of 1 .

Also, interpret the result in the Argand diagram.

Solution

Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 27

Complex Numbers
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

nth of Unity
Theorem
nth of Unity of Their Properties
Let n be a positive integer. Then the equation z n 1 has
2k
2k
z k cos

i sin

n distinct roots given by

( k 0,1,2, , n 1)

These roots are called the nth roots of unity. If we denote one of them by ( 1) , then we have
n =1
2
n 1
=0
1
Proof

Example

Let

n be a positive integer and cos 2

n

i sin

2
, find the values of
n

(a) 1 2 n 1 ,
(b) 2 3 n 1 ,
(c)

(1 )(1 2 )(1 3 ) (1 n 1 )

(d) 1 m 2 m 3m ( n 1) m , where m Z .
Solution

Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 28

Complex Numbers
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

Solution of Equations
Example

Solve the equation z 8 2 z 4 cos 4 1 0. When 0

, show that the roots occur in

4

Conjugate pairs.
Solution

Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 29

Complex Numbers
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

Example

Let

n be a positive integer. By solving the equation

n

x n x n ( x x 1 2 cos
k 1

Hence deduce that

n

2 2 n 1 sin 2
k 1

x 2 n 1 0 , show that

2k 1
)
2n

n
2k 1

2k 1
1 and cos n ( 1 sin 2 csc 2
)
4n
2
4n
k 1

Solution

Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 30

Complex Numbers
Advanced Level Pure Mathematics

Prepared by K. F. Ngai
Page 31