1478075

Fedor Lopukhov: A Soviet Choreographer in the 1920s
Author(s): Elizabeth Souritz, Lynn Visson and Sally Banes

Source: Dance Research Journal, Vol. 17/18, Vol. 17, no. 2 - Vol. 18, no. 1 (Autumn, 1985 Spring, 1986), pp. 3-20
Published by: Congress on Research in Dance
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1478075
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FedorLopukhov:A
SovietChoreographer
inthe1920s
ElizabethSouritz
Translated by LynnVisson
Translationrevised and edited by Sally Banes
Introduction
vocabulary,his use of contemporarythemes, his exElizabethSouritz'sbook SovietChoreographers
in the1920s
plorationof theatricalizedfolklore,and his experiments
(firstpublished in the U.S.S.R. as Khoreograficheskoe with symphonicchoreography.He was an influential
iskusstvo
dvadtsatykh
godov[Moscow: Iskusstvo,1979) is
compositionteacher in the 1930s and 40s; one of his
studentswas Yuri Grigorovich,
presently in preparation for publication by Dance
the BolshoiartisticdirecHorizons.The book focuseson one particularaspect of
tor.Aftertheperiodcoveredby Souritz'sbook,Lopukhov
Sovietchoreography
in the 1920s - the changeswithin
choreographedsuch works as Bolt (1931) and Bright
the ballet institution,that is, the state lyric theaters.
Stream(1935), both to music by Shostakovich,Taras
Although her main purpose is to excavate the
Bulba(1940),and Pictures
at an Exhibition
(1963).
itself,and especiallytheworkofthreekey
choreography
and Goleizovskyin
Lopukhovin Petrograd/Leningrad
artists(AlexanderGorsky,KasianGoleizovsky,and Fedor
Moscow were the leading figuresin the Soviet ballet
Lopukhov),in thecourseof readingabout theballets,we
avant garde of the 1920s. Both turnedto "alternative"
also learna greatdeal aboutthedance and theaterlifeon
dance and performancetraditionsto galvanize the
the periphery,about who was included and who extraditional
ballet,to renderit moreapt,in bothformand
cludedfromthemainstreamand why,abouttheaesthetic
culture.Goleizovskywas incontent,fora revolutionary
and politicaldebatesthatbroughtsome of the projectsto
hotjazz danctriguedbymodernpopularentertainments:
fruition
and buriedothers,and about the ways in which
ing, music-hall revues, circus and cabaret formats.
the period servedas a kind of linchpinin the historyof
Lopukhovwas moreattractedto historicalfolkforms:the
ballet.We see in Souritz'saccounta microcosmboth of
buffoonplay of the Russian skomorokhi
(medievalminthe largerSoviet dance world of the 1920s and of the
strels),the Italian commedia dell'arte,or the wedding
largerpictureofstateculturalinstitutions.
games of Norwegianfolklore.Yet Lopukhov,too, may
The book sheds a welcome lighton an era, a groupof
have been influencedby the pervasivejazz aestheticof
the Twenties. Souritz, for instance, notes Alexandra
choreographers,and a series of ballets that have
previouslybeen littleknownin the West. We have been
Danilova's observationthat,in theThermalEnergyscene
tantalizedby briefreferencesin theavailableliterature
in The Magnificenceof the Universe (to music by
to
the revolutionaryballets celebrating the October
Beethoven),Lopukhovjuxtaposed a three-countdance
Revolutionof 1917, to the revisionsof the classics that
phraseforthearmsto a two-countphraseforthelegs - a
remain in the Soviet repertory,to the remarkableintypicalAfro-American
syncopation.Bothchoreographers
novationsinspiredby modernistexperimentsin all the
turnedas well to acrobatics,gymnastics,
and plastique,to
artsoftheperiod,and to the "model ballet" TheRed Popinfuseclassical dancingwith the dynamismof the new
py.These topicsfascinateus notonlyfortheirown sake,
modern dance (which in Russia, as in America and
fortheyhave been a missingchapterin our knowledgeof
Europe, had also annexed new moves frommachine
dance history,but also because they illuminatethe
aesthetics,sports, and physical culture). While both
historyof Americanballet, and in particularthe early
workswere oftenignoredor censuredat
choreographers'
roots of George Balanchine's oeuvre. Balanchine, of
the time, historyhas shown that they were startlingly
in Petrograd
course,dancedand choreographed
in theearboth fortheiroriginality
and modernityand
significant,
to the West,workingwithan
ly 1920s beforeemigrating
forthe groundworktheyultimatelylaid forthe future
experimental
groupcalledtheYoungBalletand,in theforSovietrepertory.
merMaryinsky(called,since 1930,theKirov)Ballet,with
The followingarticle has been excerpted; it omits
the choreographerFedor Lopukhov, whose works are
severalsectionsfromthechapteras itappearsin Souritz's
discussedin the articlebelow. We know thatBalanchine
book. They are: Lopukhov'swork in the earlyTwenties
was inspired,as well, by seeingdances by the construc- in revivingthe classical legacy (The
SleepingBeautyand
tivistchoreographer
Kasian Goleizovsky,who workedin
otherballets);his own 1921 versionof Stravinsky'sThe
Moscow.1
Firebird;and his versionof Pulcinellawhich stressesthe
The followingarticleis an excerptfromSouritz'schapsubversive,anti-bourgeois
spiritofthe commediadell'arteron Fedor Lopukhov,the artisticdirectorof the Kirov
te and thatalso borrowedstylizedcomictechniquesfrom
Ballet from 1922-30 (and later, 1944-46 and 1951-56).
thesilentfilmsofthetime.
Lopukhovcame froma familyof dancers (includinghis
SallyBanes
brother,Andrei, and his sisters Evgenia and Lydia
NOTE
[Lopokova, the well-known Diaghilev dancer, who
1. See Yuri Slonimsky,"Balanchine: The Early Years," BalletReview
marriedtheBritisheconomistJohnMaynardKeynes).He
5:3 (1975-76):37-38 and BernardTaper, Balanchine(New York: Macwas an importantfigurein Soviet dance historyforhis
revivals of the classics, his expansion of the ballet
millan,1960),p. 66.
Dance ResearchJournal17/2& 18/1(1985-86/ 3
FedorLopukhov:A SovietChoreographerinthe1920s
ElizabethSouritz
in Lopukhov'sTheNutcracker
The snowflakes
(1929).
Fedor Lophukov graduated from the St. Petersburg

TheaterSchool in 1905. His artisticcareer began in the
to theBolshoi
MaryinskyTheater.In 1909 he transferred
Theater,spent the 1910-11season on tour abroad, and
thenreturnedto St. Petersburg.Earlyon, Lopukhovwas
attractedto composition.The choreographer'smemoirs,
Sixty Years in the Ballet, list his first attempts at
choreography:Beginningin 1906, he staged concert
numbers for himself,then in the pre-war years and
especiallybeginningin 1917, a series of dances for his
sister Evgemya and her partner, Alexander Orlov.
Lopukhovmentionstwo large productionsdone on the
privatestage: The Dream, done to the music of Nikolai
Shcherbachev,and The MexicanSaloon, with music by
Leonid Goncharov.He dates them 1916-17.1 In staging
triedto "harmonizewith
TheDream,the choreographer
of the orchestra
the sounds of the various instruments
suband with the course of the theme - the leitmotif,
harmonicchanges,etc."2Thus the
theme,counterpoint,
was alreadyinterestedin the problemof
choreographer
the relationshipbetween dance and music. It is not accidentalthatin theseyearshe had alreadybegunto write
the book A Choreographer's
Paths, where considerable
space is devotedto thisquestion.
During 1917-19, concerts in the Pavlovsk summer
resorthall gave Lopukhov experience in revivingthe
classics and in composing new dances. The choreographer says that even earlier, when he performed
dances in theold ballets,he always triedto examinetheir
structure.On toursit was necessaryto cut or to rework
and sometimesto expand
partsof the currentrepertory,
them with fragmentsin the style of the original.
Lopukhovlearnedto stageballetsby imitatingthe styles
of famous masters.But at the same time, he tried to
imaginehow he himselfwould composethe same dance,
and sometimes he came up with his own, different
resolution.
By the early 1920s,Lopukhov'stalents,firstas a coach
and thenas a choreographer,
and reconstructor,
emerged
quiteclearly.
[Here Souritzdiscusses the appointmentof Lopukhov
as artisticdirectoroftheformerMaryinskyTheaterballet
company;the differencesbetween Moscow and Petrograd in theirapproaches to the classics; Lopukhov's revivals of works by Petipa, Ivanov, and Fokine; and the
In the secreactionsby the criticsto the reconstruction.
tionimmediatelyfollowing(also omittedhere),on Lopukhov's own versionof The Firebird,she contrastshis ap-
proachto RussianfolklorewithFokine's;explainsLopukhov'stheoriesabout the correspondencebetween music

and dancing; and analyzes his early innovationsin the
dance vocabulary.]
The Magnificence of the Universe
ImmediatelyafterThe Firebird(1921), Lopukhov began
ofthe
workingon his nextproduction-The Magnificence
Universe.This ballet was performedto the music of
Beethoven'sFourthSymphony,and itsgenrewas defined
as "dance symphony."The balletTheMagnificence
ofthe
Universeoccupies a special place in the historyof
choreographictheater.It expressedone of the mostimportanttendenciesin the developmentof twentieth-cenof dance withsymphonic
turyballet:the rapprochement
musicto the pointof creatingballetsthatare movement
analoguesto symphonicwork.
The dance symphonywas a new genre born on the
crossroadsof two traditions.One had its source in the
"new ballet" of the early twentiethcentury,which
turnedtowardthe stagingof symphonicmusic,and the
secondwas linkedto thedevelopmentof "pure" dance in
the "old ballet" of the nineteenthcentury,primarilyas
by Petipa.
represented
As a result of the symphonizationof ballet music
(Delibes, Tchaikovsky,Glazunov) duringthe last quarter
of the nineteenthcentury,the choreographers'attitudes
towardmusicchangedas well. Music thatservedmerely
as a rhythmic
accompanimentwas no longersatisfactory.
Hence the need to stage musical works thatwere symnot intendedforthe dance. In
phonicand instrumental,
them, bases were sought for the reforniof the ballet
productionas such. The music of Chopin, Rimsky-Korsakov, Tchaikovsky,and Schumannprovidedexamples
and containedmotifsand
ofmoraldepthand abstraction,
laws
imagesakinto Fokineand Gorsky.Builton different
thanthoseof traditionalballet,thismusic also helped to
liberatedance fromtheclichesofdance formulae.
With their fondness for dramatizingballet action,
Fokine and Gorskyfeltthe need fora plot even when
music. The storyservedas a subtext
usingnon-program
forthe symphonicwork,and the stylizeddancingreconstitutedan image of the countryand the age. In such
cases, music was subordinateto the laws of the drama.
The music sometimesserved as a backgroundas well;
then the lack of correspondencebetween the musical
work and the choreographicaction was especially obvious. In all thesecases, themusicwas onlya springboard
4 Dance ResearchJournal17/2& 18/1(1985-86)
fromwhichthe choreographer
pushedoffto fantasize
Oftenthecontent
ofthemusicalworkwas interfreely.
and its formwas almostalways
pretedarbitrarily,
and by other
judgedforthemostpartby thisprogram
written
sources,i.e., Lopukhov'sideasaboutthefuture
dance symphony,
set forthin A Choreographer's
Paths
ignored.
(written
and a few reviews,
priorto the production),
Thedancesymphony
is different
inprinciple
fromsuch
whoseauthors
forthemostpartdidnotseriously
attempt
balletsbecauseit assumesa different
thechoreographer's
interrelationship to understand
intentions.
The only
betweenmusicanddance.Andherethesecondtradition other sources were Pavel Goncharov'ssilhouette
comesintoplay- thetradition
ofPetipa.The issuehere
inthebrochure
thatcontains
theprogram.
drawings
istheuseofnon-representational
In recentyears,severalattempts
dance,forthemostpart
have been made to
in classicalensembleswithinlargeballetspectacles.In
Conversations
studythedancesymphony
with
seriously.
theseensembles,
evenwithmusicthatseemedtackedonin the production
Lopukhovand the performers
have
to the ballet(Pugni,Minkus),the dance had its own
beenconducted,
butthemostvaluabledocument
is the
The choreographer
was able to use the
poeticimagery.
notebook,
where,alongwiththemusic,
choreographer's
ofthisor thatmovement,
characteristics
thedancesare transcribed
expressive
withthe help of traditional
juxsimilarand contrasting
andjoining balletterminology.
movements,
taposing
ArkadySokolov'sresearchwas inand groupsforthecreation
ofan overall
cludedin hisdissertation
movingfigures
andhas beenpublishedinpart
withTchaikovsky
and Glazunov,a
image.Naturally,
intheanthology
MusicandChoreography
inModern
Ballet
higher
levelofinteraction
betweendanceandmusicwas
workmakesup onechap(1974).GalinaDobrovolskaya's
achievedin ballet,in itselfcloseto thesymphonic.
The
terofherbook,FedorLopukhov
(1976).Each scholarofmusicgavethedancemoredepthandsignificance.
fersa reconstruction
of the ballet,an analysis,and an
The reformers
of the 1910s,rejectingthe obsolete evaluation.
Itseemsthat,atthepresent
stageofthestudy
rhetoric
of the "old ballet,"also refusedto acceptits
ofLopukhov's
legacy,thereis reasonto relyon thecondance achievements.
But the tradition
livedon in the
clusions
oftheseauthors.
worksoftheclassicalrepertory.
ForLopukhov,
whowas
to theprogram,
thefirstpartof theballet
According
wellacquainted
withtheballetsofPetipaandworkedon
called Introduction)
(sometimes
includedthe episodes
was no moreremotethan
them,thistradition
restoring
The BirthofLightand The BirthoftheSun.The slow,
theideasofhisoldercontemporary,
Fokine.
tothesymphony)
significant
emadagio(theintroduction
TheballetTheMagnificence
was thefirst bodiedforLopukhovthemagnificence
oftheUniverse
of theworldin
work in the new genre of the dance symphony. birth.Illuminated
in lightblue,eightyouthscrossedthe
"Liberatedand self-contained"
dance (Lopukhov),
ina chain.Theycoveredtheireyeswithone
proscenium
pure
danceoutsideofconcrete
toexpress hand and withthe otherseemedto gropetheirway
action,was intended
drawnfromthesymphony
and therefore
was
thoughts
the gloom.Fixingtheirgaze upward,in the
through
subordinated
toitsstructure
as well.
formerly
distance,
eightgirlsmovedafterthem.Thecombinations
dancesymphony
has itsownpeculiarities, ofmovements
Lopukhov's
and groupings
weresimple:The dancers
based in parton theworldview of the choreographer sometimes
followedone anotherand sometimes
formed
music
duringthe 1920s.The linkbetweenBeethoven's
couples,and thewomenranaroundtheirpartners.
Ata
and the choreography
was not reducedto an inter- suddenswell of sound,when the orchestra
rose to a
ofthesymphony
indance.Lopukhov's
ideawas
pretation
fortissimo
fora second,beforemovingon to a
powerful
moregrandiose.
Dance,in unionwithmusic,was called
morelively,
cameTheBirthoftheSun.After
agiletheme,
uponto revealman'sideas abouttheworldand about
thiswas thenextpartofthedancesymphony,
wherethe
balletwas conceived
complexlifeprocesses.Lopukhov's
subjectwas lifeanddeath,opposing
andinteracting
with
as a unique"understanding
oftheworld"in dance.The
eachother.Hereoneofthecompositional
motifs
was the
choreographic
imagesof thefutureballetwerebornin
circle,formed
whichcouldbe understood
bythedancers,
theconsciousness
ofthechoreographer
beforehe found
as theportrayal
ofthesun(atthispointthe
symbolically
musicappropriate
to hisintentions.
described lighting
Lopukhov
shift
of
changedtoyellow),butalsoas theeternal
themin a generalway in the book A Choreographer's generations,
whenlifeendswithdeathbutdeathcontains
Paths,whichprecededthe creationof the ballet.And
newlifewithin
itself.
muchchangedin thecourseoftheproduction,
although
FromGoncharov's
andthedescriptions
ofthe
drawings
hisgeneralidearemained
thesame.
scholars,
itis clearthatoneofthemostimportant
aspects
Anillustrated
brochure
was printed
forthepremiere
of
ofthechoreography
was thereplacement
ofstaticgroups
thedancesymphony
TheMagnificence
In
oftheUniverse.
ones.Atfirst
themenslowlydroppedtothe
bydynamic
theforeword,
wroteofthe"themesofuniver- floorandbecamemotionless
Lopukhov
as ifasleep,andthewomen
sal significance"
thatattracted
himand ofhisaspiration circledaroundthem.Then,as if
losingtheirstrength,
to finddanceformsforthem.Theydid notfitintothe
they too droppeddown and lay inside the circle,
framework
ofthestoryballet,"becausethepoint
"tight
thepositions
ofthemen.The men,however,
repeating
was not individualphenomena,but broad general- fought
offtheirtorpor,rose,and finding
the
strength,
izations.Notlongbefore,
duringthecivilwar,thepoets
of a leap, repeated
abilityto move,and the lightness
whoweretrying
toexpresstheinfinite
ofthe
almostexactlythe dance of the women. Thus the
possibilities
Russianrevolution
haddepicteditas capablenotonlyof
revealedtheidea contained
in thetitleof
choreographer
thefaceoftheearth,butevenofchanging this section:Life in Death and Death in Life. Life
transforming
thecourseoftheplanets.Lopukhovtooka similarpath,
overdeath(immobility).
(movement)
triumphs
constantly
on thecolossaleventstakingplace on earth,
reflecting
Thethirdpartwas calledThermalEnergy.
Thiswas a
andhe addressedhisimagination
to thecosmicspheres, danceadagiowherea usewas foundformanydevicesof
theuniverse,
marvelous
in itseternalmotion, the traditional
glorifying
classicalballetadagio.Here the dance
andlife,whichtriumphs
overdeath.
internal
possessedmelodiousness,
and a firm
harmony,
The dancesymphony
was shownto an audienceonly
Itwas devoidofgarisheffects
equilibrium.
andwas built
once.Theprogram,
written
incollaboration on even,flowingmovements,
byLopukhov
"withoutany splashes"
withVasilyStruve,
was pretentious
and abstruse.
It con(Lopukhov's
expression).
"They
slowlyformthemselves
fusedrather
thanhelpedthereadertoanalyzetheballet.
intoimagesand,as ifwithvelvettentacles,
increasingly
until
Nevertheless, recently,
ballethadtobe
Lopukhov's
graspone'sattention."3
Dance ResearchJournal17/2& 18/1 {1985-86) 5
The scholars see two fundamentalthemes in this

adagio - one forthe women (two soloists)and another
forthemen. The womenbeganwithdeep, slow plies and
thenled the dance melody,builton a flowingchangeof
positions.In the programthis was called "the passive
developmentof the feminineprinciple." In the men's
dance therewas a sense of restrainedenergy,perhaps
akin to Spanish dances (this idea comes from
Goncharov's drawings,where the dancer's hands are
behindtheirbacks and seem to be holdingcastanets).In
the programthey were characterizedas the "actively
pulsatingmale principle."Boththemeswere interwoven
in the partof the adagio where men and women danced
together.Here, as Dobrovolskayanotes,thereare echoes
of the famous Rose Adagio in The SleepingBeauty.The
dance was built on combinationsin which the women
were supportedin turnby variouspartners,movingfrom
one to another.Here, as in TheSleepingBeauty,a mood of
contemplationand harmonyprevailed.Thus the theme
stated in the women's dance became the predominant
one.4
The fourthpartwas called The Joyof Existence.Here,

without specific concretization,but with the use of
movementsapproachingfolkdance (forthe peasants)or
even the grotesque (for the pithecantropes),the
choreographercreated images of differentbeings enjoyingthe blessingsof earthlyexistence.Throughoutthe
peasant dances were motionsimitatingthe swingingof
scythes.The section Games of the Butterflieswas excirclingsteps,and skimming
pressedthroughfluttering,
runs along the stage. A bird was characterizedthrough
flight.At firstthisFirstFlightof the LittleBird,where in
and
Goncharov'ssketchone sees timidity,uncertainty,
even a certainawkwardness.Then thewing-armsopend
wide and carried the bird in free, proud flight(The
SkillfulFlightoftheBird).
The fifthpart - EternalMotion - was performedby
the entirecast of eighteen,illuminatedby red spotlights.
Their dance, impetuous and joyful, was built on a
developmentand variationon the choreographictheme
set forthduringthe firstbars. The scholarscorrectlysee
here the connectionwith a traditionalformsuch as the
ballets,
concludingensemblecoda of nineteenth-century
crowningthe performance.In Lopukhov's
triumphantly
dance symphonythe group forminga spiral and embodying"theuniverse"servedas thecrowningpoint.
"The conclusion,builton the notion'universe,'was to
but
have the magnificent
solemnityof the introduction,
was staticallyperformed,"wrote Lopukhov.5But the
point is thatthe music itselflacks "magnificentsolemnity." Beethoven's symphonydoes not conclude, like
manyothers,witha powerfulensemble,withall the instrumentsmerging together in triumphantchords.
Almostuntilthe last moment,the noisy"run of sounds"
continues.Only at the veryend is therea briefslowing
down and several successive pauses, like a meditative,
lyricalsigh.Duringthistime,the finalgrouptook shape
on stage. Two images of it have been preserved:Goncharov'ssilhouettedrawingand thefrequently
published
drawing by Lopukhov, from a working copy of the
scoreoftheballet.
choreographic
formeda chainleadingtowardthe
Eighteenperformers
back of the stage and at the same time upward. In the
two women at the end of the chain were
foreground,
lyingproneon the floor.A groupwas "linked" to them:
One woman,fallingbackwards,leaned withherback on
thatof a kneelingmale dancer; anotherwoman, facing
him,bentin a deep arabesque. The nextcouple sat on the
floor,and severalmore sittingor standingfigureslinked
handsin a line withthem.A brokenline emerged,which
seemed to end with two flights:a ballerina on the

shoulderof her partnerin a "flying"pose, and the final
witha woman raisedin theair,
composition,
culminating
kneelingmale
facingtheaudience,withtwo symmetrical
figuresforminga base. As the orchestraconcluded the
symphonywith a loud, joyful exclamation,this light,
harmoniousspiralroseon thestage.
Lopukhov worked on the dance symphonywith the
youngdancersin the company,forthe mostpartperformers with the Young Ballet.* Among themwere Lidia
Ivanova, Alexandra Danilova, Leonid Ivanov (Lavrovsky), Mikhail Mikhailov, Piotr Gusev, Natalia Lisovskaya,MariettaFrangopulo,VladimirThomson,Georgi
Balanchivadze (Balanchine), and others. Full of enthusiasm,theyoungpeople workedduringtheirtimeoff
fromformalrehearsals.The goalsLopukhovhad setwere
not always understood, but. they were attractive.
Danilova,who was one ofthetwo soloistsin theThermal
Energyscene, remembersthatin thisballetshe encounteredunaccustomedrhythmic
situations;she had to move
her legs to a two-countphrase and her arms to a threecountphrase.6
Soon afterLopukhovwas appointedartisticdirectorof
theballetcompany,he showedthedance symphonyin a
rehearsalhall to an invitedaudience of dancers,critics,
musicians,and artists.Boris Asafiev,Alexei Gvozdev,
Vladimir Dmitriev,
Vsevolod Vsevolodsky-Gerngross,
Ivan Sollertinsky,
and otherstookpartin the discussion.
Lopukhovwrote in the notebookcontainingthe dance
notation for the symphony: "September 18, 1922.
Demonstrationof the dance symphony to all the
of the arts,and afterit a debate,whichI
representatives
considersuccessful."
Fora longtimetheballetwas notincludedin therepertory.Only aftersix monthswas it shownas a benefitfor
the ballet dancers,on a single evening,afterthe main
SwanLake. This provedto be a fatalmistake.
production,
The audience at the benefitperformanceon March 7,
1923, was by no means in the mood for experimental
works.Exhaustedby the four-actSwan Lake, whichhad
been preceded by a formal program (several congratulatoryspeeches including one by I.V. Exkusovich**), the audience read the abstruse text in the
littleprogramfor The Magnificence
of the Universewith
irritationand irony and did not bother to ponder
Lopukhov'sintentions.When the curtainwent down in
the theater,as NikolaiSoliannikov,a dancerin the company,remembers,"Insteadof the usual roarof applause
therewas the silence of the tomb. The audience didn't
clap,didn'tlaugh,didn'twhistle- itwas silent."7
The press responded quickly,harshlycriticizingthe
production.Somehow not one of the criticswho had
praisedtheballetaftertherehearsalshowingpublisheda
review. It is true that,at a meetingthattook place on
April2 in the Museum of the StateAcademicTheaters,
Gvozdev and AnatolyKankarovichnoted "the extraorofthecreationofthedance symphony
dinarysignificance
it is a turningpoint,a
forthe historyof choreography,
shiftin the developmentof theformsof dance art."8But
these words did not reach the newspapers and
*TheYoungBalletwas an experimental
groupofyoung
Maryinskygraduatesorganizedby Balanchinein 1922.
They performedhis choreographyas well as works by
Petipaand Fokine.(Ed.)
**I.V. Exkusovichwas the head of the statetheaters.
(Ed.)
magazines. And Volynsky literally breathed poison:

"Once a mediocrescribbler,who had shownsome talent,
dreamed of the magnificenceof the universe.Afterhe
woke up, he set about turninghis nocturnalvisionsinto
the imagesof his favoriteballet.The resultwas a dance
thelikesofwhichtheworldhas neverseen."9
symphony,
This is how his articlebegan,and it continuedto the end
inthesamejeeringtone.
Yet therewas reason to hope thatVolynskymightbe
attractedby theidea of such a ballet.Afterall, Lopukhov
was fightingfor "self-sufficient"
dance; he wanted to
presentthe classics in all the wealth of their forms,
out theinternalmeaningofeach movement.His
bringing
very intentionshowed Volynsky's influence. In the
programpublishedby Lopukhovtherewere even quite a
few verbal images almost identicalto the favoriteexThere
pressionsof the authorof The Book ofExultations.
are even foggystatements,such as "our dance art is a
and
hymnto nonbeing,a hymnto thejoy ofrenunciation
of love forheights,fromthe earth."'0And therewas the
oppositionof the "passivelydeveloping"(forVolynsky,
"growing")feminineprincipleto the "activelypulsating"
masculine. However, Volynskyaccepted neitherwhat
Lopukhov wrote nor what he produced. He had his
reasons. The backstagepoliticsin which the venerable
criticwas involvedduringthese years made themselves
felt,pittinghimand thoseclose to himagainstthetheater
leadership. Hence the refusalto accept anythingthat
Lopukhovdid. Buttherewere artisticmotivesas well. As
regardsthe writtenprogram,Lopukhov's abstruseness
was no matchforVolynsky'sjudgments,which- forall
their complexityand grandiloquence- were always
based on tremendousknowledgeand an understanding
of the laws of the developmentof the art. Such an inept
adaptationof his thoughtscould only irritateVolynsky.
And in fact,the productionitselfdid not correspondto
the ballet theoretician'sidea of a ballet with selfcontained choreography.Volynskyconsistentlyfought
forthe preservationof classical dance in its academic
forms,objectingto any penetrationof what seemed to
him extraneouselements.And Volynskyrecognizedthe
right to abstraction only through these forms. He
celebrated the beauty of the lines of the classical
arabesque and protestedagainstitsdistortion.
Lopukhov,
however, like all the masters beginningwith Fokine,
stoodforthe renewalof the classical languageand combineditwithotherformsofstagemovement.
The performanceon March 7, 1923 proved to be the
only one. The ballet's failurewas an even greaterblow
forLopukhovbecause thedance symphonyembodiedhis
programforthe future.Few in those years understood
how importantthe idea it stated would be for the
dance is capable of
developmentof balletart.Intelligent
it is an independentmediumof
makinggeneralizations;
art thatpossesses its own arsenal of expressivemeans.
The choreographerhas the rightto use dance without
forhelpto theotherarts,just as thecomposerand
turning
painteruse their own media. As music is expressive
through sounds, and a painting through pictorial
qualities,which are not subject to verbal retelling,the
dance, too, is expressive,even when devoid of any plot,
and "depicting" nothingin particular.Therefore,the
and practitioners
"puredance" to whichthetheoreticians
ofballetin the 1920sreactedso strongly
was byno means
an emptyornament,"a littleflourish,"but the resultof
lifein choreographicform.A choreographic
interpreting
image gives the audience somethingthatcannotbe conveyedby any otherimage - eithermusical,pictorial,or
verbal - because each art possesses its own powers of
expression.
a tremendous,important
act.
Lopukhovhad performed
The timewas drawingnear when people would beginto
dance to existand
questionthe rightof non-illustrative
when the salvation of ballet would be seen in its
dramatization,or even in the total subordinationor
replacementofthedance byotherartsand in thecreation
of new synthetic
spectaclesto replaceballet.1 But meanwhile,Lopukhovtriedto provethattheartofdanceperse
has contentand is capable of abstraction,and that the
highestgoal of each artis to affecttheviewerthroughits
own specificmeans.
Lopukhovrejectedthe methodchosen by Fokine and
Gorsky of findinga subtextfor a plot in symphonic
music.He also rejectedIsadora Duncan's notionoftrying
to transmit
themoodsthemusicevokedin her.12 His goal
was to createan image thatcorrespondedto the musical
dance. In The
image throughthe means of instrumental
Pathsofa Choreographer,
he writesaboutthedance ofthe
future,partofwhich "mergescloselywithmusic,"about
dance and musicthat"say exactlythesame thing,"about
the"concordbetweenthelinesofa dance and thelinesof
a sound," about the analogybetween major and minor
keys in music and the dance systemof movementsen
dedans and en dehors. All this, in Lopukhov's terminology,is called "dancingthe music," as opposed to
dancing"close to themusic," "to themusic,"and "in the
music."'3Naturally,such an approachassumesanalyzing
the musical score, breakingit down into its constituent
elements, and then searching for the equivalent
movementsforeach element.
One of Lopukhov's followers,George Balanchine,
became a masterof symphonicballet in the West; incidentally,in his youth he had performedin The
For himmostimportant
was
oftheUniverse.
Magnificence
the principlethatLopukhovborrowedfromPetipa, or,
more precisely,that was a development of Petipa's
discoveries in the realm of building expressive
choreographicensembles: dance composition as an
analogueto musicalcomposition,beyondliteraryconjectures, dramatic concretization,and subjective interpretations.
LeonidMassine,who became well-knownin the 1930s
forhis balletsymphonies,never saw Lopukhov'sballet,
but his experimentsin some ways followed the same
course. But Massine came closer to the path of Fokine
and Duncan thanthatofPetipa.If Balanchinestudiesthe
music like a professionalmusician, settinginto the
his perceptionof the musical
languageof choreography
ideas, Massine responds to the music like a talented,
educatedlistener.He findsin themusicemotionsthatare
consonantwith his own lived experiences,and he expressesthemthroughdance, pantomime,groupings,and
mise-en-scene.
Probably still other attempts by Western choreographersshow an unexpectedlink with the earliestexperimentsby Lopukhov.In any case, so it seemed to us
when Maurice Bejart'scompanyperformedBeethoven's
NinthSymphony,
choreographedin the late 1960s. Here
thereis a commonthreadnot only externally;thereare
similaritiesbetweenplot turns,such as "the awakening
of humanity,"a resemblance between choreographic
devices,suchas thepositionoflyingon one side withlegs
pressed to the stomach,fromwhich, as fromthe "embryonicstage," the dancers strovetoward dance-flight.
Furtheranalogiescome to mind.
Allthreechoreographers
triedto extractfromthemusic
an idea appropriateto moderntimesand interpreted
it in
their own ways, using it as a basis for their own
imaginings.Bejart,moreover,consideredthathe had the
rightto use any means he liked to expressthesevisions.
Dance ResearchJournal17/2& 18/1/1985-86) 7
peopleofourtimes,heroesofthepast,orfantastic
beings
are included,but by its majorideas,by the degreeto
whichthe authorhas a modemvisionof lifeand a
moder evaluationof phenomena.Therefore,ballet
and legendsand balletsbasedon Pushkinand
fairytales
sometimes
turnoutto be betterat showing
Shakespeare
themodernworldthanballetswithcollectivefarmers,
andforeign
borderguards,
spies.
Thiswas thesituation
intheTwenties,
too.Theballets
created then about modem events and about the
revolution
provedto be farfromthemostmodemand
Sovietrealityand tellingof
revolutionary.
Addressing
------------------encountered
popular uprisings,the choreographers
~ ~ ~------Yso complexthatthisis wherethereweremost
problems
The Red Whirlwind(1924).
andleastsuccess.
mistakes
The popularity
ofa balletwiththeaudienceis by no
meansthe onlycriterion
of its value; a superficial
but
Lopukhovdid notgo thatfar.He evenblamedhimself garishproduction
have a long run while an exmay
laterforthe freetreatment
of Beethoven'ssymphony,
workhas a poorbox-office.
the
Nevertheless,
perimental
seeingit as partof the reasonforthe ballet'sfailure.
statisticaldata for the ballets on moder and
makesone doubtthefairness
ofsuch
Bjart's experience
inrevolutionary
subjectsin the 1920s are extremely
a self-critical
evaluation.
Nowwe areconvinced
thatsuch
dicative.ThreeMoscowballetswereproducedthatto a
a pathis also possibleand thatthereis no singlepath
certaindegreebelongto this category:StenkaRazin
foreveryone.
Massine,and Bejart
Balanchine,
obligatory
(1918),shownthreetimes(revivedin 1922,ithad eleven
insymphonic
musicanduseditfor
founddifferent
things
Ever-Fresh
moreperformances);
Flowers(1922) - five
of
thespiritandstructure
differing
goals,eitherrevealing
andTheWhirlwind
times;
(1927) once.In fact,theydid
an ally
a musicalworkindanceormakingthecomposer
notevenbecomepartoftherepertory.
OnlyTheRedPop
inthestruggle
ofmodemideas.
hada longstagelife.
py
(1927)
thefuture,
but
In somerespectsLopukhovanticipated
In Petrograd,
afterAsafiev'sand Romanov'sCara solitary
misunderstood
he remained
figure,
byhisconmagnole(1918),a workers'club productionabout which,
Itis difficult
tosaywhatpathhewouldhave
temporaries.
is available,therewereno
no information
unfortunately,
followedlater. ProbablyneitherBalanchine's,nor
balletsabouttherevolution
until1924.In an article
timed
Massine's,norBejart's,butratherhisown,Lopukhov's. fortheopeningof the 1924-25season,Gvozdevwrote
a
of the Universe,
However,besides The Magnificence
aboutthegoalsofthelyrictheaterand pointedoutthat
balletthatraisedquestionsaboutthegenreofthedance
"we need to respondto modemtimes."Further,
he
butinnowayresolved
them,he didnotcreate
symphony
stated:"Theballet,preparing
a big
forthis,is rehearsing
ballet
ofthefirst
Thefailure
anyotherballetsymphonies.
TheBolsheviks,
whichshouldbe a thrilling
production,
exoffurther
immediately
putan end to thepossibility
to thedemandsofthetimes.It is a difficult
atresponse
in thatdirection.
The productions
Lopukhov temptand theaudiencemustsee thisprecisely
periments
as an atTchaikov- temptand take into accountall the difficulties
Fifth
contemplated Beethoven's
Symphony,
in- werenever
sky'sFourthand Liszt'sFaustSymphony
volved."15
untilthe late
staged.And formanyyears,practically
In its finalversionthe ballet,shownon October29,
1950s,the veryidea of a balletthatlacked concrete 1924,was calledTheRedWhirlwind.
A secondattempt
of
dramatic
contentprovokedsharpresistance.
Onlyafter thesamesort,presented
threeyearslater,was GoleizovtheballetTheLeningrad
Symphony,
stagedin 1961byIgor
sky'sballetwitha verysimilartitle-The Whirlwind.
did thatpointof
Belskyto the musicof Shostakovich,
choseexactlythesamesymLopukhovand Goleizovsky
view change.Balletsbegan to appear to symphonic bolic
- the imageof a vortex,a whirlwind,
a
image
music.
and otherformsofinstrumental
music,concerti,
anduprooting
hurricane
overtheearth,smashing
passing
Ofcourse,theseworksarenotall ofequalvalue,because
old.
everything
muchdependson thetalentofthechoreographer.
Only
The balletwas stagedby Lopukhov,according
to his
of
intermsofdance,"
thosewhoarecapableof"thinking
withmusicby VladimirDeshevov(the
own libretto,
and ideas,havethe
makingdancethebeareroffeelings
poem The Bolsheviks
expandedand reworkedforthe
totacklesuchprojects.
right
(an
dance).DeshevovwaslinkedtotheTRAMmovement
laterhe headed
theater
influential
social-political
group);
The Red Whirlwind
TRAMand wrote
themusicalsectionof theLeningrad
In his libeltto,
themusicformanyof its productions.
theballetfor
Allthosewhoduringthe1920sreproached
backwardness
pointedtotheabsencefromtherepertory Lopukhovalso workedwiththe formsof the agit-prot
naturalistic
on modemthemes.And,in fact,there
of productions
portrayal
politicalclub theater,combining
withallegory.
wereno suchballetsforquitea longtime.Ifbymodem
"a synthetic
Theauthors
calledthisproduction
balletsone meansthosethatdepicttoday'sevents,then
poemin
twoprocesseswitha prologueand an epilogue."Shortly
ofthe
therearenotso manyeveninourtime.Thecritics
the criticNikolaiNasilovwrote:
beforethe premiere,
or sixthanat thefactthatforthefifth
1920s,indignant
a new formofchoreography,
"The
will
Soviet
about
ballets
the
revolution
of
represent
poem
good
niversary
as theembodiment
notonlyin termsof itscontent,
of
peoplehadnotyetappeared,couldnothaveknownthat
in danceimages,
thisproblemwouldnotbe resolvedevenby theseven- politicalideasand theirmanifestations
becausethepoemis a spectaclein
butalso in thisform,
oftheOctoberRevolution.
tiethanniversary
and livespeechwill
whichdance,mime,choralsinging,
reflect
the
Like any otherart,balletmust,naturally,
be united."16
worldofthepeopleofitsage.Butinballeteven
spiritual
TheRed Whirlwind
thetheme
The
morethanin anyotherart,thisis notdonedirectly.
openedwitha prologue,
to theprogram,
was "a rejection
of
ofballetis definedmostoftennotbywhether ofwhich,according
modernity
the cross,the symbolof humilityand slavery"and "the

aspirationto the star - the symbol of struggleand
universalfreedom."In the firstact (process),an attempt
was made to metaphoricallypresent the proletarian
revolutionas a clash betweenthe forcesof "revolution"
and "counterrevolution."In related arts, including
drama,allegoriesand symbolswere oftenused to portray
therevolution.In therealmofthelyrictheaterthiscourse
seemedcorrectevento Lunacharsky.
In May 1924, a conferencewas held at the theatrical
museum concerningthe ideologicaland artisticgoals of
the officialtheaters.Here Lunacharskyexpressed his
viewsconcerningtheabilitiesofoperaand balletto create
a feerie or heroic spectacle essential to the masses.17
There is every reason to thinkthat Lopukhov,as the
leader of the opera and ballet theatercompany,was at
this conferenceand that what Lunacharskysaid could
his intentionto presenta dance
onlyhave strengthened
allegory.
The designer,Leonid Chupiatov,createdthe painted
sceneryforthe firstprocess - a backdropdepictinga
spiralfigurein severalshades of red,fromyellow-orange
to deep crimson.The themeof the firstprocesswas the
battle of revolutionaryand counterrevolutionary
elements,and as theforcesoflighttooktheupperhand,the
backgroundalso changed; the second spiral had more
whitesurfaces.
The performers
in the firstprocess were divided into
two groups:theforcesofrevolution(ElizavetaGerdt,VictorSemenov,and fortymale and femaledancers)and the
forcesof counterrevolution
(Leonid Petrovand twenty
studentsoftheballetschool).Chupiatovdesigneda single
dance uniformforthemall: a shorttunictightly
covering
thebodylikea bathingsuit,butwithstripsofclothon the
back, fastenedto the arms and legs, which suggested
wingsas theyblew about.The wingswere darkredforall
of them. Positive and negative characters were
distinguished
by the colorof theirtunics- whiteforthe
of the
soloists,orange-redforthe otherrepresentatives
"revolution,"and blackforthe "counterrevolution."
The Red Whirlwind
was shown almosttwo years after
thedance symphonyTheMagnificence
The
oftheUniverse.
oftheliterary
pretentiousness
programofthedance symphonyhad in itstimeprovokeda floodof mockingcommentaries.Nevertheless,in the firstpart of The Red
Whirlwind
Lopukhovdid somethingsimilar.He proposed
that in additionto the general symbol of the growing
surge,the dances would concretelyshow
revolutionary
"thebirthof socialism,thedawn and developmentofthe
and the
revolution,its strugglewith counterrevolution,
birthand affirmation
of communism."Here is how the
meaningof the nine numberscomprisingthisscene was
interpreted:
1. The accumulationof the elementsof the socialist
worldview withoutnationalistcoloration.2. The accumulatedmusical energyis transformed
into light
energy, reflectingthe ever-growingcomplex of
socialism. 3. The furthertransformation
of energy
frommusicto lightand thenintotheformof a living
organism. 4. A classical choreographic adagio
characterizing socialism. 5. The monolith of
socialism.6. The beginningsof the schism. 7. The
schism. 8. Revolutionand counterrevolution
(two
ofthestar.'8
themes).9. The affirmation
Now Lopukhov'sprogramreadsas a curiosity,
but also
as a documentof the age. It reflectsthe naive, sincere
aspirationoftheartist,who was veryfarfromunderstanding social processes, to take part in politics and
ofcourse,could
sociology.The choreographer's
intention,
notbe implementedin practice.Butwhat is important

in
balletis notthecontentoftheprogram,butwhathappens
on stage.
Classicaldance servedas thechiefmeansofexpression.
The choreographer
used movementsselectively,attempting to avoid anythingthatmightlook "unmodern"and
thatmightsuggestthe old "court" ballet.This led to an
impoverishmentof the lexicon, an imitationof gymnastics,which many at thattime used in oppositionto
"outdated" classicism.All the reviewerswrotethatthe
reducedto marchingaround;the
dancingwas simplified,
movementssuggestedSokol gymnasticexercises,rather
thandance, and overallthe performancesmackedof the
rhythmicmovements of the Dalcroze school. The
attestto this.*
photographs
The dancersforma compactgroup,down on one knee
in a row,in profiletowardtheaudience. Theirheads are
coveredwiththeir"wings," which mergewiththe dark
tunics.The lightlineoflegs,bentat theknee,outlinesthe
groupwith a zigzag.At the same time,several dancers
forma three-story
compositionupstage,standingon each
other'sshoulders.This is a real "pyramid,"like those
thenstagedat all theclub dramatizations
withathleteperformers.A frequentpose had arms and legs flungwide
open.A personin a redtunic,witha redband on hishead
and scrapsof calico fastenedto his armsand legs,would
imitatea five-pointed
star:his head, hands,and feetwere
seen as the five points. The star was constantly
reproducedin dance designsas well. In thephotographof
the finalscene of the firstprocess,the entiregroup of
dancersis positionedon the stagein the formof a large
star,overwhichrisesa solo ballerinaheld aloft,depicting
"revolution."
The dances of the "revolution,"executedby the two
were based, accordingto Lopukhov's
leadingperformers,
plan, on theoppositionbetweentwo principles:the firm
and irreconcilable,embodied in an energeticdance by
Semenov;and the compromise,whose embodimentwas
a gentle,"evasive" dance by Gerdt.As a result,the imperativeprinciplegainstheupperhand. Accordingto the
theiradagio,
program,thejointdance oftheprotagonists,
was intendedto characterizesocialism.Of course,no one
perceivedwhat was depictedon stageas "a variationof
opportunism"or as "an adagio of socialism,"but merely
as balletdances. The audience saw the usual duet and a
"selectionof the mostordinarytechnicalfigures."'9But
fromthe dances of
Lopukhov'sballetwas distinguished
the traditionalballet by the deliberatepaucity of exof the highestcaliberwere
pressivemeans. Professionals
puttingthemselveson a par with amateurproductions,
and the tremendouswealth of dance formsremained
unused.In imposingon the dance functionsalien to it *The Sokol League was a group in Czechoslovakia,
foundedby MiroslavTyrsin 1862,thatused gymnastics
and plastique forcovertpolitical,nationalistorganizing
under Austrianrule, especially during World War I.
Their activitiesincluded revived Greek games, living
tableaux,and mass exercises.Accordingto W. G. RaffU,
in Dictionaryof the Dance, Emile Jaques-Dalcrozeand
Rudolfvon Laban were interestedin the Sokol League,
whichheld international
and whichalso inconferences,
fluencedRussianphysicalculture.(Thus thereis a complex, zigzag network of lines of influence between
moderndance, as it developed in Americaand Central
Europe, and various manifestationsof the physical
culturemovementon both continentsand in the Soviet
Union.) The Nazis abolished the Sokol League but used
someoftheirtechniques.(Ed.)
Dance ResearchJournal17/2& 18/1/1985-86) 9
TheRed Whirlwind
(1924).
settingforththe contentof politicalslogans- Lopukhov

was askingfortrouble.And,in fact,he was criticized;his
choreographic compositions were seen as merely
illustrative.One of the reviewers wrote: "For some
reason the dancers form a circle around Gerdt and
Semenov together,i.e., evolution and revolutionare
at a workers'club, told to
united.Any sportsinstructor
forma pyramidon thistheme,would have done thisin a
more politically literate manner - he would have
removedevolutionfromthe pyramid,leaving only the
revolutionary,virile principle in the midst of the
'20
workers."'
In contrast
The secondact was treatedquitedifferently.
to the first,where a certainabstractidea of revolution
was supposed to be expressed,here the intentwas to
show the participantsin the strugglewith the greatest
The decor was stillsymbolic.The
possible authenticity.
red starthathad crownedthe firstprocess (the dancers
formedits outline with theirred cape-wings)now appearedas thebasic elementofthe set. It occupied almost
the entire backdrop, surrounded by houses and
whichtheartisthad depictedfromabove, as
skyscrapers,
a great height.This decor served as the
from
though
backgroundforthe firstepisodes of the act thatfollowed
In theprogramtheyare listedas
themusicalintroduction.
follows:
1. Musical Call. 2. The Citizens Awaiting the
Revolution.3. The Revolution.4. The Entranceof
thePlunderers.5. The Entranceofthe Supportersof
the Revolution.6. The Anguishof the Citizensand
the Entranceof the Drunken Rabble. 7. The Dance
of the DrunkenRabble and TheirArrest.8. The EntranceofthePeople CrackingSunflowerSeeds.
Those who fear the Revolutionappeared on stage:
people belonging to classes abolished during the
revolution- women with parasols, in dresses with
flouncesand in hats,respectablegentlemenin longovercoats. Both their costumes and their behavior looked
completelyrealistic.The defendersof the revolutionalso
appeared: sailors,workers,and Red Guards,also shown
withdown-to-earth
realism.And finally,the dregsof the
revolution,its scum: hooligans,plunderers,waifs, and
in thedance ofthe "drunkenrabble."
otherparticipants
Lopukhov wanted the second scene of this act to be
ties
pervadedby thethemeofthegraduallystrengthening
betweencityand country.The previousset was replaced
bya new one wherenextto thestarand thecitybuildings
stood the large frame of a countrycottage,takingup
almosta fourthofthebackdrop.Againstthisbackground,
eleven scenes were performed,
includingthreedescribed
almostidenticallyin theprogram:"the firstcontactofthe
citywiththe country"(No. 9), "the second contactofthe
citywiththe country"(No. 14), and "the thirdcontactof

thecitywiththecountry"(No. 19). Betweenthemwere a
colorful"devil's sabbathof the black marketeers"(Nos.
12 and 13),a wild, recklessdance of the riff-raff
(Nos. 15
and 16), and pantomimescenes with the motherof a
(Nos. 10 and.11). The dances were accomrevolutionary
paniedby a spokentext shoutsand songs.A performer
m theproduction,Leonid Lavrovsky,recalls:"The actors
black marketeersappeared on the stage with
portraying
sacks over their shoulders,approached the footlights,
turnedto the audience with the words 'Meat! Butter!'
etc., tossed their sacks away, and danced."21 The
used gymnastic,acrobaticmovements.In
choreographer
the dance of the riff-raff,
lads dressed in bell-bottomed
trousers and open shirts formed a "wheel" and a
"bridge" and walked on theirhands. Disheveled, lively
girls marveled at their agility. Pretending to be
arms,spreading
frightened,
theyfellintotheirpartners'
theirlegs wide and revealingblue bloomersstickingout

fromundertheirshortskirts.The dance was crownedby
a rollickingsong.In contrastto it rosethesongoftheRed
Army soldiers (No. 17), foreshadowingthe Mayday
procession and The Oath, (No. 18), intended as the
culminationoftheact.
There was a change of scenery.The star changed its
outline: Instead of peaceful straightlines there were
agitated twists. Bending, it flew as if seized by a
whirlwind,on a backgroundof stormclouds and unfurledbanners that covered the skyscrapersand huts.
The lower edge of the star merged with the flagsthat
people were carryingand the star itselfresembled a
scarletbannerbeingtornfromtheirhands. However,the
action on stage lacked dynamism. In the photograph
thereis a largemotionless
crowdfacingtherightwings,
where a groupof people holds a widthof clothwiththe

inscription"Greetingsto the Comintern."There are also
Pioneerswithdrums,workersin blouses,and peasantsin
whiteshirts.Behindthemare Red Guards withbanners,
and upstage,a brass band. Everyonestands with their
hands raised identicallyin greetingand, despitethe externalrealismof the costumesand accessories,theylook
unnatural.It was notsurprising
thatthe reviewerswrote
thatthe Mayday processionproved much less attractive
in the theaterthanin real life.This was also trueof the
final "union of the peasant with the worker." The
"genuine" peasants, feet clumsilyshod in bast shoes,
scratchingthemselveswill all due naturalversimilitude,
lackedartistictruth,
just liketheposterboardworkers.
The majorflawin the second act of The Red Whirlwind
was the fact that only the negativedramatispersonae
were characterizedin dance. Despite the intentionsof
for Lopukhov as choreographer
Lopukhov as librettist,
thecentralepisodesof theact provedto be "the dance of
the drunkenrabble," "the devil's sabbath with sacks,"
and the "dance and song of the riff-raff."

All these
people, who even recentlycould have been seen in the
darkalleysof Petrograd,were in theirown way unusual
and picturesque.Theylived in a worldofdefinitesounds
and visual images that were easily theatricalized.The
motleyrags were picturesque in their own way; the
thieves' songs - all those "Alesha-shas" and "Mamamamas" gave riseto a special rhythmof movementand
suggesteda dance theme;the exaggeratedmannersand
the stragglinggait transferredeasily into a boisterous
dance. This was a spectacleof its own, easy to capture
and develop by transforming
the social typesinto stage
images.
Lopukhov was not alone in sensing the possibilities
inherentin such a theme.The colorfulway of lifeof the
streetshad alreadybeen broughtto the music-hallstage
beforeit came to the ballet theater;Tverbul(Tverskoi
Boulevard) by Foregger (1922-23) preceded The Red
In many dance revues of those years there
Whirlwind.
were scenes with typicalreal-lifefigures:the waif, the
lady with her handbag swiped by a streeturchin,the
street-sweeper,the militia-man,and so on. But the
theater,and even moreso the lyrictheater,was stillgettingused to thistheme.In thelate 1920s,thetheatertruly
gave it its due. The firstSoviet operettasthatappeared
shortlyafter The Red Whirlwind(Rudolph Mervolf's
ofAmong
Dunya theFineSpinner,1926,the performance
ThreePine Treesby the Blue Blouse group,* 1927, and
skid-row
others),also showed the inevitable riff-raff,
bums, down-and-outpeople, and other characters,
makingbroad use of slangand streetsongs.Slices of life
picked up fromthe past, stillfreshin the memory,also
appearin theearlyoperason modernthemes,suchas For
RedPetrograd
byArsenyGladkovskyand EvgenyPrussak
(1925), and especiallyin Deshevov's opera Ice and Steel
(1930),whereone ofthecentralscenestookplace in a flea
market.Prokofiev'sballetLe Pas d'Acier,shown abroad
in 1927, also includedepisodes entitled"the trainwith
black marketeers,""cigarettehawkers," et cetera, but
heremostimportant
was thescene at thefactory
withthe
"dances ofthemachines."
Dealing with positive figureswas much more complicated.Such charactersas workers,Red Armysoldiers,
and sailorsfoundtheirplace on thedramaticstageat this
time,but onlyin the theatersof the "leftfront."In June
1924,the MeyerholdTheatertouredin Leningrad.They
performedthe politicalrevue The EarthReared Up, in
which real motorcyclesdrove across the stage with a
deafeningroarand dusty,hoarse soldiersburstin along
withthem,brandishingreal rifles.The premiereof D.E.
was also presented.Here theychased a football,marched
to an accordion,and did biomechanicalexercises.The extremeauthenticity
of theportrayalswas impressive.The
use of certai, real-lifedetails - in the contextof a
theatricalperformance- became an accepted device.
WhenTheRed Whirlwind
appearedfourmonthslater,the
criticsdid notfailto reproachLopukhovwiththefactthat
he had put dressed-upmannequinson stage insteadof
people. Whathad been successfulin dramadid notcome
offat all in ballet. The choreographercould not finda
visual expressionforhis theme.The illustrativequality
contradicted
theabstractqualityofthedance.
*The Blue Blouse was an agit-proptheatergroupthat
specializedin "livingnewspapers,"multimediapolitical
revues.They publisheda journal of the same name that
foramateurgroupsto follow.
gave textsand instructions
The titleoftheirplay refersto theRussianfolksaying"to
lose one's way among threepines," i.e., to get lost in
broaddaylight.(Ed.)
Fortyyears later,Lopukhovcalled The Red Whirlwind

his "greatestfailure." It is difficultto argue with an
evaluationgivenby theauthorofa work,lookingback at
it so much later.Yes, The Red Whirlwind
was a failure;
thisis borneout bothby the rathereloquentresponsesof
thepressand by the fateof the ballet,whichwas shown
to an audience only once. Nevertheless, The Red
is thefirstballetabouttheOctoberRevolution.
Whirlwind
Lopukhovaspiredto conquerheightsthatwhentheballet
was in rehearsal (1923-24) had not even been fully
masteredby drama,letalone thelyrictheater.He aspired
to theseheightswithoutthe possibilityof guidancefrom
the experienceof his predecessors- he simplydidn't
have any - verydimlyimaginingwhat routehe should
follow. Literatureand the related arts - drama, the
music-hallstage- pointedto two possibilities:on theone
hand, a metaphoricalmeans forconveyingthe ideas of
thegrandeurand poweroftheproletarianrevolution,
and
on the other,the naturalistic
chronicle.To unitethemin
one workwas a mistaketo beginwith. Lopukhovnotes
thisin his own analysisof his ballet.But theproblemlay
elsewhere.
Abstractformand pure illustration
equally contradicted the specificnature of ballet. Only the posterboard
grotesque, which became the standard method for
enemies of the revolution,revealed new
characterizing
dance possibilities.Gvozdev was rightwhen, six months
earlier,he had warned choreographers:"If you rush
headlongtowardthe new slogansof modernartwithout
subjectingthemto an organicreworkingwithinballetitself,as a specificstage genre,then ruinis inevitable."23
Lopukhov wanted to continue working on The Red
in particularto develop "the entranceof the
Whirlwind,
Pioneersin dance."24Buthe was notable to returnto the
production.
Nighton Bald Mountain
A Tale About the Fox, the Rooster, the Cat and the
Ram (Renard)
Lopukhovas an artistwas an inventorand a pioneer.He
was irrepressibly
attractedto the new, and forhim the
new appeared in variousguises. Nevertheless,thereis a
line that can be tracedthroughoutthe choreographer's
work- theincarnation
ofRussianfolkloreon stage.
Even beforethewar,a dance fromtheRiazan** region
was among the numbersLopukhovstagedforhis sister
Evgeniaand herpartnerAlexanderOrlov.This piece was
performedformany years. "The highlyartisticRiazan
dance of Lopukhova and Orlov" are mentionedin the
descriptionof the Mayday celebration of 1920.25A
publicitynoticeforthe Petrograddancers'appearancein
Moscow observed,"The Riazan dance was trulya triumph and we repeatit threetimesat everyperformance.26
In theearly1920s,theoreticians
and practitioners
ofthe
theatershowed a special interestin ethnographyand
were attractedby the traditionaltheater.On the one
hand, ancienttheatricalformswere restored,including
dance rituals. Beginningin 1923, there was the ExperimentalTheater in Petrograd,headed by Vsevolod
whichproduced,in particular,
A
Vsevolodsky-Gerngross,
RussianFolk Wedding
Ritual.In 1925 in Moscow,theFirst
Scientific
Theaterpresentedthe "songsand
Ethnographic
rounddances at theVolga Region,""theexorcismdances
oftheshamans,"et cetera.On theotherhand,duringthe
firstyearsaftertherevolution,manytheaterpeople were
possessedby theidea ofa new "folktheater"thatwould
**Riazan, near Moscow, is one of the most ancient
Russiancities.(Ed.)
Dance ResearchJournal17/2& 18/1(1985-86) 11
methodsofstreettheater,with
growout ofthetraditional
its dynamism, buffoonery, and improvisational
techniques.Here the idea was not one of ethnographic
verisimilitude
but of a selectionof the expressivemeans
of folk art, in keeping with the age. Such productions
were staged,forinstance,by SergeiRadlovin his Theater
ofPopularComedy,whichwas activefrom1920 to 1922
in the Iron Hall of the PetrogradPeople's House. Radlov
himselfwrotescenariosfor"circuscomedies,"usingthe
methodsof the Italian commedia dell'arte;he intended
them for actors' improvisations.He also presented
classical comedies interpretedwith various eccentric
tricks.
Lopukhovwas interestedin such experiments.Instead
ofthe clichesof TheLittleHumpbackedHorse,he wanted
to produce a trulyfolkloric"skit." He believed that a
causticjoke, maliciousmockery,and bold laughtercould
art.Moreover,the
become tools fora new revolutionary
humor allowed
devices of Russian buffoon(skomorokh)
one to createa performancewhere "baringthe device"
would become a rule of the game,where the actionperformedwould be only a stagingof the action and the
dance an imitationof dancing.Tryingto prove the continuedvalue ofbuffoonplay,tricks,and jibes, Lopukhov
wrote that it was exactly"rightnow - given the conaboutprinciplesoftheatricalproduction"- that
troversy
As partofthe "controverthiswas especiallynecessary.27
sy about principles"in the 1920s, the authorproduced
severalsuchbuffoonproductions.
In January1921, Lopukhov composed the dances for
Rimsky-Korsakov's
opera TheSnowMaiden.This was his
debutin his own theater.Asafievnotedthe
choreographic
"The balletdancers'
successoftheyoungchoreographer.
in the
performanceof 'buffoonplay by the skomorokhi'
thirdact was a daringinnovationin the choreographer
Lopukhov'sproduction.This stagingis so clever,original,
thatone can onlyrejoice
fresh,and musicallythoughtful
and welcomethisyoungtalent."28
In the same year, the newspaper Zhizn Iskusstva
notifiedits readers that a new ballet to the music of
Mussorgsky'ssymphonicpoem Nighton Bald Mountain
had been includedin the repertory.29
However,thisannouncementproved premature.The ballet was shown
and
muchlater- in thespringof 1924,afterTheFirebird
In theprogramtheballet
TheMagnificence
oftheUniverse.
devilish
Lopukhovhad createdwas called a "buffoonish,
spectacle."
Beforethe orchestrabegan, a noisy band of buffoons
withlittlebells appeared in frontof the curtain.A herald
appearedwiththemand summonedthecrowd.The performerin thisrole,the famousmime artistSoliannikov,
had considerableexperiencein the dramatictheaterand
Lopukhovgave himquitea largespokenpart.
"Hey, you! Good People! Young valiants,fairmaidens,
come hither,come hear how Chernobogcouples with
Ezhi-Babaon Bald Mountain!"Then he crossedto a rock
and witha wave of his hand ("Let the show begin!"),the
started.
performance
The balletincludedbotha callingof a coven and devil
worshipin thespiritofa black mass {forexample,among
the performersthere is a "censer-bearer").There was
also a devil's sabbathwithwitches,devils,and skeletons,
played by the studentsof the ballet school. However,
despite an external resemblance to the composer's
program,the images were interpretedcompletelydifferently.
Mussorgskytookancientpopularbeliefsveryseriously
of the folk imagination.Here he is
as a manifestation
similarto Gogol; it is no accidentthatduringthe lifeof
the composerthe idea alreadyexistedof includingNight
on Bald Mountain in the opera SorochinskyFair.*

Mussorgskywanted to paint a colorfulpictureof the
celebrationby thewitchesand devils on Bald Mountain,
In orderto understand
a sortof RussianWalpurgisnacht.
the "mood" of the devil's sabbath,he even turnedto
documentsof the interrogations
of people accused of
witchcraft.
Lopukhovtranslatedall thisto a level of deliberately
theatricalized"buffoonery."He wanted to depict the
"buffoonsmockingthe churchritual" of a Christianity
violentlyforcedupon AncientRus: The pagans met in
secretand performeda parodyin whichthe main actors
In the musicthereis a
were Chernobogand Ezhi-Baba.30
real unleashingof diabolic forces,a stormyorgy.(The
composerwrote: "The generalcharacterof the music is
was contrivedand, in the
torrid.").Lopukhov'streatment
of
cold atGvozdev,
opinion
"suggestsan intellectually
titudetowarda 'devilishspectacle.'"31
was in oppositionbothto
However,thisinterpretation
character
themusicand to thepassion thatthe first-class
dancersAndreiLopukhovand Olga Fedorova(inanother
cast, Valentina Ivanova) broughtto the roles of Chernobogand Ezhi-Baba.The appearanceof Ezhi-Babaon a
two-wheeledcartdrawnby fourcarterswas themosteffectivemomentin the ballet. In the veryimmobilityof
red tights,therewas
her figure,covered in close-fitting
somethingof a flamefrozenforan instant,readyto incinerateat anymoment.Headingthemad rounddance of
- they
the witches,both performers
were magnificent
were able to sense and conveythespiritofMussorgsky's
music. Lopukhovcreateda richduet forChernobogand
Ezhi-Baba, with varied outlines and newly invented
steps; it featuredsupportsof the male dancer by the
ballerina. But most of the group dancers, in the
reviewers'opinion,lackingtruedynamics("crowdingon
thestage,and just that,"wroteGvozdev),lookedchaotic.
SoliannikovcomplainedthatLopukhov ignoredthe expansive natureof Russian dances and composeddances
with "tiny,crampedmovements,which sometimestur'
ned intoa kindofrhythmic
'patter."32
The decor also was not really in keeping with
Lopukhov's intent:One of the backdrops,drawn by
Korovinforsome otherplay,portrayeda thicketand the
moon breaking through the clouds. The "buffoon"
elementreallyonlyappearedin thepatternedwings.The
multi-coloredcostumes by Makari Domrachev were
intentions.
morein linewiththechoreographer's
The next time he trieda "buffoonplay," Lopukhov
enlistedthesupportofbothcomposerand designer.Right
afterNighton Bald Mountain,he decided to stageA Tale
AbouttheFox, theRooster,theCat, and theRam (Renard)
by Stravinsky,with decor and costumes by Vladimir
Dmitriev.However,the productionhad to be postponed
until the score of the ballet (writtenin 1916-17)was
receivedfromabroad.The ballet'spremieretookplace in
France in 1922 (choreographerBronislava Nijinska;
designerMichel Larionov). Lopukhov's ballet did not
reachthestageuntil1927.
indicatedthatthe textof Renardshould be
Stravinsky
sungby foursingerswho did not participatedirectlyin
the action. Located in the orchestra,which Stravinsky
recommendedbe put at the back of the stage,theyperformedtherolesofthefourcharactersofthesubtitle.
The firstscene beginswithloud criesfromtherooster,
offhis enemiesand praisinghimalternately
frightening
self.The foxappears dressed as a nun and in unctuous
tones,like a sanctimoniouspilgrim,urgesthe roosterto
*Walt Disney later used Mussorgsky'smusic in the
demonicsectionofFantasia.(Ed.)
12 Dance ResearchJournal17/2& 18/1(1985-861
repent.Theirwittydialogueconcludeswiththerooster
intothefox'spaws. In responseto his sorrowful
falling
thebraveheroes- thecatand theramlamentations,
and
drive
offthefox.
appear
To facetious
therooster,
thecat,and theram
singing,
begintodance.Theytauntthefoxandteaseherabouther
ways.In thesecondscene,thefoxagainaphypocritical
butthistimein an ingratiating
pearsbeforetherooster,
voiceshedescribes
thecharmsofworldly
life.Againthe
lead to misfortune.
oftherooster
greedand imprudence
Andagainhisfriends
cometohisaid. Theythreaten
the
fox.Frightened,
sheconductsa dialoguewithher"little
howtruly
eyes,""littlelegs,"and "tail,"testing
theyserve her.Buthertailbetrays
thefox:"I clungto stumps,
bushes,andlogsso thatwildanimalswouldgrabthefox
and carryheraway."The catand theramdragthefox
fromherlairbythetailandkillher.Thedefeated
enemy
becomesa buttforwitticisms:
Proverbs,cleverembellishments
on thetale,and mockingbon motsspew
forth.
Dancers,clowns,and acrobatshad to depictsimulinthetext,(preferably
on
taneouslywhatwas setforth
a trestlestage,"Stravinsky
indicated).The musicand
the text provided magnificent material for
stageplay,suggesting
witty,
parodicaction.Therewere
for amusingdance-clowning,
opportunities
grotesque
betweencharacters,
and dance-satires,
for
dance-fights
chants
example,duringtheparodyof the ecclesiastical
thatcharacterize
thefoxinthefirst
part.Hereeverything
hadtobe different
fromtraditional
ballet- thedirection
andthedecor,theactingandthedancing.Lopukhov
understood
this.
Together with the designer Dmitriev, the
the
choreographer
soughta generalprinciple
governing
ballet.Actiontookplace onlyin theforeground
of the
and
stage.Theflatshapesofpinetreesofvariousheights
colorsservedas background.
The styleof a primitive
was emphasized
popularprint(lubok)in thisstaging
by
such detailsas the multi-colored
sun, decoratedwith
andan ornatecloud,whichthebuffoons
carried
designs,
outonpoles.
Theperformers
weredressedinRussianblouses,men's
coats,and leatherbootswithpleats.They
long-waisted
weredistinguished
by thedetailsoftheircostumesand
accessories:
Thefoxworea cap intheformofa animal's
headandtail;theramhad a blackcurlysheepskin
coat,
curvedhorns,
anda braiddownhisback;therooster
had
a reddishevelled
wig,a beard,and spurs;thecathad a
smoothwigwitha part,a headdresslikea cat'sface,a
anda tail.In addition
tothefourmain
waistcoat,
striped
a largenumberofsupintroduced
characters,
Lopukhov
characters.
inred
servants
porting
Theyincludedbuffoon
lilacloose-fitting
caftans,
trousers,
yellowsocks,andbast
who portrayed
a jaggedboughwith
shoes,a buffoon
twigsand leavesontowhichtheroosterleaped,and so
on.
Studentsfromthe ballet school performed

in the
Sketchesof the costumesforthe children
production.
playingthefox'slittleeyesand thefox'stailhavebeen
tailwereputon
preserved:
Huge eyesor a largefurry
overa peasantcostumecovering
theentireupperpartof
thetorsoand head,so thatbelow,onlythetrousers
and
feet,in bastshoes,werevisible.Eventheobjectsmentionedinthetextwerebrought
tolife:a knife,
a window,
a stump.Children
appearedwithlittle
pinetreesfastened
to theirbacks;theperformers
thefox'spaws
portraying
therewerealso completely
injumpedon stilts.Finally,
- "littleeffigies"
characters
and "little
comprehensible
andtotopeverything
off,sixspeckledhens
subeffigies,"
withlittleredcombs(theywereplayedby thesmallest
who"laideggs"right
onstage.
students)
calledRenard"a shortburlesqueforstreet
Stravinsky
and undoubtedly
thattheartperformances,"33
thought
istswouldperform
and dancein itdifferently
thanthey
didintheold "classical"ballet.Lopukhovusedthehuge
Theaterand dancerswho had
stageof the Maryinsky
been trainedwithinthe ballettradition.
Of coursehe
understansoughtnewmeansofkineticexpressiveness,
comdingthatheretheoldoneswouldnotdo. Lopukhov
and "feline"movements
so thatit
posed "roosterish"
wouldbe clearthatthebuffoons
wereportraying
these
animals.In Asafiev'sopinion,
inthiswayLopukhov
was
able to communicate
in stagemovement
one oftheimportantfeaturesof the music:It was "not a realistic
ofanimalhabitsand steps,buta buffoonreproduction
in rhythm
imitation
and movement,
in
like,performer's
danceandacrobatics."34
"Buffoon-like
action"requiresgraphic,precise,and
aboveall illustrative,
butnotdecorative,
elastic,
gestures;
and virtuoso
movements;
dynamic
playwithobjects.In
addition
toexcellent
dancetechnique,
theperformers
had
tomasteratleastthebasicsofcircusperforming;
without
thisit wouldhave been impossible
to portray
thebufacrobatsand clowns.
foons,who were by definition
somersaults
and insistedthatthe
Lopukhovintroduced
dancerslearnto walkeasilyon stiltsand climba pole.
Gvozdevwas hardlyrightwhenhe wrote:"He did not
makehisperformers
trainforthesakeofthenewproducthemonlywhattheycouldgive."35
tion,buttookfrom
Butapparently
theindividual
didnotsucceedin
strokes
a totalpicture.The dance pantomimewith
forming
acrobatics and clowning, which was dynamic,
and still clearlyillustrated
the music,
mischievous,
demandedthatattention
be focusedon theperformer.
Lopukhovwas afraidto leavethedancersaloneone-toonewiththeaudience.Possiblyhe was afraidofleaving
thebroadtheater
he filleditwithall sortsof
stageempty;
supportingcharacters.Photographsshow some individualmoments
oftheaction:Herearethecharacters
withanimalheaddresses
andwithout
them,someoneon
stilts,someoneclimbinga rope,no less thanfifteen
youngsters
squattingalongthe backdrop- eitheran
servants.
Thereis also the"sun"
"audience,"orbuffoon
and thechildren
dressedas hens,withlargewhiteeggs
hangingbetweentheirlegs. In short,the stagewas
packedwithpeople.
Lopukhovdid notconsiderit possibleto changethe
tradition
to whichthemusicians
and theconaccording
ductorinan operatic
theater
areintheorchestra
pit,but
he did notseatthesingersin theorchestra;
he brought
themon stagewiththedancersandmimes.In doingthis,
thedirector
brokethe"ruleofthegame"stipulated
quite
precisely
bythecomposer.
Thecritics
considered
Lopukhov's
greatest
slipthefact
thefunctions
ofthesingers,
that,byextending
he created
a secondcastofmaincharacters.
AlongwithKonstantin
Boris
Zuykov(theFox),AndreiLopukhov(theRooster),
Komarov
(theCat),andVasilyVainonen(theRam),opera
artistsalso performed:
Ivan Ershov(in anothercast
NikolaiKuklin),VasilyTikhiy(in anothercast Vasily
Kalinin),AlexanderFomin,and NikolaiButiagin.The
singersweredressedin thesame costumesas thedanwas thatthe latterwore the
cers;the onlydifference
animalfaceontheheadandtheformer
haditfastened
to
thewaist.EvenAsafiev,
whowasmuchlesscritical
ofthe
thantheothercritics,
production
wrote:"Themistakein
thismostinteresting
andundeservedly
dismissed
productionwas notin itsprinciples,
but in the 'doubling'of
andactors:Eithertheyshouldhavebeensharply
singers
as in Stravinsky,
or the singersshouldhave
separated,
been 'whipped into shape' (but this of course is unSoliannikovdescribesthe confusionof the
thinkable)."36
audience beforewhom "foxes,rams and roosters'begin
to duplicate'...."37The doublingof images did not make
themmore vivid,nor did it add the mischievousnessof
ofthefox:
sheerfarce.Gvozdev describestheperformers
"On the stagestood (and I mean stood - nothingmore,
thoughwe expectmovementfromthe ballet!)a boringlookingcharacterin the styleof a 'muzhika la russe.'
Next to him hopped his double, a dancer with a mask.
Bothlacked thesharpflavorand thehintofmockerythat
resoundin themusicalaccompaniment."38
so ringingly
extra characterson the stage also had a
up
Piling
negativeeffecton the music. The orchestra,which was
conducted by Alexander Gauk, was somewhat larger
had proposed.Nevertheless,it
thanthegroupStravinsky
was poorly heard. "...The orchestrapit seemed to be
some sortof a hole fromwhich only scraps of separate
sounds emerged."39The critics complained that the
singersdid not keep time with the musicians,that the
stampingand thestiltsofall those"littleeffigies"muffled
thechamber-music
qualityoftheensemble.
The premiereofRenardtookplace on January2, 1927.
Afterthis,the ballet ran only once more, althoughon
February6, there was a public viewing forjournalistworkers. Each time, these performancesended with
noisy arguments, almost brawls, in the audience.
Eyewitnessesrecall that enterprisingpeople organized
whistlesales in the theater.The journal ZhiznIskusstva
wrote: "Whenever Stravinsky'sballet Renardis performed, thereis an incident.Passions are so inflamedthat
partof the audience whistleswhen it ends. The leadership of the theaterhad to take energeticmeasures,right
up to the detentionof theballetomaneswho so zealously
express their feelings about the production. Several
people were arrestedand turnedoverto thepolice."40
The noticesthatappeared afterthepublicviewingalso
show thatmost of the audience did not understandthe
ballet. Several confessethattheyviewed the 17-minute
productionas a confusingprologueto an upcomingballet
and were completelysurprisedwhen the whole thing
ended.
Of course,the complexmodernmusicofRenardis not
immediatelyunderstood by the unprepared listener.
Stravinsky,afterall, was not creatingan ethnographic
work with direct quotationsfromfolk sources, nor a
stylizationas a farce. Afterhaving assimilateda considerableamountof song and dance material,he boldly
it intoa new typeofart.In his own way the
transformed
was faced with a similartask. It is most
choreographer
preciselydefinedby the same words Asafiev used in
of
characterizingStravinsky'smusic when he spoke
thebuffoongrotesquein a new context- not
"recreating
in a farce,but in the frameworkof the highestartistic
theapplicationof flexiblemodernmeans of
culture,with"4
expression...
The criticsofthepremiereagreedthattheabstruseness
withtheperceptionofthemusic.
ofthestaginginterfered
However, in analyzingthe reasons for the failure of
Renard a half-centurylater, a modern scholar of
Lopukhov'swork,Galina Dobrovolskaya,triedto understandthe natureof the choreographer'sexperimentand
came to differentconclusions. She believes that in
dividing each role between a dancer and a singer,
Lopukhovgave to each one thatwhich belongedto his
art.The singers,givenwords,took upon themselvesthe
pantomimeand actingpart of the role, while the ballet
dancersworkedin the sphereof pure dance and did not
tryto illustratethe text, since that was not what the
saw as thegoal ofthedancing.This was a
choreographer
stagingdevice complexenoughto approachStravinsky's

music, which Asafievdescribedas the "highestartistic
culture'and "modemmeansofexpression":However,the
experimentwas by no means a total success and the
who by
critics(particularlyGvozdev and Sollertinsky),
the late 1920s were preoccupied by the idea of the
of dance, did not seen the pointof thisatdramatization
tempt.
AgreeingwithDobrovolskaya'sideas,we see in Renard
failureby Lopukhov,but one of the
not an unfortunate
firstapplicationson the ballet stage of the principleof
"doubling,"at presentratherwidespread(two Hermans
in the ballet The Queen of Spades, staged by Nikolai
twoMayakovskysin RolandPetit'sAllumez
Boyarchikov;
les Etoiles!;five Nijinskysin Maurice Bejart's Nijinsky,
ClownofGod,etc.).But,as was thecase withmanyofthe
choreographer'searly attempts, this discovery was
neitherunderstoodnor developed. The theaterdid not
take up Gvozdev's call - to develop Renard "in
fashion,in thestudio,eagerlylearningthrough
laboratory
thismarvelousmaterial."42
Lopukhovwas notallowed to
returnto this ballet. Renardwas shown to an audience
onlythreetimes.
[Here Souritz devotes a section to Lopukhov's
Pulcinella,which was based not only on commedia
dell'artetechniques,but also on imagesfromsilentfilm
comedies.]
The Ice Maiden
Pavel Petrov'sballetSolveig,stagedin 1922,had closed in
itsveryfirstseason. However,Asafievhad done a great
ofmusic,
deal of workon theselectionand orchestration
and thedecorand costumesby AlexanderGolovinewere
very successful. Several years later, Exkusovich,the
directorof the officialtheaters,thoughtof revivingthe
ballet"and approachedLopukhov.
idea ofa "northern
The premiereof Lopukhov'sballettookplace on April
27, 1927. This stagingof Grieg'smusic,whichin itsnew
versionreceivedthetitleTheIce Maiden,provedto be one
and the only
ofthe mostpopularballetsin the repertory
one of Lopukhov's works of the 1920s that was performeduntilalmost1937.
Apparently this was unexpected, even by the
choreographerhimself; Lopukhov admits that he
hesitatedfora long time beforeacceptingExkusovich's
proposal.No revelationswere to be expectedfromsuch a
ballet as The Ice Maiden to Grieg's music. AfterThe
PulMagnificenceof the Universe,The Red Whirlwind,
cinella,and Renard,wherethe connectionwiththe newest experimentsin art was obvious, a fairytaleballet,
traditionalin structureand reminiscentof nineteenthlooked like a digression.The
centuryballets-feeries,
critics,who a year earlier had ferventlysupported
Pulcinella,expressedconcernthat The Ice Maiden might
signal a returnto the positionof the pre-Fokine"old
ballet."All themoreso, sincetheproductionkepta great
deal fromSolveig.
The setsof 1922 were used in theirentirety,
withvery
littleremodeling.Almostall thecostumeswere also used
and relativelyfewnew ones added. But Lopukhovmade
a numberof changesin the libretto,and the music was
alteredaccordingly.Work on the additionsto the score
was done by Asafiev and
and the instrumentation
AlexanderGauk.
The musical introductionto the new version of the
music was a halling*(Op. 71, no. 5). Thus, the national
characterof the workwas immediatelymade clear. The
lively scene opening the production (to the music
"Solveig's Song") stressedthatthis was a world of fan-
14 Dance ResearchJournal17/2& 18/1(1985-86}
Old women in The Ice Maiden (1927).
tasy,butfantasythatalso had a nationalcoloration.

In the centerof the stagestooda dry,hollowtree,and
at its foota groupof childrenon skis surroundedan old
Norwegianman who was tellingthema fairytale;in the
tree stood the Ice Maiden, in the acrobaticpose "the
ring."This pose immediatelyservedto characterizeher.
The maiden did not floaton a cloud of tulle like an airy
sylph,nordid she gaze outfrombehinda treetrunklikea
mischievousdryad.The profileoutlineof the bentbody,
which formeda resilientcircle with one leg stretched
back and thearmthrownback, createda completelydifferentimpression.The precise,graphicallyclear position
was as pliantas a snakeand coldlypassionless.
The action began with the cortegeof winter,to the
music of "Gnomes' tune" (no Op., no. 2), performedby
the charactersof Norwegianlegends- mountainspirits,
trolls, and monsters.In the lead was a remarkable
creature- tall and thin,with exaggeratedlylong arms
and fingers,a hooked nose, and a fantasticmane of
streaming,dishevelledcurls; the mime actor Vladimir
Goss createdunusuallyexpressivemake-up.Behindhim
came all sortsof evil forestand mountainspiritswith
hugeheads and frightening
physiques- shaggy,twisted,
bobbing,hobblingcreatures.The complicatedmasksand
props were createdby the sculptorSergeiEvseyev. The
monsters pulled huge sleighs crowded with moon
maidens. After circling the stage, the whole group
gathered in the middle. Then the little trolls (small
studentsfromtheballetschool)withwhitebeards,in red
trousersand red caps, began to dance. The trollsheld littlepine treesin theirhands.
The winterprocession had a spiritof folklore.The
authors admired fairytaleromanticismand showed it
slightlyhumorously.Even the uglinessof the evil spirits
was more amusingthan ominous. In contrastto Ibsen's
trolls("The Cave of the Mountain King" in Peer Gynt)
here the monsterswere amusingcreatures,not spiritsof
darkness.Such an interpretation
was doubtlesscloserto
Grieg.And later,when a man came to the snow mountains,he was metby an opponentwho was threatening,
even cruel,but not the embodimentof dark, base, evil
feelings.
When the procession had gone offstage,"Solveig's
Song" was heardagai. FromthefarwingsAsak (Gusev)
appearedon skis.On reachingthemiddleofthestage,he
stoppedand looked around,delightedby the beauty of
the forest.Then he diopped to one knee. He grew pensive. Andthen,as thoughshe were theembodimentofhis
dream,themaiden(Mungalova)roseunseenfrombehind
him (she was raised througha small trapdoordevice).
*A Norwegian folkdance,performedby men, that
(Ed.)
displaysacrobaticvirtuosity.
Thus began the adagio to the music "Notturno"(Op. 54,

no. 4), which served as an openingforthe action. Here
of the Ice Maiden, painted in one
the characterization
strokein theprologue,was developed.
talentsof Mungalova
Lopukhovused theextraordinary
ofherthin,elasticbody
and Gusev,thestriking
flexibility
and his strengthand agility,to create a fantasticimage.
of
Bothwere famouson the popular stageas performers
athleticdances, in which classical style merged with
gymnastics.Mungalova recounts that after they had
listenedto "Notturno,"Lopukhovsuggestedthatshe and
Gusev trythe individualmovementshe had planned.
"Fedor Vasilievichasked me if I could standon Gusev's
shoulder,and if so, thento do an arabesque standingon
his shoulder;the descent fromhis shoulder absolutely
had to be a slide."43Duringthispreparatory
experiments
the famous"ring"was also born.As a joke, Gusev tried
to stretchthe dancer's leftleg, raised behindher,to her
right hand, as he just barely supported her body.
Lopukhov immediatelygrasped how expressive this
chance pose was and asked that it be repeated with
Mungalova standingon pointe on the rightleg. The
"ring" became the leitmotifof the characterthe Ice
Maiden. The individualelementsof this variation,The
Dance of the Ice Maiden, were inventedand gradually
developed in the same way, forexample,the splitsafter
whichtheballerinahad to rollherselfintoa ball and then
standup - all in a 3/4count.
In thedances ofthefirstact,Lopukhovshoweda fusion
of these newly invented movements with the old,
traditionalones. The characterof the Maiden developed
logicallyin this sequence. Appearingfromthe trapdoor
behind her partner,the dancer placed one footon his
hand,whichrestedon his hip,theotheron his shoulder,
ascended as thoughon stairs,and rose over him in an
arabesque. Her partnerstood up. The adagio developed
in a seriesof varied and complexlifts.From the
further
positionof an airy arabesque, the dancer fell fromher
partner'sshouldersintohis arms ("the fishdive"). They
were momentarilyentwined,then she quickly evaded
him,seemingto slipfromhis hands.Here themotifofthe
"splits" appeared, which Mungalova did magnificently,
lightlyand naturallystretchedout on the floor.In the
tortuouscombinationsthe
middle of these fantastically
"ring"again appeared as a leitmotif.In the finaleof the
adagio, Asak raised the Maiden on his extendedarms
across
("the swallow"), carriedher,along the footlights,
the entirestage,thenplaced her on a branchof the tree.
The treedisappearedwiththe Maiden (itmoved offstage
on a plank).The youthgazed as thoughenchantedat the
visionhad appearedto him.
place wherethemysterious
Trolls and kobolds - shaggybeings in flowing,torn
clothing- gallopedout intotheforestglade. Theymoved
in high, grotesquejumps, supportedby crooked dried
branches (like athletes vaulting with poles). They
surroundedAsak, galloped aroundhim,teased him,and
"scared" him. This shortepisode led intothenextscene,
wherethe magicof the winterkingdomwas revealedto
thehero.
Fromthe leftwings,snow youthscarriedice maidens
on theirshouldersin a pose that presenteda fantastic
transformation
of the arabesque: Withher leftleg, each
maiden grasped the youth's rightshoulder and thus
formeda sharpangle,its apex the knee of the ballerina.
The arms of the cavalier and his lady also formeda
triangle.The union of the trianglescreated an unusual
figure,which was to be associated with snow crystals.
Movingin even steps interrupted
by balances, the male
dancersgraduallyformeda circle.The snow and moon
maidens also joined the procession.along with a large
groupof studentsfromthe ballet school,who portrayed

snowflakes.To themonotonously
resoundingmusic(part
of the "Temple Dance" fromthe opera Olav Trygvason,
Op. 50), the rounddance slowlycircledabout the stage.
Lopukhovtookas his basic formthemarch- the entree
- of the old ballet,but the majesticmusic and the complex interweavingsof the dance outlinelent a fantastic
qualityto the scene. This was the processionof winter,
and at thesame timelullingone to sleep.
triumphant
The energeticdance of the trollsand kobolds (Op. 71,
no. 3) was in sharpcontrast.Theyappearedin twogroups
of fourfromthe leftwingsand proceededin a "helical"
motion,interweavingtheirlegs and raisingtheirknees
high.For a few momentstheyformedtwo small circles,
as thoughhuddlingin a conspiracy.Then,to a fasttempo,
one group jumped up and squatted down, clapping
hands, while the otherrushed around the stage like a
whirlwind.The dance concluded with an unexpected
pirouette.The wild dance of the trollsand kobolds is
similarin characterand even in thechoiceofmovements
to such productionsof Fokineas the "PolovetsianDancforthe
es" and also his dances called "kriksy-araksy"
one
cannot
and
Ludmila.
Ruslan
speak
Although
opera
here of borrowing, Lopukhov thus used Fokine's
and creatively.
methodsindependently
The nextepisode of the wintersuite was the waltz of
the Ice Maiden withthe snow youths("Album Leaves,"
Op. 28, no. 3). The Maiden again appeared in the tree.
The youthsleaped acrossthestage,ranto thetree,and,to
the soaringmelody,the Maiden collapsed and fellfrom
six feet)intotheir
thetop (froma heightofapproximately
arms. In rushingflight,the youthscarriedthe dancerto
the centerof the stage,tossed her up, to a new surgeof
the music, caught her, and carefullyset her on the
ground.Immediatelytheydroppedto the floorand the
ballerinastood alone, in the centerof the prone figures.
Here she danced a smallvariationfullof sharp,stabbing
movementson pointe.Asak,who had caughttheMaiden,
also joined the dance, and again she flewup intothetree
fromhis embraces. This same combination(with the
was againrepeated,alongwitha
jump and the "take-off")
ofthemelody.The livelywaltzwas interpreted
repetition
as a scene oftheamusementsoftheIce Maiden,mistress
oftheforest,withhersubjects,thesnowyouths,and with
Asak.
Afterthewaltz,the Dance of the WinterBirdwas performed.To the music of "Little Bird" (Op. 43, no. 4),
Lopukhov produced an extremely complex man's
variation,which continuedthe traditionof such masterpieces by Petipa as the Bluebirdvariationin TheSleeping
Beauty.There were several identical combinationsof
aerial movementsas in the Bluebird (forexample, the
but
combinationtombe,pas de bourree,entrechat-cinq),
therewere new ones as well, purelyLopukhov'sinventions.For example,themale dancerdid two toursen l'air
and thenlanded in a deep plie witha soutenuturn.The
flightsand falls were accompanied by arm movements
thatfurtheremphasizedthe "bird-like"characterof the
design.BorisKomarovand Alexei Ermolayev,virtuosiof
classicaldance,appearedin theroleoftheWinterBird.
The lastdance ofthesuite,precedingthegeneralcoda,
was called The Step of the Ice Maiden. For the Maiden's
dance Lopukhov introduceda minuet from a piano
sonata(Op. 7, part3) thatwas notin thepreviousversion.
The firstand thirdpartsof the variationwere built on
combinationsof sharp pas de bourree on pointe sparklingand needle-sharp- and wide splitsthatcontrastedwiththem.In the middlepartwas a versionof a
jete leap in which the forwardleg bent at the knee and
which gave the leap "an especially
then straightened,
The sharpthrustsoftheforward
keen,pricklyquality."44
leg withthebentknee,whichfirstappearedin thedance
oftheWinterBird,appearedin all kindsofversionsin the
Ice Maiden's variation. This movement motif was
repeatednot only in the leaps, but also in the parterre
movements of the ballerina, which were somewhat
reminiscentof the men's squattingposition.The finale
was builtaroundthe splits,whichwere also complicated
by a sharpforwardthrustof the leg. The ballerinabent
backward,as if gettingreadyto leap, and thrusther leg
out in frontof her, but she unexpectedlylanded in the
hertorsoforward.
splits,bending,and throwing
The Step of the Ice Maiden was performedby the
ballerinawith an "accompanying"ensemble. Like the
ballerina,the dancersin thecorpswere dressedin short,
open whiteflanneltunicswithsilverapplique. Lopukhov
thusused the principletraditionalto the nineteenth-cenofthecentralcharacter
turyballetofa multiplereflection
withinthe corpsde ballet (Giselle and the Wilis,Odette
and the swans, the shades in La Bayadere,and so on).
Echoingthemonologueoftheballerina,thewomen dancers shiftedtheirposes when the Maiden moved from
one dance phrase to another; they emphasized her
descents and flightsand strengthenedher accents.
However,in contrastto the corps de ballet of Ivanov's
swans, here the dancing had a different,sharp and
graphiccharacter.The snow maidens (dancersfromthe
corps de ballet) and the snowflakes(studentsfromthe
balletschool)were lyingin a wide semicircle.Raisingone
leg to thefirstsharp"stride"oftheballerina,theyslowly
loweredit to the fadingdance motifin the music. When
the leg touched the other leg, on the floor,the arms,
whichwere stretchedout on thefloor,tookup themovemovements
theimage
ment:Theirfluidfingering
suggested
ofsnow swirlingoverthedrifts.
The suite concluded with a coda ("MountainTune,"
Op. 19,no.1),in whichall thecharacterswere unitedin a
circlingmovement.Whirlwindsswept through,holding
theWinterBirdhighin theair; a dancingvortexspunthe
snow youths, the ice and moon maidens, and the
snowflakes.It was as thoughthe winter stormwere
itslastforcesto resistthecomingofspring.
gathering
The second scene opened withthe melody"Morning"
fromthe music for the play Peer Gynt.The scenery
changed;thiswas thesame forestglade,butthebranches
ofthe treeswere freeof snow, the mountainslopes shot
throughwith softgreen,and the garb of the pines had
grownbrighter.
To the music of the "Waltz-Caprice"(Op. 37, no. 2),
springbirds gathered.The leading dance motifwas a
running "flight," alternatingwith circling. Groups
crisscrossedthe stage, sometimesmerging,sometimes
diverging.Flocksrushedtowardeach other,met,crossed
in rows, and rushed off.Sometimesthe general flight
abruptlychanged direction.as thoughencounteringan
unexpected obstacle. Stopping for a moment and
breakingintopairs,the dancersbegan to spin on pointe
the
veryrapidly,flappingtheir"wings,"butimmediately
linesclosedup.
Fromtheside an ancienthag (themimeGoss) droveout
a live cow. Withthe hag appeared a girlin a wide linen
peasantskirtand blouse. This was Solveig,who was also
playedby Mungalova.Attheback ofthestage,on a high
platformrepresentingthe mountain slope, Asak appeared, seeking the Ice Maiden. Runningdownstage,
Asak noticedSolveigand stopped,struckby her resemblanceto theMaiden. Mungafovasaysshe wantedto portray "a dreamygirl,livingin castles in the air," who
awaited "the arrivalof a fairytaleprince."45Therefore,
upon Asak's appearanceshe triedto leave, but,on seeing
the youth's sorrow, immediately returned. The

culminationof the scene was the duet of Solveig and
Asak,danced to themusicofthepoem "Erotik"(Op. 43,
no. 5); itconcludedwiththeirleavingthewoods. Asak led
Solveigto thepeople.
The second act of The Ice Maiden was realistic: it
showedtheweddingofAsakand Solveig.The musicfor

thissceneunderwent
veryfewchangesin thenew version. The act still opened with "Wedding-Dayin
to the
Troldhauen"
(Op. 65,no. 6) afterwhichfollowed,
March"(Op. 56, no. 3), theprocession
of
"Triumphant
dances(from
Op. 35) wereperguests.ThreeNorwegian
formed.Also keptwas the musicforthe duet of the
from the Moods
newlyweds("Scherzo-Impromptu"
cycle,Op. 73,no. 2). Therewas onlya slightregrouping
In thefirst
theactended
ofthemusicalnumbers.
version,
witha funeralmarch- the processionwithSolveig's
thescenein whichtheIce
version,
body.In Lopukhov's
appearedtocarry
Maiden,rulerofthesnowymountains,
offSolveigcould not exist,sincethesetwo characters
weremergedintoone.His Solveigdidnotdie,butdisapbarrels,
pearedduringtheritualleapsovertheburning
thisIce Maiden
hkea clouddissolvesinthesky.Whether
theaspectofa
existedin reality,
takingon fora moment
mortalgirl,or whethershe was a dream,a mirage,
the act concludednot
remaineda mystery.
Therefore,
withthe"FuneralMarch,"butwitha veryshortepisode
thefinaleof
and despair,suggesting
ofAsak'sconfusion
thethirdactofSwanLake:Theyouthrushedoffintothe
after
hisvanishedbride.
mountains
InthesecondactofTheIceMaiden,Lopukhov
unfolded
thecolorful
wedding.Thiswas a
pageantofa Norwegian
brilliant
ofauthentic
national
dancesand
theatricalization
games,as farremovedfrommereuncreative
copying
as itwas from
thecase inSolveig)
(whichwas apparently
Andrei,who dancedin
Lopukhov'sbrother
stylization.
dancesin the
thisproduction,
recalled,"The character
secondactofTheIceMaidenareveryclosetoNorwegian
and
folklore,
theywerestagedpurelyintuitively
although
on a theoretical
basis. The choreographer
constructed
somehowsucceededin stumbling
upon ethnographic
truth.This,by the way, was confirmed
by the Norsaw
them..."46
who
wegians
Lopukhov'sIce Maiden developedthe traditionof
In bothworksa fullunionwith
Fokine'sJota
Aragonesa.
themusicwas achieved,whichalreadyin and of itself
requiredcomplexdance,richerthanthe folkoriginal.
Andin both,themusicaland choreographic
imagewas
linkedto thedecor;Golovinedesignedboth
inseparably
ButinthesecondactofTheIce Maiden,the
productions.
realisticelementstoodout more clearlythan in Jota
becauseheretherewas nota dancesuite,as in
Aragonesa
ofa ritual.
butthereproduction
Fokine,
A gala procession
openedtheaction.The newlyweds
rodeout on horses:Solveigin a splendidembroidered
and
headdress
withmanyribbons,
dressanda crown-like
Asakin a velvetwaistcoatand a shirtedgedwithlace.
Then came Druzhko(the best man) and the matchwitha pipebetweenhisteeth,
Asak'sold father
makers,
and armedhunters.
thebride'sdressed-up
girlfriends,
The stagegradually
carriedarmfuls
offlowers.
Children
filledwith people; the guestspositionedthemselves
aroundthe newlyweds.And thenthe crowdbeganto
andevenlyin
swayslowly.Theentirestagerockedgently
timeto theexultant
melodypraisingtheyoungpeople.
Thenthechildrenshoweredthebrideand bridegroom
raisedtheirgunstothesky,and
thehunters
withflowers,
shotsthundered
forth.
deafening
ceremonies
Thetriumphant
gavewaytocomicdances:
Olga Mungalova as the Ice Maiden in Act I, 1927.
The staidold father(Leontiev)stampedaboutheavily,

andthetwoelderly
butrejuvenated
matchmakers
twined
andshoving.
Druzhko(Andrei
aroundeachother,
playing
Lopukhov)
jumpedaroundthestagewitha light,rapid
step.He wore wide, heavywomen'sclothing.In the
second,calmpartofthedance,Druzhkobeganto circle
felloffhim;whenhe freedhimself
slowly,andtheskirts
fromthefirst
one,therewas a secondunderneath
it,undertheseconda third,
and so on untiltheseventhtime.
Havingthrownoffthe skirts,Durzhkoagain begana
dance.A livelylittleboydancedwithan old man
merry
theold manbarelyplayedat dancas a partner.
Atfirst
ing,clappingand eggingthe boy on, but graduallyhe
himself
joinedin theexcitement.
Youngand old danced
together,
joininghands.AndnowthejesterDruzhkoalso
theboyat theanklewithhis
joinedthegame.Catching
leg,he circledwithhim,and bothhoppedgailyon one
a small,simple,lyrical
leg. The newlywedsperformed
peasantdance.
Itgrewdark.Thetimehadcometomoveontothenext
majorpartof theweddinggames- the leaps overthe
barrelsof burningpitch.The girlsscatteredand then,
on bothsides by the youngmen,one after
supported
anotherthegirlsflewoverthebarrels.The bride'sturn
Dance ResearchJournal17/2& 18/1/1985-86} 17
came. A leap ... and Solveig was gone. Only a wisp of

steam hovered over the barrel,floatingofftoward the
mountains.The crowd froze. Everyoneturnedand, as
thoughbewitched,watchedthescrapoffogdispersingin
the air. Then, pushingaway his father,who restrained
him,Asak rushedafterthecloud as itflewaway.
The funeralmarch("In memoryofRichardNordraak")
servedas themusicalpreludeto thethirdact. The curtain
opened to revealthe sceneryof thefirstscene of the first
act. Snow was slowlyfalling.The music was fullof suffering,anguish,and premonitions("Borghild'sDream,"
fromSigurdJorsalfar
[Op. 22, no. 1]) and whirlwindsappeared.Theyrushedalongthestage,and theWinterBird
flewby, pulled along by them.The stagefilledwiththe
charactersof the wintercortege.Aftertheirprocession,
fell
resemblingthe beginningof the firstact, everything
silentfora moment.ThenAsak rushedintothegorge.
Now he came not as he was in the firstact, when he
serenelyadmiredthe beauties of nature.He was frantic
and determinedto get his Solviegback fromthe mountains.In orderto make the scene moredynamic,Asafiev
and Lopukhov put here the music of "Temple Dance"
(fromOlav Trygvason,
Op. 50), which in the firstact of
Petrov'sSolveigservedas the dance of the forestspirits.
Asak was met by the heralds of the storm,the whirlwinds. Two littlewhirlwinds(studentsfromthe school)
crossed the stage, circling and tossing each other.
HangingaboutAsak's neck,theydraggedhimintoa spin.
Asak shookoffone of them,but he continuedto turn.At
thesame time,thesecondone circledaroundhim,giving
him no respite,until the youth fell in exhaustionand
rolledalongtheground.
But his call was not unheeded; the ice maidens appeared beforeAsak. Accordingto Mungalova,Lopukhov
at firstthoughtof staginga grandadagio withthe soloists
and corpsde balletin variationsand groupdances,as in
the firstact. Then he rejected the idea. The dancer
criticizedthis choreography;in her opinion the ballet
deteriorated
towardthe end. But Lopukhovwas rightin
not impedingthe rapidlydevelopingaction. He limited
himselfto a single scene, to the music of the "WaltzCaprice" (Op. 37, no. 1).
The waltzwas danced by eleven maiden-doubles,with
Mungalova. Asak rushed toward them, hoping to
recognizehis vanishedbride in one of the maidens. But
theheroineoftheballetdid nothave an independentrole
in thethirdact; afterreturning
to herfriends,she did not
separateherselffromtheirgroup.The movementsofThe
Step of the Ice Maiden flittedby and multiplied,altered
and yetpainfullyfamiliar.Twelve identicalmaidensdid
splits; how could he recognizehis chosen one among
them?Asak gazed intothe face of each one, impatiently
shovedheraway, and one aftertheothertheice maidens
sankto thegroundfacedown,surrounding
theyouthin a
faceless magic circle. The familiar movement of
simultaneouslyraised legs began. Anothermoment and themaidensdisappeared....The love ofa mortalcannot meltan icy heart.The rulerof the mountainsindifferentlyhanded Asak over to the vengeance of the
whirlwinds.
There were many whirlwinds- large and small, in
loose clothingwith torn sleeves, with ragged strips
floatingaroundtheirlegs,and withlong,streaminghair.
The episode of the finalstrugglewas performedto the
musicof "Peer GyntsHomecoming"fromPeerGynt.The
whirlwindsflungAsak up and down and fromside to
side,tossedhim,circledhim,and draggedhim alongthe
ground. Sometimeshe disappeared in the maelstrom,
sometimeshe emergedfromthemostunexpectedcorners
of the stage. Thrown onto the rocks he swung froma
greatheight(a dummywas throwndown fromthe plat-
form). To the concluding chords of the music, the

whirlwindsflungthe youthonto the treewhere he first
saw the Ice Maiden, and he hunghead downwards,his
legscatchingon thehighbranch.Man had notsucceeded
in discoveringthesecretofnature....
The scene ofAsak's deathwas directlyfollowedby the
epilogue.Again"Solveig'sSong" was heard.In thecenter
ofthestagestooda witheredtree,on ittheMaiden in the
pose of the "ring,"and at the footof the tree,as in the
prologue,peasants were gathered,listeningto the old
man's fairytale.
Lopukhovreworkedthe scenarioof the ballet. In the
initialversion,the main charactersomewhatresembled
the Russian Snow Maiden, Anderson's Mermaid, or
Taglioni's Sylphide.The forestmaiden Solveig, in the
guiseofa mortalgirl,followedtheyouthto theworldand
perishedthere- meltedfromthekissofa man,returning
again to the kingdomof ice. This was a themeof great,
sacrificiallove. The themewas interwovenwith
faithful,
another,also verytypicalof the Romanticballet - the
themeof unfulfilled
dreams.The youth,who had fallen
in love withSolveig,died as he searchedforher.
The changesLopukhovintroducedintothe plot of the
balletat firstglance seemed insignificant:
Insteadof two
characters(thecruel rulerof the ice kingdom,Oze, and
theforestmaidenSolveig),he had one character- theIce
Maiden. In fact,the interpretation
of the centralimage
had been radically altered and, consequently, the
motifof
meaningoftheballetas well. Here thetraditional
thedissonancebetweendreamand reality,because of its
vagueness (where is the dream and where reality?),
acquires the bittertaste of an unrevealed secret. The
heroinesof the Romanticballet sacrificethemselvesfor
love and perish,leavinga feelingof pity,remorse,even
gratitude(Giselle)in the soul ofthehero.The Ice Maiden
is different.In her good and evil co-exist. She is
simultaneouslyvictim and destroyer.Her attemptto
draw close theherbeloved aftertakinghumanformis in
vain. Upon returning
to her nativenaturalelement,she
becomes unattainable and unrecognizablewhen the
youthseeks forher in the circleof her icy friends.And
she doomshimto death.
Lopukhov'sIce Maiden is neithertheSnow Maiden nor
Anderson'sMermaid. Here thereare otherassociations:
an enchanted,deceptiveworldand a mysteriousfemale
image- thepossessorof "snake-likebeauty,"who leads
into an "enchanted circle," into "the aimless winter
cold" (AlexanderBlok, The SnowMask). The traditional
themeapproachesthe ideas of the early twentieth-centuryRussian poets. This already indicatesthat The Ice
Maidenis nota copyofthe "old ballet."
However, the images, of Symbolistpoetryare also
changed, to the point of being unrecognizable.
Mungalova thoughtthat the Ice Maiden "bringsman
inevitable doom," and that "her dance ought to be
In reality,the dance
ominous,stern,as if a warning."47
language, with its inclinationtoward acrobatics and
athletics,and the clear, precise, somewhatpassionless
style of performance,were modern. It was said of
Mungalova as the Ice Maiden that "in her movements
thereis no delicatebeauty;thisis acrobaticgymnastics
in
the best sense of the word."48Those who lateraccused
Lopukhov of cultivatingmotifsof "decadent" art were
unfairto him.
Lopukhovcalled his production"a classicalballetin a
1927 interpretation."49
This briefformulaproved very
apt. The Ice Maiden reallydid returnto thatwhich had
been forgotten
or abandonedin theheatofdebate.Andat
the same time,the balletrevealednew possibilities.The
of the 1920s, an artistwho possessed an
choreographer
independentcreativestyle,unitedin The Ice Maidenthe
18 Dance ResearchJournal17/2& 18/1(1985-86/

abstractdance compositionsof Petipa with the pictorial

qualities of Fokine's ballets, making them a fact of
modernart.
The main theme- man and nature- was developed
by means of abstractmovements,fromone classical ensembleto another.Lopukhovdid notlimithimselfto the
traditionalstructureof the grandpas of academic ballet.
thesuiteform.But,like thechoreographers
He preferred
of the nineteenthcentury,he introducedmovementleitmotifs,used the device of the solo withaccompaniment
(The Step of the Ice Maiden), and developed complex
designsforthegroupdances (The GatheringoftheBirds),
likean interweaving
of "voices."
The fairytale
scenesof TheIce Maidenin theirown way
reinstatedthe forms of the "old ballet" rejected by
Fokine. But Lopukhovdeveloped these formsby taking
into account what Fokine had given ballet. In The Ice
Maiden,the traditionsof the beginningof the twentieth
centurymerged with the traditionsof Petipa's "old
ballet."The balletwas a responseto thewordsLunacharsky had addressed to the dramatictheater: "Back to
Ostrovsky!"*whichshouldhave been read as "Forward,
withOstrovsky!"In any event,Lopukhovread themas
"Forward,togetherwithPetipa!" This is how he understood his work in revivingold ballets. This is how he
createdwhat was new in The Ice Maiden,the firstnew
balleton theSovietstage.
full-length
wroteof The Ice Maiden: "Afterthe usual
Sollertinsky
ballet miniatures,this is a victory."50
And Sollertinsky
was right,because duringthelate 1920stherewas a trend
towardnarrativeand monumentalforms."Only a truly
integral,full-lengthballet can attract enough of an
audience," Gvozdev noted. "Hence it is clear that the
formofthegrandballetmustbe retained."51
In The Ice Maiden,classical dance predominated.This
was also in keepingwiththe slogan "Forward,together
with Petipa!" Argumentswere still going on about
classical dance, its rightto exist,and the usefulnessof
replacingitwithotherformsofmovement.Butgradually,
the argumentsaccumulatedon the side of those who
defendedthe classics. The balletsof the classic heritage
were successfullyrevived, and such luminaries of
classicaldance as Semenovaand Ermolayevappearedon
stage.TheIce Maidenwas also a weightyargument.
Lopukhovmade use of academic classical dance in all
its diversity. The choreographer's incredibly rich
imaginationhelped him to see new elementseven in old
formulae.But at the same time he applied modern
methods too, in particularacrobatic movementsand
combinations.Lopukhovcreatedthese by masteringthe
achievementsoftherelatedarts:themusic-hallstageand
the circus.It was not accidentalthat,in speakingof the
vocabularyof the ballet,reviewersrecalledGoleizovsky
and Foregger,Balanchivadze,and the music-halldancer
Maria Ponna.
In TheMagnificence
oftheUniverseand in the firstpart
of The Red Whirlwind,
Lopukhovwas tryingto express
abstractthoughtand to createan abstractimage through
themovementsof classicaldance. In TheIce Maiden,the
point lay not in the creationof a previouslyunknown
genre - the dance symphony- nor in portraying
politicaldoctrinesin dance, but in developingthe principles of the nineteenth-century
ballet; withinthe limits
oftheordinarynarrativework,compositionsappearedin
whichthe author'semotionwas expressedand his ideas
*AlexanderOstrovsky(1823-86),who wrote among
otherworks The SnowMaiden,was a sociallyconscious
satires,includingcomplaywrightwhose contemporary
mentaryon theroleofwomen,werewidelyknown.(Ed.)
were revealed throughdance movements.This too was

withPetipa!"
"Forwardtogether
The second act of The Ice Maiden was devoted to
characterdance thatagain revivedthe rules of the old
ballets. But characterdance, too, was given new form.
Fokinealreadyviewed dance thatagain revivedtherules
of the old ballets. The basis forthe nineteenth-century
productions had always been classical dance. The
brilliantcharacterdances of Saint-Leonand Petipa were
mostoftendivertissements.
Theirrangewas limitedand,
especiallytowardthe end of the century,few new ones
appeared.As a rulethe directlinkwithfolkartwas lost,
and only a certain general idea of the most typical
movementsand styleof performing
characteristic
of one
or another people remained. Usually even these
movementswere subordinatedto the same principlesas
the steps of classical dance (extension,turnout,and the
five positions), but applied somewhat more freely.
Fokine, who sought for each image only the dance
languagenaturalto it, constantlyturnedto folkdances.
exactnessof such dances
Nevertheless,the ethnographic
was relative:In Fokine's work,folklorewas stillsubject
to stylization.
Even theballetclosestto itsoriginalsource,
JotaAragonesa,was a staged,aestheticizedversionof the
Spanish dances Fokine had seen. Lopukhov brought
characterdance still closer to folk, ethnographically
ritualdance.
authentic,
The interestin character,folk,and social dance was a
signof the times.They were a source of expressiveness,
which, it seemed to many, could not be demanded of
classical dance, with its "purelyornamentalarabesques
and twirls,"as Gvozdev put it. They were widelyused
in drama not as inserteddivertissements,
but as clear
characterizations,impressive images: the dances in
EvgenyVakhtangov'sGadibuk,thedances in theproductionsof the KamernyTheater,and moreovernot onlyin
comicoperettas,butalso in O'Neill's drama,DesireUnder
theElms;dances occupiedno smallplace in almostall of
Meyerhold'sproductions- The Forest(by Ostrovsky),
BubustheTeacher(byFaiko),TheMandate(byNikolaiErdman), Gogol's classic The InspectorGeneral,et cetera.
Nationaldance folkloreenjoyedtremendoussuccess on
the music-hall stage: from ethnographicevenings to
Goleizovsky'ssuites- Slavic and Spanish. And finally,
considerableknowledge in the realm of exotic dance
formswas gained during the tours of the Japanese
traditionalKabuki theater,the Chinese theater,and
*
Negrooperetta.*
In stagingthe second act of The Ice Maiden,Lopukhov
took as his model the experienceof the ethnographic
theatersthatstudiedand stagedfolklore.But Lopukhov's
theatricalmind,the habitsof stylization
in whichhe had
been trained,and finally,the outstandingquality of
Golovine's decorativecostumesexcluded the possibility
ofa naturalistic
portrayalofreality.The Norwegiancycle
stagedby Lopukhovspokeofa completelynew approach
to nationaldances. Folkloreremainedfolklore,raised to
thelevel ofthetheater.In thefutureit was preciselythis
tendencythat was developed in the Soviet ballet. The
characterdance was liberatedfromitsexternalornamental quality and approached folk dance, which allowed
more freedom,sharpness,angularity,i.e., errors,from
thepointofview oftheacademiccanons.
TheIce Maidenwas a balletaddressedto the future,in
which somethingnew was born fromthe revived and
**A black Americanmusical
revue,The ChocolateKiddies(knownin the U.S. as The ChocolateDandies),toured
the U.S.S.R. in 1926. The Soviet press referredto it as
Negrooperetta,ratherthana revueor musical.(Ed.)
reworked
ballet,bringing
past.It revivedthefull-length
the academicgrandballetof the nineteenth
century
narrative
closerto the new formsof the monumental
whileatthesame
ballet.Itreinstated
theclassicallexicon,
timemakingit thelanguageof modernart,and it was
dance.Andit
oriented
towardthesearchforpureabstract
that
offolklore
pointedthewayforthetheatricalization
Sovietchoreography.
wasmostpromising
forfuture
NOTES
1. Lopukhov'sbiographer,Galina Dobrovolskaya,datesthem1918.
2. F. Lopukhov,Shestdesiatlet v balete(Moscow: Iskusstvo,1966), p.
213.
3. F. Lopukhov,Putibaletmeistera
(Berlin:Petropolis,1925),pp. 50-51.
4. See G. Dobrovolskaya, Fedor Lopukhov (Moscow-Leningrad:
Iskusstvo,1976),pp. 103-104.
5. F. Lopukhov,Putibaletmeistera,
p. 50.
6. See A. Twysden, AlexandraDanilova (London: C.W. Beaumont,
1945),p. 45.
7. N. Soliannikov,"Vospominaniia," manuscript,Central Research
LibraryofThe Al-Union TheatricalSociety,p. 309.
8. Copy of minutesof the meeting.Archivesof Yuri Slonimsky.State
CentralTheatricalLibrary.
9. A. Volynsky,"Tantssimfoniia,"
Zhizniskusstva,13 March 1923, no.
10,p. 3.
10. Velichie mirozdaniia,tantssimfoniia
Fedora Lopukhova,muz. L.
s avtosiluetom
Pavla Goncharova(Petersburg:
Betkhovena(4-iasimfonila)
G.P. Lubarsky,1922),p. 4.
Zhizniskusstva,
29 Sep11. See A. Piotrovsky,"My eto peresmotrim,"
tember1929,no. 39, p. 4.
21 February1922, no.
12. F. Lopukhov,"Moi otvet,"Zhizniskusstva,
8, p. 3.
13. Lopukhov,Putibaletmeistera,
pp. 93, 97, 99, 100.
14. See Lopukhov,Shestdesiat
letv balete,p. 245.
15. A. Gvozdev, "Nakanune novogobaleta," Krasnaiagazeta,evening
edition,30 September1924,no. 222.
26 August
16. N.N. (Nasilov),"Revoliutsionnyi
balet,"Zhizniskusstva,
1924,no. 35, p. 18.
17. See "Shchelochili kislota?"Ezhenedelnik
akademicheskikh
teatrovv
13 May 1924,no. 13,p. 8.
Leningrade,
18. "Programmabaleta Krasnyivikhr,"Rabochiii teatr,3 November
1924,no. 7, p. 22.
19. Y. Brodersen, "Obnovlenie li?" Robochiii teatr,10 November
1924,no. 8, p. 8.
Rabochiii teatr,
20. B. Andreyev,(B. Bashinsky),"Ak.-instsenirovka,"
10 November1924,no. 8, p. 7.
21. L. Lavrovsky, "O putiakh razvitiia sovetskogo baleta," in
teatri sovremennost
Muzykalnyi
(Moscow: All-UnionTheatricalSociety,
1962),p. 10.
22. Lopukhov,Shestdesiat
letv balete,p. 255.
Zhizniskusst23. A. Gvozdev, "ProbuzhdenieSpiasshcheikrasavitsy,"

va, 11 March 1924,no. 11,p. 7.
24. "Khronika.Ak.-teatry,"
Rabochiii teatr,24 November 1924, no.
10,p. 17.
4 May 1920,no. 442.
25. "Pervomaiskiezrelishcha,"Zhizniskusstva,
9 September1920,
26. Peterburgskii
baletv Moskve," Zhizniskusstva,
no. 552.
27. F. Lopukhov, "Staro-russkiiglum. K postanovke Baiki v Ak.balete,"Rabochiii teatr,7 December 1926,no. 49, p. 11.
28. Igor Glebov (B. Asafiev), "Snegurochka.(Akademicheskiiteatr
12-13February1921,no. 675-676.
operyi baleta),"Zhizniskusstva,
29. "Khronika.Balet i opera," Zhizniskusstva,18 October 1921, no.
813.
letv balete,p. 247.
31. A. Gvozdev, "Dve novye postanovki,"Zhizn iskusstva,15 April
1924,no. 16,p. 10.
32. Soliannikov,N. "Vospominaniia,"p. 311.
33. Stravinsky,
Igor,Khronikamoeizhizni(Leningrad:Muzgiz, 1963),
p. 159.
34. Igor Glebov (B. Asafiev),Kniga o Stravinskom
(Leningrad:Triton,
1929),p. 155.
Zhizn iskusstva,11 January
35. A. Gvozdev, "Bakia Stravinskogo,"
1927,no.2, p. 12.
36. Glebov (Asafiev),Knigao Stravinskom,
p. 155.
37. Soliannikov,"Vospominaniia,"p. 322.
38. A. Gvozdev. "Nerazberikhapro lisu, petukha i prochuiu tvar."
Krasnaiagazeta,eveningedition,4 January1927,no. 3.
"Nerazberikhapro lisu, petukhai prochuiu
39. A. Rimsky-Korsakov,
tvar,"Krasnaiagazeta,eveningedition,4 January1927,no. 3.
40. Evstafy Petushkov, "Svistuny na Baike," Zhizn iskusstva,25
January1927,no. 4, p. 20.
41. Glebov (Asafiev),Knigao Stravinskom,
p. 151.
42. Gvozdev, "Baika Stravinskogo,"
p. 13.
43. 0. Mungalova, "Vospominaniia,"manuscript,All-UnionTheatricalSocietyArchive,pp. 11-12.
letv balete,p. 250.
45. Mungalova,"Vospominaniia,"p. 15.
46. A. Lopukhov, "Dvadtsat let kharakternogotantsovshchika,"
All-UnionTheatricalSocietyArchive,p. 22.
manuscript,
47. Mungalova,"Vospominaniia,"p. 15.
48. Y. Brodersen,"Ledianaiadevav Ak.-balete,"Rabochiii teatr,1 May
1927,no. 18,p.9.
" Rabochiii teatr,19 April1927,no. 16, p.
49. "Ledianaiadeva.Solveig,
12.
"Ledianaia deva. (Iubileinyispektaklbaletmeistera
50. I. Sollertinsky,
F. Lopukhova),"Leningradskaia
pravda,29 April1927,no. 96.
51. A. Gvozdev, "O reformebaleta," Zhizniskusstva,3 January1928,
no. 1,p. 5.
52. A. Gvozdev, "Reformabaleta. Klassicheskiitanets,"Zhizniskusstva, 10January1928,no. 2, p. 4.

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Fedor Lopukhov: A Soviet Choreographer in the 1920s

Author(s): Elizabeth Souritz, Lynn Visson and Sally Banes

Fedor Lophukov graduated from the St. Petersburg

proachto RussianfolklorewithFokine's;explainsLopukhov'stheoriesabout the correspondencebetween music

4 Dance ResearchJournal17/2& 18/1(1985-86)

The scholars see two fundamentalthemes in this

The fourthpartwas called The Joyof Existence.Here,

seemed to end with two flights:a ballerina on the

6 Dance ResearchJournal17/2& 18/1(1985-86)

magazines. And Volynsky literally breathed poison:

the cross,the symbolof humilityand slavery"and "the

notbe implementedin practice.Butwhat is important

settingforththe contentof politicalslogans- Lopukhov

citywiththe country"(No. 14), and "the thirdcontactof

theirlegs wide and revealingblue bloomersstickingout

where a groupof people holds a widthof clothwiththe

10 Dance ResearchJournal17/2& 18/1(1985-86)

and the "dance and song of the riff-raff."

Fortyyears later,Lopukhovcalled The Red Whirlwind

on Bald Mountain in the opera SorochinskyFair.*

12 Dance ResearchJournal17/2& 18/1(1985-861

Studentsfromthe ballet school performed

stagingdevice complexenoughto approachStravinsky's

14 Dance ResearchJournal17/2& 18/1(1985-86}

Old women in The Ice Maiden (1927).

tasy,butfantasythatalso had a nationalcoloration.

Thus began the adagio to the music "Notturno"(Op. 54,

groupof studentsfromthe ballet school,who portrayed

16 Dance ResearchJournal17/2& 18/1(1985-86)

the youth's sorrow, immediately returned. The

showedtheweddingofAsakand Solveig.The musicfor

Olga Mungalova as the Ice Maiden in Act I, 1927.

The staidold father(Leontiev)stampedaboutheavily,

came. A leap ... and Solveig was gone. Only a wisp of

form). To the concluding chords of the music, the

18 Dance ResearchJournal17/2& 18/1(1985-86/

abstractdance compositionsof Petipa with the pictorial

were revealed throughdance movements.This too was

Zhizniskusst23. A. Gvozdev, "ProbuzhdenieSpiasshcheikrasavitsy,"

20 Dance ResearchJournal17/2& 18/1(1985-86)

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