First, Do No Harm:

Adverse Effects and the Need

for Practice Standards in Neurofeedback
D. Corydon Hammond, PhD, ECNS, QEEG-D, BCIA-EEG
Lynda Kirk, MA, LPC, QEEG-D, BCIA-EEG

ABSTRACT. Adverse and iatrogenic effects associated with psychotherapy have been
substanliated in research for more than 40 years. Controlled research also exists in the field
of neurofeedback (electroencephalographic biofeedback) that documents that negative efiects
can occur from inappropriate training. This article presents accumulating evidence, taken
directly from acknowledgments by neurofeedback practitioners of the existence of both
transient side effects and of more serious adverse reactions that have occurred. Unlicensed
and unqualified practitioners pose a risk to the public and to the integrity and future of the profession. It is vitally important that both professionals and professional societies emphasize
standards of practice and that the public be protected from individuals seeking to use neurofeedback to work with medical, psychiatric, and psychological conditions for which they are not
qualified and licensed to work. Some in the field propose pursuing biofeedback or psychophysiology licensure as a means to establish standards of practice and address ethical concerns. This
is a reasonable option to consider, although it may take many years to implement in various
states. In the meantime it is vitally important that individuals of^fering neurofeedback services
for clinical diagnostic conditions be licensed to lawfully provide services for such conditions.

KEYWORDS. Adverse effects, consumer protection, EEG biofeedback, iatrogenic efiects,

neurofeedback

INTRODUCTION
Bergin (1971) reported 30 research studies
that documented deterioration in a proportion of patients who underwent psychotherapy. Within 6 years there were more
than 40 studies identified that demonstrated

negative effects from therapy (Lambert,

Bergin, & Collins, 1977). Bergin and
Lambert (1978) defined such iatrogenic
effects in these words:
Deterioration implies an impairment
of vigor, resilience, or usefulness from

D. Corydon Hummond is yiriliated with the University of Uiah School of Medicine.

Lynda Kirk is affiliated with the Austin Biofeedback & EEG Neurofeedback Center.
Address correspondence to: D. Corydon Hammond, PhD, University of Utah School of Medicine, PM&R.
30 North 1900 East, Salt Lake City, UT 84132-2119 (E-mail: D.C.Hammond@utah.edu).
This article is adapted from an original article in the publication Biofeedback (Vol. 35, No. 4, 2007) with the
permission of the Association for Applied Psychophysiology and Biofeedback. and Allen Press.
,

Journal of Neurotherapy. Vol. 12(1) 2008

Available online at hup://jn.haworthpress.com
2008 by The Haworth Press. All rights reserved.
doi: 10.1080/10874200802219947

'
,

so

JOURNAL OF NEUROTHERAPY

a previously higher state. Generally, it

has been regarded as a worsening of
the patient's symptomatic picture, the
. exaggeration of existing symptoms, or
the development of new symptoms, as
assessed before and after treatment,
(p. 152)
Clinical experience and research has found
that neurofeedback has great therapeutic
value (e.g., Hammond, 2006; Monastra,
Monastra, & George, 2002; Peniston &
Kulkosky, 1990, 1991; Sterman, 2000). However, it has been noted previously that side
effects and adverse reactions can occur in
association with neurofeedback treatment
of various conditions (Hammond, Stockdale,
Hoffman, Ayers, & Nash, 2001).
An abundance of evidence has demonstrated that there is a heterogeneity in the
electroencephalography
(EEG)
patterns
associated with various symptom complexes
and diagnoses, whether it is a more common
diagnosis such as attention deficit disorder/attention deficit hyperactivity disorder
(ADD/ADHD; e.g., Monastra, 2005) or
more complex and difficult to treat conditions such as obsessive-compulsive disorder (Prichep et al., 1993), schizophrenia
(e.g., John, Prichep, & Alper, 1994), or
autism (Sutton et al., 2005). Consequently,
when treatment is not individualized following a conscientious assessment of not
only symptoms but also of the brain's
eiectrophysiological functioning, we believe
that there is a greater risk posed of either
being ineffective or of producing an iatrogenic effect. Everyone does not benefit from
the same treatment or need the same thing,
and in fact psychotherapy studies have long
suggested that failure to individualize treatment is a significant risk factor for causing
harm (e.g.. Lieberman, Yalom. & Miles,
1973).
Ethical guidelines against trying to experimentally induce iatrogenic effects have limited the amount of research that we have
available on adverse reactions. However,
some hard evidence does exist. Lubar et al.
(1981) published a reversal double-blind controlled study wilh epilepsy in which they
documented that uncontrolled epilepsy could

either be improved with neurofeedback or be

made worse if the wrong kind of neurofeedback training was done. It was likewise
demonstrated by Lubar and Shouse (1976,
1977) that ADD/ADHD symptoms could
both improve but also be made worse if
inappropriate neurofeedback treatment was
provided. This study used an A-B-A reversal
design and established that when theta (4-7
Hz) was inhibited and the sensorimotor
rhythm reinforced, improvements occurred
in ADHD symptoms. However, when theta
was reinforced, there was a deterioration
and reversal of the positive improvements.
A double-blind, A-B-A crossover design
study was conducted by Whitsett, Lubar,
Holder. Pamplin, and Shabsin (1982) with
uncontrolled epilepsy patients. This is one
of the studies that importantly substantiated
that neurofeedback does not teach the
patient voluntary self-regulation of brainwave activity but rather actually reconditions the manner in which the brain is
functioning. Clinicians familiar with epilepsy
are aware that there is more epiieptiform
activity found in the sleep EEG than in a
waking EEG. In the Whitsett et a l (1982)
study, sleep EEG was evaluated, and it was
determined that training to inhibit theta
activity and to enhance the sensorimotor
rhythm (SMR). resulted in an 18% decrease
in paroxysmal activity from a baseline of
72%. However, when the reward contingencies were reversed, there was a 29% increase
in epileptitbrm activity (which, of course,
was concluded to be detrimental to the
patients), and then following a reinstatement
of the appropriate treatment, there was a
decrease of more than 60% in paroxysmal
activity. These Undings reinforce once again
that inappropriate neurofeedback training
can cause negative effects.
Incorrect assumptions about the most
efficacious treatment protocols can certainly
sometimes be made, particularly by less
educated neurofeedback practitioners. We
have heard some individuals express to the
public that neurofeedback never results in
adverse effects. As we have pointed oui, this
simply cannot be said. We have also seen
practitioners assume that because quantitative EEG research has reported that

8!

Clinical Corner

alcoholics commonly have an excess of beta

activity and a deficiency of alpha and theta
activity (e.g.., John, Prichep, Fridman, &
Easton. 1988) that, therefore, neurofeedback training to inhibit beta activity and
reinforce alpha and theta is the treatment
of choice for this population. The problem
is that such an assumption rests on generalities and group averages that do not always
apply to individual cases.
In the real world of clinical practice,
comorbidities are common and patients
can be unique. For example. Figure 1 displays the quantitative EEG (QEEG) map
from the NxLink database for a 25~yearold chronic alcoholic patient. As can be seen,
she displays an extreme excess of theta, not
beta activity. This patient fits a subtype of
24% of alcoholics who have a diagnosis
of ADHD (Schubiner et al., 2000). A lack

of individualization and use of an alpha/

theta protocol in such a case could be anticipated to have the potential to seriously
compromise cognitive function and result
in even greater problems with impulse and
emotional control. As we note later in this
article, alpha/theta training, or perhaps we
should say inappropriately applied alpha/
theta training, has particularly seemed prone
to producing some adverse effects.
We should similarly note that about 10
to 15% of ADHD patients have an
excess of beta rather than theta activity
(Chabot, Merkin. Wood, Davenport, &
Serfontein. 1996; Clarke, Barry. McCarthy,
& Selikowitz, 1998, 2001a, 2001b). Some
practitioners, without having conducted individualized assessments, have simply assumed
that ADHD patients will usually have an
excess of theta activity and a deficit of beta.

FIGURE 1. Eyes closed EEG power of a chronic alcoholic patient who may also have ADHD as evidenced by
abnormally elevated theta activity.
Z-Values of EEQ Features Referaiecd to Norms

T4

T3 C3 CZ C4 /

T3 C3 CZ O4 T-1

-3,0

'neta

Alpha

Bcia

82

JOURNAL OF NEVROTHERAPY

If the clinician then uses a canned protocol

to increase beta activity in such a patient
(who already has excess beta and cortical
irritability), the patient could very well
experience a seizure, anxiety, or tic activity.

THE NEED FOR MORE VIGOROVS

STANDARDS OF PRACTICE
The authors have become increasingly
alarmed about risks of iatrogenic harm and
adverse reactions for two reasons. First,
there have come to be an increasing number
of dealers, manufacturers, and trainers
who have been supplying EEG biofeedback
equipment directly to laypersons. These
individuals have no advanced degrees or
health care licenses for independent practice,
and yet many of them are opening practices
and advertising to the public that they have
competency to work with serious medical,
psychiatric, and psychological problems,
including depression, bipolar disorder,
uncontrolled epilepsy, obsessive-compulsive
disorder, traumatic brain injuries, stroke,
autism, alcoholism, and drug abuse, as
well as ADD/ADHD and learning disabilities. Some equipment and software
manufacturers are seeking to "fly under the
radar" of the Food and Drug Administration (FDA) and are evading registration
of their equipment, whereas others are
violating FDA regulations against the sale
of biofeedback equipment to unlicensed individuals (or without the written prescription
of a licensed practitioner).
Second, we have been impressed with the
number of reports on public and professional internet list groups about side
effects and adverse reactions. These effects
range from very mild, transient symptoms
such as fatigue or headache to much
more serious conditions such as exacerbation
of depression, manic episodes, emotional
lability, seizures, and deterioration in
cognitive functioning. Consequently, we
believe that it is vitally important for legitimate and legally licensed practitioners
to be aware of potential risks and for practitioners as well as professional societies to
emphasize standards of practice. We also

believe that it is important that future

neurofeedback research not only monitor
rates of improvement and lack of change
but also report the frequency of side effects,
adverse reactions, and deterioration in
functioning.

NEW DATA ABOUT

ADVERSE REACTIONS FROM
NEUROFEEDBACK TRAINING
Because research on negative effects of
neurofeedback is difficult to conduct, the
authors have compiled information from
at least seven internet list groups where
there have been reports on these forums
of side effects and adverse reactions. In
the material that follows we describe, and in
some cases directly quote, from these reports.
In every case, the identity of the list groups,
equipment being used, and individual making the report have been left anonymous.
We emphasize that these are actual reports
of individuals using neuroteedback. The only
changes made were in spelling out abbreviations or in punctuation. Headings have been
added for the convenience of the reader in
identifying types of adverse effects.

Emotional Lability and Vocal Tics

One practitioner "did eyes closed alpha
theta" training and discovered that the
patient became "very emotionally liibile"
after returning home. Another practitioner
described a 7-year-old patient who came
for help with developmental articulation.
They began by training beta al C3 and after
two sessions added training at C4 because
his sleep was being disturbed by the training.
They then shifted training to C3-C4, but
after several sessions the mother commented
that she did not notice any improvements.
The practitioner added bipolar training at
C4-PZ, and after two sessions the mother
said that her son was crying very easily.
Therefore, the practitioner changed training
to F3 "for the articulation and to reverse
crying," but instead of improving articulation the two sessions of training at F3

Clinical Corner

created a vocal tic. At this point the practitioner admitted that treatment ended
because the mother was "afraid to bring
him back."* but her son continued to have
the iatrogenically developed tic. After all of
this trial-and-error guesswork, the practitioner asked for advice in the event the
child returned.
Deterioration and Loss of Improvements
"Most of the meth addicts with whom
I have worked have had excessive alpha. In
the past, when working with people with
excessive alpha. I have not had good results
with alpha/theta training, even after doing
20-30 eyes open training [sessions with
another protocol] prior to the alpha/theta
training. This group did well with the eyes
open [training], but as soon as I switched
to alpha/theta training, they lost most of
the gains they had made. I then trained the
alpha down and they quickly returned to
the level of function prior to the alpha/theta
theta training. As a result. I have avoided
doing alpha/theta training with the addicts
who have excessive alpha. Instead, when
working with meth addicts I have done a lot
of eyes open suppressing alpha, often over
Cz, with excellent results."
Regression
A mother doing home training with her
autistic child acknowledged. "Adverse events
happen from neurofeedbackat least in my
home. My son regressed dramatically from
the wrong training when we started 4 years
ago." This smart mother then continued.
"But even with 3 years of home training,
I would never train him without supervision." Nash has also noted a case of
decompensation in a borderline or fragile
patient (Hammond et al.. 2001).
Somatic Symptoms
A mother described an experience where
interhemispheric training was done, with
dominant electrocardiogram artifact present.

Immediately following the session he

"became very ill. sick to his stomach and terrible headache within an hour of leaving."
Another practitioner reported that following
a session a patient experienced nausea, a very
bad headache, worsening of tinnitus, and
disturbed equilibrium. Examples have also
been given of patients where frontal beta
uptraining has resulted in their increasing
their facial muscle activity with a resulting
increase in headaches.
Muscle Twitches
Another practitioner described that after a
period where a 6-year-old child seemed to
have calmed down, he then began "exhibiting jerking and a progression of muscle
twitches, going rhythmically through the
body." A different highly experienced (but
unlicensed) practitioner replied, "I believe
you might have increased this reactivity. He
sounds like the bipolar children I deal with.
Definitely training too high [a reward frequency] can increase muscle twitches."
Emotional Lability and Explosiveness
An experienced practitioner indicated
having found that with right prefrontal neurofeedback training where they "rewarded
beta and SMR frequencies'* (e.g., at T4Fp2) that it had precipitated "emotional
meltdowns or explosions."
Tics
In response to a question about whether
neurofeedback could cause or worsen tics,
a practitioner responded, "I suggest being
very careful with left side training as
I have seen tics increase and come back
with [neurofeedback]." Another practitioner
described reducing tics in a patient, but
then after two to three training sessions at
Cz. the tics were exacerbated, but further
training reduced them again. Still another
practitioner described the development of
tics that consisted of mouth movements
(such as licking his lips) after training that

84

JOURNAL OF NEUROTHERAPY

reinforced a low frequency. There have also the next morning and asked his mother,
been cases of Tourette's where tics have "Why do I always wet the bed after brain
increased.
training?"
A case of tics/Tourette's and inadequate
history gathering. A practitioner described
treating a 13-year-old boy who started Mental fogginess and Cognitive Inefficiency
"clearing his throat" and "making a sniffing
sound" in combination shortly after he was
"One reason a practitioner might have to
put on Adderall. After he was taken off deviate from just doing T3 T4 [training] is
the medication, the tics continued. After 18 because of people who respond to that site
neurofeedback
sessions the tics had like I doat any frequency, just too disordecreased, and then the practitioner changed ienting and I have brain fog for two days."
the protocol for another 8 to 10 sessions, Another experienced practitioner utilizing
resulting in still further improvement. "For a "one-size-fits-all" neurofeedback system
some reason, 1 added [training at site] CZ in its default mode reported, "'[The neuroto the mix," and tic frequency increased. feedback system] is supposed to make people
The practitioner then learned that "the boy aware of the present moment. But I. and
was born without a soft spot in his skull most clients, get zoned out. Semi-conscious.
and that he had seizures as a child. He also It takes people a little while to recover from
would sway his head from side to side as a being groggy. We ask, 'Are you okay to
child and did so until the last few years. drive?"' This posttreatment sedation sympAfter treatment with a CZ [placement], he tom has been previously reported in the
started doing this as he walked out of the literature with Stockdale noting cases of
office."
patients where alpha/theta training had created "spacey" feelings or evoked traumatic
memories (Hammond et al., 2001).
Incontinence
Further examples of mental fogginess and
cognitive
disorientation. Yet another wellA highly experienced practitioner wrote,
known
practitioner
in the neurofeedback
"I have had good results with stress incontifield
reported
the
following
after alpha/
nence with N F [neurofeedback]. This is
theta
training:
"In
one
case
a
client drove
important for all of us doing NF because
the
car
up
on
a
curb
after
leaving the
training too low [a reward frequency] in vuloffice:
another
drove
through
a
red light;
nerable people can increase stress incontianother
slid
through
a
stop
sign
at
an internence. We need to track this post-stroke or
section;
and
a
fourth
ran
into
a light
in older clients." Another practitioner admitpole
only
one
block
from
his
therapist's
ted, "I caused bedwetting by going too low
office following his first A/T session. Oh,
[in the reinforcement band]."
yes, and a fifth went home and could not
put two threaded pipes together, being
Enuresis
momentarily spatially disoriented. In each
of these cases the people involved said
A practitioner described working with a in retrospect that it was unlike them to
7-year-old boy with a previous history of behave that way." Imagine the potential
bedwetting but who had not experienced liability! Yet another advanced practitioner
enuresis in I year. After about 10 neuro- described how he experimented on himself,
feedback sessions he began having enuresis rewarding delta activity. The result was
again. The protocol used prior to the the development of significant cognitive
resumption of bedwelting was a broad impairments that required a considerable
("squash") protocol inhibiting 15 to 38 Hz number of neurofeedback sessions to
at C3 and F3, which also resulted in whiny remediate.
behavior. After his most recent neurofeedAnother clinician described experimenting
back session, the little boy awakened on himself with LORETA neurofeedback

Clinical Corner

85

for a problem with chronic pain. He decided

to train the dorsal anterior cingulate and/or
the right nsula. "I tried rewarding different
frequencies. There was some indication
from a research study that one might train
theta. When I tried this, my thinking got
horribly foggy and I had to stop. I tried
training 12 to 15 Hz, and could get no learning curve. I did best with 14 to 18 Hz, and
that improved my attention back to normal,
but I didn't notice any difference in pain.*'
Another case of cognitive inefficiency.
A practitioner asked for help with a client
with presenting complaints of insomnia and
anxiety, which was assumed to mean "overarousal" Following an "optimum frequency
evaluation" at T3-T4, "we began training
at 3 to 6 Hz [reinforcement] which seemed
to be the most positive, but she seemed to
be very sensitive and not have a lot of
emotional involvement so we trained at C3C4 instead of T3-T4, and I removed the inhibits. Initially, this seemed to be decreasing
her anxiety and she began sleeping better.
This week however, she complains of grogginess and lethargy, forgetfulness, so I moved
up in frequency and at 18 to 21 Hz she felt
more alert. Today she's still groggy, forgetful,
so I replaced the inhibits and gave her a little
training at F7 F8 to help with memory. She
left still feeling groggy." The practitioner
reported that the woman was not ADD and
"her forgelfulness does not seem to be related
to inattention issues." Rather, she was an
"extremely busy, productive person" who
could not stand the "grogginess" that training had produced.

was not a pattern before neurofeedback."

There have been other reports that an excessive amount of training with a disent ainment
type of neurofeedback has sometimes
resulted in a patient feeling "wired" and
having difficulty falling asleep. In one case
a patient was up all night without being able
to sleep.

Sleep Disturbance

Seizure

"I would appreciate some feedback in

regards to a youngster I am currently
working with. He has been diagnosed with
mild to moderate autism. I have used neurofeedback with this population before with
pretty good success. With this individual
I have been training up SMR on the right
side. The problem is his mother says his sleep
patterns have become disturbed, i.e., waking
up in the middle of the night and not going
back to sleep for one or two hours. This

An experienced practitioner, using neurofeedback with a reinforcement band in the

theta or delta range, had a patient with no
prior seizure history experience a seizure
during training.

OCD Symptoms
"Has anyone seen OCD-like behavior
result from downtraining 3-7 (Hz)? A boy
I met recently had about 40 sessions of that
training at F3, F4, CZ. T4, FPI, and FP2
(referential montages). He came with a
QHEG that indicated the training I listed.
His main reason for training prior to his
recent issues was ADD, which still seems
evident. He is 13 years old, above-average
intelligence, psychological testing indicates
ADD inattentive [type]; no significant
learning disabihties. His mother feels his
OCD-like stui resulted from his training."
Another seasoned practitioner reported
seeing patients who had been trained by other
practitioners for a lengthy period with a single protocol focused on beta activation who
became very single-focused and obsessive.
Fatigue
A considerable number of practitioners
have reported transient fatigue, lasting up
to the remainder of the day following a
neurofeedback session.

i ' .

Anxiety, Agitation, Irritability, Rage,

Depression^ or Manic Reactions
Excessive reinforcement of beta during
neurofeedback has been reported to cause

86

JOURNAL OF NEUROTHERAPY

temporary irritability, anxiety, and sleep

disturbance until the level of beta reinforcement was lowered. Recently an OCD patient
contacted one of the authors. She had gone
through 33 sessions of neurofeedback with
a chiropractor, and not only did OCD symptoms not improve, but now she indicated
that she was experiencing anger and rage
reactions. One autistic boy experiencing a
disentrainment type of neurofeedback was
"wired," running around the house for
2 hours following a session. Another practitioner noted cases where SMR training created agitation and where "overtraining"
exacerbated manic or depressive symptoms
in bipolar disorder patients. One practitioner described inhibiting SMR in himself,
which resulted in hyperactivity. Increased
depression has also been reported.
Slurred Speech
An individual who described themselves
as "articulate," reported that although they
slept better, they were now experiencing
slurred speech following neurofeedback.

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The reports we have cited are uncontrolled
case reports from which, first, we cannot
know the degree to which other confounding
events in the patients' lives may have contributed to these negative symptoms and,
second, we do not know whether the adverse
symptoms were short lived or more enduring. After our review of descriptions of
adverse reactions, it is our impression that
a large percentage o( negative effects and
transient side effects may result from
approaches to training that seek to reinforce
and increase various bands of EEG activity
(whether it is alpha, theta, beta, or delta),
as opposed to focusing more on inhibiting
or disentraining problematic EEG activity.
Some individuals have also begun reinforcing very slow brainwave activity, which we
believe may pose greater risks of side
effects and which we hypothesize may produce more transient state changes that

appear calming in the short term, rather

than enduring positive (trait) changes in
the EEG. It has also been reported that
coherence training has potential to create
adverse reactions if not carefully monitored.
The authors further believe that home
training that is not regularly supervised by
qualified professionals also increases the risk
of negative effects.
Neurofeedback is an exceptionally valuable therapeutic modality, but this review
has shown that it can also occasionally result
in side effects, and when improperly done
may in fact sometimes result in more significant iatrogenic reactions and an exacerbation of symptoms. Adverse effects that
have been reported by chnicians include
increased anxiety and agitation, panic
attacks, manic-like behavior, headaches,
nausea, fatigue, sleep disturbance, anger
and irritability, crying and emotional lability,
incontinence, enuresis, an increase in
depression, decline in cognitive functioning
(decreased concentration, mental fogginess),
hicrease in obsessional rumination and
OCD symptoms, increase in somatic symptoms (including tics and twitches), vocal tics,
seizures, slurred speech, loss of previous
symptomatic improvements, and temporary
disorientation or dissociation that could put
someone at risk for an accident or injury.
It is apparent that neurofeedback is a
therapeutic modality that requires clinicians
to be vigilant in watching for occasional side
effects. Legitimate professionals should
acknowledge to patients in an informed consent process that a side effect can occasionally occur, and less frequently that adverse
reactions have occurred. Thus patients
should be told that it is vitally important lo
report any side effects immediately should
they occur so that training may be modified.
We have found it useful to ask patients during and after sessions, and at the beginning
of each new session, about any side effects
(even though they may not j^e extremely
frequent) and to have the patient rate symptoms on a 0 to 10 scale at the beginning of
each session to facilitate discussion and the
tracking of progress. When such careful
monitoring is done, side efTects are usually
minor and infrequent because the clinician

87

Clinical Corner

can immediately modify training protocols

before any negative effects escalate.
When clinicians are conducting alpha/
theta or other types of deep relaxation training, we also consider it very important to
ensure at the end of the session that patients
feel sufficiently clear-headed to drive and
function prior to allowing them to leave the
office. The possibility of negative effects
will also undoubtedly be minimized when
practitioners obtain a thorough history of
psychological and medical symptoms and
employ assessment procedures prior to treatment, thus allowing for individualisation.
Ethical standards also require that one seeks
consultation when problems arise and there
is uncertainty about how to address them.
We strongly believe that the field of neurofeedback is at risk. Increasing numbers of
lay persons are inappropriately and illegally
obtaining neurofeedback equipment. A significant number of such persons are presuming that they are qualified to put electrodes
on someone's head and to seek to alter the
brain functioning of individuals with serious
medical and psychological conditions. Serious consumer protection issues are involved.
Not only do such lay practitioners have the
potential to harm members of the public,
as well as to be ineffective, but such individuals also place in jeopardy the future of the
neurofeedback profession because such practices will undoubtedly result in legal actions
for harm done (one current case is pending)
and the disparagement of the field by physicians, psychologists, other licensed professionals, and the public at large in reaction
to unqualified practitioners.
We therefore believe that is incumbent
upon licensed professionals to report lay
practitioners to stale regulatory bodies as
practicing psychology and medicine without a license when they are found to be
offering services for medical, psychiatric,
and psychological conditions. Likewise our
professional societies and members of
those societies should not be admitting individuals to clinical training workshops unless
they are licensed for independent practice,
have a letter from their graduate school
advisers in accredited institutions, or can
verily through a letter from their employer

that they are a technician whose work is

being supervised by a licensed professional.
Similarly, allowing lay practitioners to be,
listed under "provider" sections of society
websites places professional societies in the
position of implicitly sanctioning and in a
sense recommending to the public the
unlawful practice of such individuals. It is
imperative for both clinicians and professional societies to more actively educate
the public about how to select qualified
neurofeedback practitioners. One o' the
authors recently published such an article
citing the value of neurofeedback, the need
for licensed professionals to be adequately
trained and certified, and importance of
consumer protection (Hammond, 2008),
Providing members of the public with copies
of Hammond (2006) can be helpfu! in regard
lo public education.
Competency and continuing education
must likewise be encouraged. Licensed clinicians should be strongly encouraged to
obtain certification in neurofeedback (e,g.,
from the Biofeedback Certification Institute
of America), and when they are analyzing
their own quantitative EEG's, to pursue
certification from the EEG and Clinical
Neuroscience Society or the Quantitative
Electroencephalography Certification Board
or a credential from the Society for the
Advancement of Brain Analysis. The protection of the public and of our profession
requires that we more vigorously emphasize
standards of practice. It is our opinion that
it is unethical for practitioners to use
neurofeedback to work with any medical,
psychiatric, or psychological symptoms and
conditions that they are not qualified to
work with through both their training in
other therapeutic modalities and by virtue
of their licensure within their state or
provmce.

REFERENCES
Bergin, A. E. (1971), The evaluation of therapeutic
outcomes. In A. E. Bergin & S. L. Gurl'ieid (Eds,),
Handbook of p.sychothi'rapy and hehavior chan^^e
(pp. 217-269). New York: Wiley & Sons.
Bergin, A. E.. & Lambert, M. J. (1978). The evaluation
of therapeutic outcomes. In S. L. Gartleld & A. E.

88

JOURNAL OF N EU ROTH ERA P Y

Bcrgin (Eds.), Handbook of psychotherapy and

behavior change: An empirical analysis (pp. 139-189).
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