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Module I
Nature, Concepts and Purposes of Curriculum
Lesson 1
Components of Curriculum and Curricular Approaches
Purita P. Bilbao,Ed.D.

Take Off
The concept of curriculum is as dynamic as the changes that occur in society. In its
narrow sense, curriculum is viewed merely as a listing of subjects to be taught in school. In a
broader sense, it refers to the total learning experiences of individuals not only in schools but in
society as well.
In the Philippines, recommendations of several educational initiatives like the Philippine
Commission to Survey Philippine Education (PCSPE), Survey of the Outcomes of Elementary
Education (SOUTELE) and the Philippine Commission for Educational Reforms (PCER)
focused on curriculum renewal or reforms. The recently formulated National Competency-Based
Teacher Standards (NCBTS) became the anchor of reforms in education from the basic to higher
education.
What is curriculum? What is its purpose? What is its nature? These are the fundamental
questions that will be addressed in this lesson.

FOCUS
Curriculum from Different Points of View
There are many definitions of curriculum. Because of this, the concept of curriculum is
sometimes characterized as fragmentary, elusive and confusing. However, the numerous
definitions indicate dynamism that connotes diverse interpretations of what curriculum is all
about. The definitions are influenced by models of thought, pedagogies, political as well as
cultural experiences. Let us study some of these definitions.

1. Traditional Points of View of Curriculum

In early years of the 20th century, the traditional concepts held of the curriculum is that it
is a body of subjects or subject matter prepaid by the teachers for the students to learn. It was
synonymous to the course of study and syllabus
Robert M. Hutchins views curriculum as permanent studies where the rules of
grammar, reading, rhetoric and logic and mathematics for basic education are emphasized. Basic
education should emphasize the 3 Rs and college education should be grounded on liberal
education. On the other, Arthur Bestor as an essentialist, believes that the mission of the school
should be intellectual training, hence curriculum should focus on the fundamental intellectual
disciplines of grammar, literature and writing. It should also include mathematics, science,
history and foreign language.
The definition leads us to the view of Joseph Schwab that discipline is the sole source of
curriculum. Thus in our education system, curriculum is divided into chunks of knowledge we
call subject areas in basic education such as English, Mathematics, Science, Social Studies and
others. In college, discipline may include humanities, sciences, language and many more. To
Phenix, curriculum should consist entirely of knowledge which comes from various disciplines.
Academic discipline became the view of what curriculum is after the cold war and the
race to space. Joseph Schwab, a leading curriculum theorist coined the term discipline as a ruling
doctrine for curriculum development. Curriculum should consist only of knowledge which
comes from disciplines which is the sole source.
Thus curriculum can be viewed as a field of study. It is made up of its foundations
(philosophical, historical, psychological and social foundations); domains of knowledge as well
as its research theories and principles. Curriculum is taken as scholarly and theoretical. It is
concerned with broad historical, philosophical and social issues and academics.
Most of the traditional ideas view curriculum as written documents or a plan of action in
accomplishing goals.
2. Progressive Points of View of Curriculum
On the other hand, to a progressivist, a listing of school subjects, syllabi, course of study,
and a list of courses or specific discipline do not make a curriculum. These can only be called
curriculum if the written materials are actualized by the learner. Broadly speaking, curriculum is
defined as the total learning experiences of the individual. This definition is anchored on John
Deweys definition of experience and education. He believed that reflective thinking is a means
that unifies curricular elements. Thought is not derived from action but tested by application.

Caswell and Campbell viewed curriculum as all experiences children have under the
guidance of teachers. This definition is shared by Smith, Stanley and Shores when they defined
curriculum as a sequence of potential experiences set up in the schools for the purpose of
disciplining children and youth in group ways of thinking and acting.
Marsh and Willis on the other hand view curriculum as all the experiences in the
classroom which are planned and enacted by the teacher, and also learned by the students.
Points of View on Curriculum Development
From the various definitions and concepts presented, it is clear that curriculum is a
dynamic process. Development connotes changes which are systematic. A change for the better
means any alteration, modification or improvement of existing condition. To produce positive
changes, development should be purposeful, planned and progressive. This is how curriculum
evolves.
Let us look at the two models of curriculum development and concepts of Ralph Tyler
and Hilda Taba.
Ralph Tyler Model: Four Basic Principles. This is also popularly known as Tylers
Rationale. He posited four fundamental questions or principles in examining any curriculum in
schools. These four fundamental principles are as follows:
1. What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?
2. What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?
3. How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?
4. How can we determine whether these purposes re being attained or not?
In summary, Tylers Model show that in curriculum development, the following
considerations should be made: (1) Purpose of the school, (2) Educational experiences related to
the purposes, (3) Organization of the experiences, and (4) Evaluation of the experiences.
On the other hand, Hilda Taba improved on Tylers Rationale by making a linear model.
She believed that teachers who teach or implement the curriculum should participate in
developing it. Her advocacy was commonly called the grassroots approach. She presented seven
major steps to her model where teachers could have a major input.

These steps are as follows:

1. Diagnosis of learners needs and expectations of the larger society.
2. Formulation of learning objectives.
3. Selection of learning content.
4. Organization of learning content.
5. Selection of learning experiences.
6. Organization of learning activities.
7. Determination of what to evaluate and the means of doing it.
Thus as you look into curriculum models, the three interacting processes in curriculum
development are planning, implementing and evaluating.
Types of Curriculum Operating in Schools
From the various concepts given, Allan Glatthorn(2000) describes seven types of
curriculum operating in the schools. These are (1) Recommended curriculum- proposed by
scholars and professional organizations. (2) Written Curriculum- appears in school, district,
division or country documents. (3) Taught Curriculum- what teachers implement or deliver in
the classrooms and schools. (4) Supported Curriculum- resources-textbooks, computers, audiovisual materials which support and help in the implementation of the curriculum. (5) Assessed
Curriculum- that which is tested and evaluated. (6) Learned Curriculum- which the students
actually learn and what is measured and (7) Hidden Curriculum- the unintended curriculum.
1. Recommended Curriculum- Most of the school curricula are recommended. The
curriculum may come from a national agency like the Department of Education,
Commission on Higher Education (CHED), Department of Science and Technology
(DOST) or any professional organization who has stake in education. For example the
Philippine Association for Teacher Education (PAFTE) or the Biology Teacher
Association (BIOTA) may recommend a curriculum to be implemented in the elementary
or secondary education.
2. Written Curriculum- This includes documents, course of study or syllabi handed down to
the schools, districts, division, departments or colleges for implementation. Most of the
written curricula are made by curriculum experts with participation of teachers. These
were pilot-tested or tried out in sample schools or population. Example of this is the
Basic Education Curriculum (BEC). Another example is the written lesson plan of each
classroom teacher made up of objectives and planned activities of the teacher.
3. Taught Curriculum- The different planned activities which are put into action in the
classroom compose the taught curriculum. These are varied activities that are
implemented in order to arrive at the objectives or purposes of the written curriculum.
These are used by the learners with the guidance of teachers. Taught curriculum varies
according to the learning styles of students and the teaching styles of teachers.

4. Supported Curriculum- In order to have a successful teaching, other than the teacher,
there must be materials which should support or help in the implementation of a written
curriculum. These refer to the support curriculum that includes material resources such as
textbooks, computers, audio-visual materials, laboratory equipment, playgrounds, zoos
and other facilities. Support curriculum should enable each learner to achieve real and
lifelong learning.
5. Assessed Curriculum- This refers to a tested or evaluated curriculum. At the duration and
end of the teaching episodes, series of evaluations are being done by the teachers to
determine the extent of teaching or to tell if the students are progressing. This refers to
the assessed curriculum. Assessment tools like pencil-and-paper tests, authentic
instruments like portfolio are being utilized.
6. Learned Curriculum- This refers the learning outcomes achieved by the students.
Learning outcomes are indicated by the results of the tests and changes in behavior which
can either be cognitive, affective or psychomotor.
7. Hidden Curriculum- This is the unintended curriculum which is not deliberately planned
but may modify behavior or influenced learning outcomes. There are lots of hidden
curricula that transpire in the schools. Peer influence, school environment, physical
condition, teacher-learner interaction, mood of the teachers and many other factors made
up the hidden curriculum.
Major Foundations of Curriculum
Let us now look into the major foundations of a curriculum. Debates continue on what
curriculum is and its basic foundation. The commonly accepted foundations include
philosophical, historical, psychological and social. Let us examine briefly how each knowledge
area provides the foundation to curriculum.
Philosophical Foundations of Curriculum
Philosophy provides educators, teachers and curriculum makers with framework for
planning, implementing, and evaluating curriculum in schools. It helps in answering what
schools are for, what subjects are important, how student should learn and what materials and
methods should be used. In decision making, philosophy provides the starting point and will be
used for the succeeding decision making.
The philosophy of a curriculum planner, implementor or evaluator reflects his or her life
experiences, common beliefs, social and economic background and education. For example,
John Dewey (1916) looks at education as a way of life a laboratory in which philosophy
becomes concrete and is tested.

On the other hand, Ralph Tylers framework shows that philosophy is one of the five
criteria in selecting educational purposes. This is shown in figure 1.

Suggestions
From Subjects
Specialists

Studies

Studies
Of
Contemporary
Life

Of
Learners

School
Purposes

Use

Use of

Of

Psychology

Philosophy

Of Learning

Fig. 1- Tylers View of Philosophy In Relation to School Purposes

Let us look at four educational philosophies and how these relate to curriculum. Study
each educational philosophy and match it to the aim of education, role of education, focus in the
curriculum and related curricular trends.(Ornstein and Hunskins, 2004)

A. Educational Philosophy- Perennialism

Aims of Education- to educate the rational person; to cultivate the intellect
Role of Education- Teachers help students think with reason
Based on the Socratic methods of oral exposition or recitation
Explicit or deliberate teaching traditional values.
Focus in the Curriculum- Classical subjects, literary analysis and curriculum is
constant.
Curriculum Trends- Use of great books and return to liberal arts

B. Educational Philosophy- Essentialism

Aim of Education- To promote the intellectual growth of the individual and educate a
competent person.
Role of Education- The teacher is the sole authority in his or her subject area or field
of specialization.
Focus in the Curriculum- Essential skills of the 3Rs and essential subjects of English,
Science, History, Math and Foreign Language
Curriculum trends- Excellent in education, back to basics and cultural literacy
C. Educational Philosophy- Progressivism
Aim of Education- To promote democratic and social living
Role of Education- Knowledge leads to growth and development of lifelong
learners who actively learn by doing.
Focus in the curriculum Subjects are interdisciplinary, integrative and
interactive. Curriculum is focused on students interest, human problems and
affairs
Curriculum Trends School reforms, relevant and contextualized curriculum,
humanistic education
D. Educational Philosophy Reconstructionism
Aim of Education to improve and reconstruct society Education for change
Role of Education Teachers act as agents of change and reform in various
educational projects including research
Focus in the Curriculum Focus on present and future trends and issues of
national and international interests
Curriculum Trends Equality of educational opportunities in education, access to
global education
You can see that an educational philosophy lays the strong foundation of any
curriculum. A curriculum planner or specialist, a curriculum implementor or the

teacher, school administrator or curriculum evaluator whether school-based or

externally-based anchors his/her decision making process on a sound philosophy.
Historical Foundations of Curriculum
Why is it important to know the historical foundations of curriculum? Curriculum is not
an old field. Majority of scholars would place its beginning in 1918 with the publication of
Franklin Bobbits book The Curriculum.
Philippine education came about from various foreign influences. This can be traced back
to our glorious history. Of all foreign educational systems, the American educational system has
the greatest influence on our educational system. Here we present several curriculum theorists
and how they view curriculum from a historical perspective. They are presented chronologically
from the time of Bobbit in 1976-1956 to Ralph W. Tyler in 1902-1944.
1. Franklin Bobbit (1876-1956) Bobbit presented curriculum as a science that emphasizes
on students need. Curriculum prepares students for adult life. To Bobbit, objectives with
corresponding activities should be sequenced. This can only be done if instructional
activities and tasks are classified.
2. Werret Charters (1875-1952) - Like Bobbit, to Charters curriculum is a science. It gives
emphasis on students needs. The listing of objectives and matching these with
corresponding activities ensures that the content or subject matter is related to objectives
and planned by the teachers.
3. William Kilpatrick (1871-1965) Curricula are purposeful activities which are childcentered. The purpose of the curriculum is child development and growth. The project
method was introduced by Kilpatrick where teacher and students plan the activities. The
curriculum develops social relationships and small group instruction.
4. Hrold Rugg (1886-1960) To Rugg, curriculum should develop the whole child. It is
child- centered. With the statement of objectives and related to learning activities,
curriculum should produce outcomes. Harold Rugg emphasized social studies and the
teacher plans curriculum in advance.
5. Hollis Cawell (1901-1989) sees curriculum as organized around social functions of
themes, organized knowledge and learners interest. Caswell believes that curriculum is a
set of experiences. Subject matter is developed around social functions and learners
interest.
6. Ralph Tyler(1902-1994) As one of the hallmarks of curriculum, Tyler believes that
curriculum is a science and an extension of schools philosophy. It is based on students
needs and interest. To Tyler, Curriculum is always related to instruction. Subject matter is
organized in terms of knowledge, skills and values. The process emphasizes problem
solving. The curriculum aims to educate generalists and not specialists.

The historical development shows the different changes in the purposes, principles and
content of the curriculum. The different changes are influenced by educational philosophy,
psychology and pedagogical theorist. This implies that curriculum is ever changing putting in
knowledge and content from many fields of disciplines.
Psychological Foundation of Education
Psychological provides a basis for the teaching and learning process. It unifies elements
of the learning process and some of the questions which can be addressed by psychological
foundations of education. How curriculum should be organized to enhanced learning? What is
the optimum level of the students participation in learning the various contents of the
curriculum?
In this module, we shall consider three groups of learning theories: behaviorism or
association theories; cognitive- information processing theories and humanistic theories
(Ornstein & Hunkins, 2004).
Let us review some theories in learning related to these clusters of learning theories.
1. Behaviorist Psychology
Behaviorism dominated the 20th century psychology. It includes among others
connectionism of Edward Thorndike, which influenced both Ralph Tyler and Hilda Taba who
are considered to be one of the well-known curricularists. Ivan Pavlovs classical
conditioning and B.F. Skinners operant conditioning were all behaviorists in character.
Albert Banduras modeling and observation theory is also related to behavior. Among the
behaviorists, Robert Gagnes hierarchical learning or sets of behavior and five learning
outcomes become classic examples. These learning outcomes include: (1) intellectual skills
or knowing how to categorize use symbols, forming concepts and problem solving; (2)
information of knowing what knowledge about facts, dates and names; (3) cognitive
strategies or learning skills; (4) motor skills; and (5) attitudes, feelings and emotions learned
through experiences (Gagne, 1897). The listed learning outcomes overlap with the domains
in the taxonomy of educational objectives which are cognitive, affective and psychomotor.
To the behaviorists, learning should be organized in order that students can
experience success in the process of mastering the subject matter. This method is introduced
in a step by step manner with proper sequencing of task which is viewed by other educational
psychologist as simplistic and mechanical.
2. Cognitive Psychology
How do learners store information? How do they retrieve data and generate conclusions?
These are some of the basic questions asked by cognitive psychologists.

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These psychologists focus their attention on how individuals process information and
how they monitor and manage thinking. Among the advocates of cognitive psychology are
Jean Piaget for his Cognitive Development stages, Lev Vygotsky for his Social
Constructivism, Howard Gardener for his Multiple Intelligences, Felder and Silverman for
their Learning Styles, Daniel Goleman for Emotional Intelligences and many more.
To cognitive theorists, learning constitutes a logical method for organizing and
interpreting learning. Learning is rooted in the tradition of subject matter and is similar to the
cognitive development theory. Teachers use a lot of problem and thinking skills in teaching
and learning. These are exemplified by practices like reflective thinking, creative thinking,
intuitive thinking, discovery learning and many others.
3. Humanistic Psychology
Humanistic psychologists are concerned with how learners can develop their human
potential. Traditional psychologists do not recognize humanistic psychology as a school of
psychology. However, observers view humanistic psychology as the third force learning
theory after behaviorism and cognitive development. It is built on Gestalt psychology where
learning can be explained in terms of the wholeness of the problem and where the
environment is changing and the learner is continuously reorganizing his or her perceptions.
Aside from the theory of Gestalt, Abraham Maslows theory of human needs for selfactualizing persons and Carl Rogers non- directive lives, also fall under humanistic
psychology. Among the humanistic psychologists, curriculum is concerned with the process
not the products; personal needs not subject matter; psychological meaning and
environmental situations.
In summary, psychology has a great influence in the curriculum. Learners are not
machines and their mind is not a computer. Humans are biological beings affected by their
biology and cultures. The psychological foundations will help curriculum makers in
nurturing a more advanced, more comprehensive and complete human learning.

Social Foundations of Education

Schools exist within the social context. Societal culture affects and shapes schools and
their curricula. The way school buildings are structured, the way classrooms and students are
organized reflect the cultural views and values of the society. In considering the social
foundations of curriculum, we must recognize that schools are only one of the many institutions
that educate society. But schools are formal institutions that address more complex and
interrelated societies and the world.

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Society as ever dynamic is a source of very fast changes which are difficult to cope with
and adjust to. Thus schools are made to help to understand these changes. However, some
observations point out to the fact that schools are conservative institutions that lag behind when
they are supposed to be agents of change. Thus, in order for schools to be relevant, school
curricula should address diversity, explosions of knowledge, school reforms and education for
all.
The relationship of curriculum and society is mutual and encompassing. Hence, to be
relevant, the curricula should reflect and preserve the culture of society and its aspirations at the
same time society and its aspirations. At the same time society should also imbibe the challenges
brought about by formal institutions called schools.

TAKE ACTION
To further learn about the concepts of curriculum, let us do some activities. You may do
the following activities individually, in dyad, or in groups of not more than five. Follow the
instruction in each group activity.
Activity 1- Curriculum Defined
In this activity, let us find out how teachers, students, educators define curriculum from
their own points of view.
With a classmate, interview the following persons: (elementary grade teacher, school
principal, college teacher, student teacher, non- education college student). Ask each one of the
question: What is curriculum to you?
Record their answers and present the definition in a matrix like the one below. Compare
each definition. Are they similar? Different?

Persons Interviewed
Elementary
Teacher

Grade

School Principal

Answer to Question: What is Curriculum to You?

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College Teacher

Student Teacher

Non-education
college student

COMMENTS:
Activity 2- Identifying the Curricula Operating in the Schools
This activity is for a group of five. Visit a school of your choice. Observe, and
interview the appropriate persons like the classroom teacher, students or principals.
Identify the existence of the different curricula. Write the specific examples. Record your
data in a matrix like the one below.
Name of School________________________________________________
Types of Curricula Operating in School
Recommended Curriculum

Written Curriculum

Taught Curriculum

Supported Curriculum

Examples from Observations or Interviews

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Assessed Curriculum

Learned Curriculum

Hidden Curriculum

Activity 3- Curriculum from Two Points of View: Traditional or Progressive

Inthe courses that you are currently taking, identify practices that can be considered
as following the traditional orientation and those that are progressive in orientation. Give
specific examples or illustrations.

Points of View of Curriculum

Traditional Curricular Practices
Progressive Curricular Practices

Illustrative Examples of Practices

REFLECT
Let us pause for a while and reflect on what we have read, discussed, shared and
observed in the lesson. This portion will require you to have a deep thinking. Answer the
questions by yourself first, then get a partner and shared your ideas. Listened to your partners
ideas also.
1. Can a school exist without a curriculum? Why or why not?
2. How does a strong belief or philosophy influence curriculum?
3. As future teachers, how important will a curriculum be to you?
4. What are the implications of an ever changing curriculum to teachers?
SELF-CHECK

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Let us find out how much we have learned from the lesson. You may go back to your
readings and activities which you have done before. Good Luck.
1. Name five persons who contributed to the field of curriculum. Give the contribution of
each other.
2. How do philosophy, psychology, history and society influence the development of a
curriculum?
3. Explain how the three processes of planning, implementing and evaluating are used in
curriculum development?

Module I
Nature, Concepts and Purposes of Curriculum

Lesson 2
Components of Curriculum and Curricular Approaches
Purita P. Bilbao,Ed.D.
TAKE-OFF
Lesson 2 will introduce you to the elements of curriculum and some curricular
approaches. These topics will strengthen your knowledge and understanding of the nature,
concepts and purposes of the curriculum.
What parts or components should a curriculum have? How should these components be
arranged? The nature of the elements and the manner in which they are organized may comprise
which we call a curriculum design. However, this section will only introduce to you the elements
or components of a curriculum. It will not discuss in length how each component relates to one
another but will merely provide the structure or the skeleton of the curriculum.
The other section of this lesson presents the approaches to curriculum. The approach to
curriculum reflects the views of schools and societies. It will reveal the philosophy, view of
history, psychology and learning theory which will become the foundation of the curriculum. It
will also tell about the view of how social, theoretical and practical issues are utilized in the
curriculum.

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A curriculum approach shows the viewpoints of curriculum development and design, the
role of the learner, the teacher, the curriculum specialist in planning the curriculum. It also
includes the goals and objectives of the curriculum.
In this lesson, let us look at the components and some approaches to curriculum. Some
approaches coincide with traditional theories and models while some are fluid and emergent.

FOCUS
Elements/Components of the Curriculum
For most curricula, the major components or elements are (1) aims, goals and objectives;
(2) subject matter/content; (3) learning experiences and (4) evaluation approaches.
When translated into questions, each component can be addressed by the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

What is to be done?
What subject matter is to be included?
What instructional strategies, resources and activities will be employed?
What methods and instruments will be used to assess the results of the curriculum?

Component 1-Curriculum Aims, Goals and Objectives

A formal curriculum is embedded in a formal institution called schools. Schools are
established institutions which are either run by the government or by the private sector. The
Philippine educational system is divided in three educational levels: primary, secondary and
tertiary levels. Based on the Philippine Constitution of 1987, all schools shall aim to:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.

Inculcate patriotism and nationalism

Foster love of humanity
Promote respect for human rights
Appreciate the role of national heroes in the historical development of the country
Teach the rights and duties of citizenship
Strengthen ethical and spiritual values
Develop moral character and personal discipline
Encourage critical and creative thinking
Broaden scientific and technological knowledge and promote vocational efficiency

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Aims of Elementary Education (Education Act of 1982)

In the elementary level, schools through their curricula should aim to:

Provide knowledge and develop skills, attitudes, values essential to personal

development and necessary for living in and contributing to a developing and
changing society:
Provide learning experiences which increase the childs awareness of and
responsiveness to the changes in the society:
Promote and intensify knowledge, identification with and love for the nation and
the people to which he belongs: and
Promote work experiences which develop orientation to the world of work and
prepare the learner to engage in honest and gainful work.

Aims of Secondary Education

In high school or secondary level, educational curricula aim to:

Continue to promote the objectives of elementary education ;and

Discover and enhance the different aptitudes and interests of students in order to
equip them with skills for productive endeavor and or to prepare them for tertiary
schooling.

Aims of Tertiary Education

Tertiary education refers to college and university formal education based on the
curricula of the different courses. The different courses should aim to:

Provide general education programs which will promote national identity, cultural
consciousness, moral integrity and spiritual vigor;
Train the nations manpower in the skills required for national development;
Develop the professions that will provide leadership for the nation; and
Advance knowledge through research and apply new knowledge for improving
the quality of human life and respond effectively to changing society.

Based on the mandate of the constitution, each school therefore should be guided by its
vision; mission and its curricula should also revolve around these.
The schools vision is a clear concept of what the institution would like to become in the
future. It provides the focal point or unifying element according to which the school staff,
faculty, students perform individually or collectively. It is the guiding post around which all
educational efforts including should be directed. The schools vision can be very ambitious but
that is a characteristic of a vision.

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Example of a schools vision

1. A model performing high school where students are equipped with knowledge, skill and
strength of character to realize their potential to the fullest.
2. Commits to the exemplary Christian education for life and responsive to the needs of the
total person and the world.
The schools mission statement, spells out how it intends to carry out its vision. The
mission targets to produce the kind of persons the students will become after having been
educated over a certain period of time.
Examples of schools mission
1. To produce globally competitive lifelong learners.
2. Commits to the total development of individuals for life adjustment and to the enlistment
of the economically deprived but deserving students through quality instruction, updated
facilities and curricula responsive to the needs of the times.
The schools vision, and mission are further translated into goals which are broad
statements or intents to be accomplished. Data for the sources of school goals may include the
learns, the society and the fund of knowledge.
Examples of school goals:
1. Build a strong foundation of skills and concepts.
2. Efficient and effective administration responsive of the needs of the university and
community
In a curriculum, these goals are made simple and specific for the attainment of each
learner. These are called educational objectives. Benjamin bloom and Robert Mager defined
educational objectives in two ways:
1. Explicit formulations of the ways in which students are expected to be changed by the
educative process, and
2. Intent communicated by statement describing a proposed change in learners.
In other words, objectives direct the change in behavior which is the ultimate aim of
learning. They provide the bases for the selection of learning content and learning experiences.
They also set the criteria against which learning outcomes will be evaluated.
Benjamin Bloom and his associates classified three big domains of objectives. These are
cognitive, affective and psychomotor domains. Each domain is composed of specific skills,
attitudes and values which are presented in hierarchy or levels. Although there are some

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modifications in the concepts of behavioral objectives, the original ideas are presented in this
section.

Cognitive Domain (Bloom et al 1956) domain of thought process

1. Knowledge recall, remembering of prior learned materials in terms of facts,
concepts, theories and principles. It is the lowest cognitive level
2. Comprehension ability to grasp the meaning of material. it indicates the lowest form
of understanding
3. Application the ability to use learned material in new and concrete situation
4. Analysis ability to breakdown material into component parts so that its
organizational structure may be understood
5. Synthesis ability to put parts together to form a new whole
6. Evaluation ability to pass judgment on something based on given criteria
Affective Domain (Krathwohl, 1964) domain of valuing, attitude and appreciation
1. Receiving students willingness to pay attention to particular event, stimuli or
classroom activities
2. Responding active participation on the part of the students
3. Valuing concerned with the worth or value a student attaches to a particular
phenomena, object or behavior
4. Organization concerned with bringing together different values and building a value
system
5. Characterization by a value or value complex developing a lifestyle from a value
system
Psychomotor Domain (Simpson, 1972) domain of the use of psychomotor attributes
1. Perception use of sense organs to guide motor activities
2. Set refers to the readiness to take particular type of action
3. Guided response concerned with the early stages in learning complex skills.
Imitation and trial and error are some of the ways of doing.
4. Mechanism responses have become habitual. Performance skills are with ease and
confidence.

Component 2 Curriculum Content or Subject Matter

All curricula have content, regardless of their design or models. Content is more than
simply information to be learned in school. To some curriculum specialists, content or subject
matter is another term for knowledge. It is a compendium of facts, concepts generalization,
principles and theories. The fund of human knowledge represents the repository of accumulated
discoveries and inventions of man down the centuries, due to mans exploration of his world.
This is the subject-centered view of the curriculum. On the other hand those who view
knowledge as learner-centered, relates knowledge to the individuals personal and social world
and how he or she defines reality. According to Jerome Bruner, knowledge is a model we
construct to give meaning and structure to regularities in experience.

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Let us look into broad subject areas in basic or general education. Each subject area has
its own body of subject matter or learning content. these are just examples.
Communication Arts include skills in listening, speaking, reading and writing as well as
the effective use of language in daily living.
Mathematics includes numeric and computational skills, geometry and measurement,
algebra, logic and reasoning.
Science includes all branches of the natural sciences, exploration and discovery dealing
with natural phenomena and the use of scientific method of investigation.
Social Studies include basic elements of Geography, History, Sociology, Anthropology,
Economics, Civics, Political Science and Psychology.
Music includes basic music theory, practice in listening, singing, playing musical
instruments and music preparation.
Physical Educationincludes health and physical fitness, individual and team sports,
spectatorship and wise use of leisure.
Vocational Education includes psychomotor and manipulative skills in basic crafts and
trades, design, work ethic and appreciation of manual productive work.
What subject matter will be taught in the different clusters in order to achieve the
objectives? What criteria should be used in selecting the content? Content selection is a very
crucial stage in curriculum development.
Here are some criteria which can be utilized in the selection of subject matter content or
knowledge for the curriculum.
1. Self-sufficiency According to Scheffler (1970) the prime guiding principle for content
selection is helping the learners to attain maximum self-sufficiency in learning but in the
most economical manner. Economy means less teaching effort and educational resources,
less learners effort but more results and effective learning outcomes.
2. Significance When content or subject matter will contribute to basic ideas, concepts,
principles, and generalization to achieve the overall aim of the curriculum, then it is
significant. It is also significant if it will develop learning abilities, skills, processes and
attitude. Subject matter is significant if it will develop the cognitive, affective and
psychomotor skills of the learners. it can also be significant if the cultural aspects will be
considered.
3. Validity The authenticity of the subject matter selected is its validity. With information
explosion, oftentimes, knowledge selected for school content may become obsolete. Thus

20

4.

5.

6.

7.

subject matter should be checked or verified at regular intervals, to determine if the

content that was originally valid continues to be.
Interest For a learner-centered curriculum, this is the key criterion. A learner will value
the content if it is meaningful to him or her. Students interests should be considered and
adjusted taking into consideration maturity, prior experiences, educational and social
value of their interest among others.
Utility Usefulness of the content or subject matter may be relative to the learner who is
going to use it. Usefulness maybe either be for the present or the future. Questions like
Will I use it in my future job? Will it add meaning to my life or develop my human
potential? Or Will the subject matter be useful in solving my current problems?
Learnability Subject matter in the curriculum should be within the range of experiences
of the learners. This is clearly suggested by the psychological foundations of a
curriculum. There are ways of presenting subject matter or content which can easily be
learned. Optimal placement and appropriate organization and sequencing of contents are
the two ways by which these can be done.
Feasibility - Can the subject matter or content be learned within the time allowed,
expertise of the teaches, and the nature of the learners? Content selection should be
considered within the context of the existing reality in school, in society and government.

There are other considerations that may be used in the selection of the learning content. It
would be of greater he curriculum makers can use them. As a guide, subject matter or content
can be rejected for use he these are:
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

frequently and commonly used in daily life;

suited to the maturity levels and abilities of students;
valuable in meeting the needs and the competencies of a future career;
related with other subject areas; and
important in tin transfer of learning.

In organizing or putting together the different learning contents Palma, 1992 suggested
the following principles: balance, articulation, sequence, integration and continuity.
Curriculum content should be fairly distributed in depth and breadth of the particular
learning area or discipline. This will ensure that the level or area will not be overcrowded or less
crowded. This refers to BALANCE.
When each level of subject matter is smoothly connected to the next, glaring gap and
wasteful overlaps in the subject matter will be avoided. Teamwork among the teachers will
enhance ARTICULATION of contents in the curriculum.
SEQUENCE is the logical arrangement of the subject matter. It refers to the deepening
and broadening of content as it is taken up in the higher levels.

21

The horizontal connections are needed in subject areas that are similar so that learning
will be related to one another. This is INTEGRATION. This will help the learner get a holistic
or unified view of reality and outlook in life.
Learning requires a continuing application of the new knowledge, skills, attitudes states
so that there will be used in daily living. The constant repetition, review and reinforcement of
learning is what is referred to as CONTINUITY.
Component 3 - Curriculum Experiences
This section will not discuss in detail the different instructional strategies that provide the
experiences. Instead it will link instructional strategies and methods to curriculum experiences,
the core or the heart of the curriculum. The instructional strategies and methods will put into
action the goal and use the contents in order to produce an outcome.
Teaching Strategies convert the written curriculum to instruction. Both the teacher and
the learner take actions to facilitate learning. The actions are based on planned objectives, the
subject matters to be taken and the support materials to be used. There will include a multitude of
teaching methods and educational activities which will enhance learning. Among there are the
time-testing methods, inquiry approaches, constructing and other emerging strategies that
complement new theories in teaching and learning. Educational activities like field viewing,
conducting experiments, interacting with computer programs, field trips and other experiential
learning will also form part of the repertoire of teaching.
Whatever methods the teacher utilizes to implement the curriculum, there will be some
guide for the selection and use. Here are some of them:
1. Teaching methods are means to achieve the end. They are used to translate the
objectives into action.
2. There is one single best teaching method. Its effectiveness will depend on the learning
objectives, the learning and skill of the teacher.
3. Teaching methods should stimulate the learners desire to develop the cognitive,
affective, psychomotor, social and spiritual domain of the individual.
4. In the choice of the teaching methods, learning styles of the students should be
considered.
5. Every method should lead to the development of the learning outcomes in the three
domains: cognitive, affective and psychomotor.
6. Flexibility should be a consideration in the use of the teaching methods.
Component 4 - Curriculum Evaluation
According to Worthen and Sanders, (1987) all curricula to be effective must have the
element of evaluation. Curriculum evaluation here may refer to the formal determination of the
quality, effectiveness or value of the program, process, product of the curriculum. Tuckman

22

(1985) defines evaluation as meeting the goals and matching them with the intended outcomes.
From the definitions, several models of evaluation came up. The most widely used is
Stufflebeam's CIPP (Content, Input, Product, Process) Model. In CIPP, the process is continuous
and is very important to curriculum managers like principals, supervisors, department head,
deans and even teachers.
The context refers to the environment of the curriculum. The real situation where the
curriculum is operating is its context. Simply put, context evaluation refers to situation analysis.
Input refers to the ingredients of curriculum which include the goals, instructional strategies, the
learners, the teacher, the contents and all the materials needed. The process refers to views and
means of how the curriculum has been implemented. This component of the CIPP looks into the
entire operation of the curriculum. The product indicates he the curriculum accomplishes its
goals. It will determine to what extent the curriculum objectives have been achieved.
The CIPP model can be taken as a whole, or each component taken separately. It is a long
of continuous process.
Within the evaluation process, smaller and more specific activities are needed to
determine the effectiveness of the curriculum. There activities include assessment and
measurement of learning outcomes, the ultimate product of a curriculum. Different methods can
be utilized like diagnostic, placement, formative or summative evaluation or the norm-referenced
or criterion-referenced measurement. With the variety of evaluation methods are the different
materials which can be effectively utilized. You will study there in more detail in the modules
that come later.
Regardless of the methods and materials evaluation will utilize, a suggested plan of
action for the process of curriculum evaluation is introduces. These are the steps.
1. Focus on one particular component of the curriculum. Will it be the subject area, the
grade level, the course, or the degree program? Specify the objectives of evaluation.
2. Collect or having the information. Information is made up of data needed regarding
the object of evaluation.
3. Organize the information. This step will require coding, organizing, storing and
retrieving data for interpretation.
4. Analyze information. An appropriate way of analyzing will be utilized.
5. Report the information. The result of evaluation should be reported to specific
audiences. Reporting can be done formally in conferences with stakeholders, or
informally through roundtable discussions and conversations.
6. Recycle the information for continuous feedback, modification and adjustments to be
made.

23

In summary, the components of a curriculum are distinct but are interrelated to each other
in a curriculum design as shown in figure 2.
Aims
Objecti
ves
Content/
Subject
Matter

Evaluation

Methods/
Strategie
s

Figure 2 Interrelationship of the Components of a Curriculum

Curriculum Approaches
There are five curriculum approaches that will be presented in this lesson. Curriculum
practitioners and implementers may use one or more approaches in planning, implementing and
evaluating the curriculum. Even textbook writers or instructional material producers have
different curricular approaches. Let us study and understand each example.

Behavioral Approach Anchored on the behaviorist principles, behavioral approach to

curriculum is usually based on a blueprint. In the blueprint, goals and objectives are
specified, contents and activities are also arranged to match with the learning objectives.
The learning outcomes are evaluated in terms of goals and objectives set at the beginning.
Behavioral approach which was started with the idea of Frederick Taylor is aimed to

24

achieve efficiency. In the factory for example, the worker will be paid according to his
output produced with in a specific period of time. In education, behavioral approach
begins with educational plans that start withthe setting of goals or objectives. These are
considered as important ingredients in curriculum implementation as evaluating the
learning outcomes as a change of behavior. The change in behavior indicates the measure
of the accomplishments.

Managerial Approach The managerial approach became a dominant curriculum

approach in the 1950s and 1960s. The principal is the curriculum leader and at the same
time instructional leader who is supposed to be the general manager. The general
manager sets the policies and priorities, establishes the direction of change and
innovation, and planning and organizing curriculum and instruction. School
administrators are less concerned about the content than about organization and
implementation. They are less concerned about subject matter, methods and materials
than improving curriculum. Curriculum managers look at curriculum changes and
innovations as they administer the resources and restructure the schools. Some of the
roles of the Curriculum Supervisors (Ornstein and Hunkins, 2004) are the following:
1. Help develop the schools education goals.
2. Plan curriculum with students, parents, teachers and other stakeholders.
3. Design programs of study by grade levels.
4. Plan or schedule classes or school calendar.
5. Prepare curriculum guides or teacher guides by grade level or subject area.
6. Help in the evaluation and selection of textbooks.
7. Observe teachers.
8. Assist teachers in the implementation of the curriculum.
9. Encourage curriculum innovation and change.
10. Develop standards for curriculum and instructional evaluation.

System Approach The systems approach to curriculum was influenced by systems

theory. In the systems approach to curriculum, the parts of the total school district or
school are examined in terms of how they relate to each other. The organizational chart of
the school represents a systems approach. It shows the line-staff relationships of
personnel and how decisions are made. To George Beauchamp, the systems theory of
education sees the following to be of equal importance are 1) administration 2)
counselling 3) curriculum 4) instruction and 5) evaluation.

Humanistic Approach This approach is rooted in the progressive philosophy and

child-centered movement. The humanistic approach considers the formal or planned
curriculum and the informal or hidden curriculum. It considers the whole child and
believes that in curriculum the total development of the individual is the prime
consideration. The learner is at the center of the curriculum.

25

TAKE ACTION
There are two major activities that you will do in this lesson.
Activity 1 will be on the elements or components of the curriculum and
Activity 2 will be on the approaches to curriculum.
Activity1 Lesson Plan: A Curriculum?
Get a copy of the best written lesson plan of your favorite teacher in the elementary or high
school. Add this to your portfolio collection.
Read every detail of the lesson plan and specifically look into the following:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

What are the objectives of the lesson plan?

What is the subject matter content?
What strategies or methods of teaching are utilized?
What evaluation procedure is used?
Do the four components fit or match with one another? Explain.
Can you consider a lesson plan as a curriculum? Why?

Activity 2 Mr. or Ms. Principal: What Curriculum Approach Are You Using?
1. Make an interview protocol regarding curriculum approach with your groupmates. Show
your output to your teacher for comments. Refine your instrument and place a sample in
your portfolio.
2. Choose a school with a principal as your respondent. Secure permission to interview the
principal at a certain time of the school day. Record all the answers to your protocol.
3. From your interview, what kind of curriculum approach is the principal using?
4. Why do you say so? Describe in detail his/her approach.
REFLECT
1. Is Philippines education really deteriorating? This is a big question raised by many
sectors of our society. Let us reflect on this issue. Choose a particular level
(elementary,secondary,tertiary) and a specific subject area (Science, Math, English) as a
point of reference.
In your own experiences as a student:
a. In what component/s of your curriculum, do you find some difficulties or weaknesses?
Identify at least 3.
Goals and Objectives

26

Curriculum Content
Curriculum Experiences
Curriculum Evaluation
b. Describe the weaknesses or difficulties.
c. Are there solutions to these conditions? What do you propose?

SELF-CHECK
Let us return to Lesson 2 and quickly find out what learning outcomes we have achieved. Just
answer YES or NO to the questions that follow:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.

Can a school curriculum succeed without a clear vision?

Should the schools mission be reflected in all its curricula?
Will subject matter dictate the approach in curriculum?
Should the learning activities be congruent to the objectives of the curriculum?
Should evaluation of learning outcomes be based on the experiences of the learners?
As a student of curriculum, will you put equal emphasis on the four curricular
components?
7. Does a principal with a humanistic approach to curriculum emphasize most memorization
of subject matter?
8. Does the systems approach to curriculum consider only each part?
9. Can there be a curriculum without evaluation?
10. Can experiences be measured?

27

Module I
Nature, Concepts and Purposes of Curriculum

Lesson 3
Teaching- Learning Processes and Curriculum Development
Purita P. Bilbao, Ed,D.
TAKE-OFF
One of the most often repeated a definition of a curriculum is that curriculum is the total
learning experience. This description implies that the crux of a curriculum is the different
planned and unplanned activities which have been lived, acted upon or done by the learners with
the guidance of the teacher. Hence in curriculum development, the teaching and learning are
actions necessary to accomplish a goal in education. What is the role of teaching in the
curriculum development? Who does it?
This lesson will focus on the teaching and learning processes as salient components of the
curriculum. Both processes provide experiences which will accomplish the goals of education.
Let us now look closely as the teaching-learning processes vis a vis curriculum in our
schools.

FOCUS
Teaching as a Process in Curriculum
What do you know about teaching? What knowledge is needed to understand this
process? This section clarifies the process of the teaching as it relates to the experiences in the
curriculum, an important ingredient.
Good teaching is difficult to agree upon. While it remains to be difficult to agree on what
good teaching is, effective teaching can be demonstrated. Effective teaching is one that will bring
about intended learning outcomes.
Because of the changing paradigms of teaching, several definitions have evolved based
on the theories of teaching and learning that have come about. Some view teaching as an
organization of meaningful learning. It is creating a situation or selecting life-like situations to
enhance learning. To the traditionalists, teaching is process of imparting knowledge and skills

28

required to master a subject matter. It is a process of dispensing knowledge to an empty vessel

which is the mind of the learner. Teaching is showing, telling, giving instruction, making
someone understand in order to learn. In this instance, the person who teaches, controls learning.
This person is a teacher, a dispenser of knowledge, an ultimate authority, a director of learning.
On the other hand, as progressive and humanist education advance, the meaning of
teaching broadened to fit the psychological meaning of the term. Teaching is now perceived as
stimulating, directing, guiding the learner and evaluating the learning outcomes of teaching. The
teachers role in teaching becomes complex but has given the learner the responsibility to learn.
Teaching then is a process that enables the learner to learn on his/her own.
The teacher now becomes a decision maker in the teaching process. Let us look at the
teaching process as a series of actions from PLANNING, IMPLEMENTING and
EVALUATING. It looks similar to curriculum development. Definitely, it is because the process
of teaching replicates the process of curriculum development. The implementation phase of
curriculum development is the actual teaching and experiencing of a curriculum. The teaching
process is shown in Figure 3 below.

PLAN

IMPLEMENT

EVALUATE

Feedback and Reflections

Figure 3 Teaching Process

In teaching, the planning phase includes decision about (a) the needs of the learners, (b)
the achievable goals and objectives to meet the needs, (c) the selection of the content to be
taught, (d) the motivation to carry out the goals and (e) the strategies most fit to carry out the
goals and (f) the evaluation process to measure learning outcomes.
Teaching plans maybe short term like the daily plan or long term plan like the unit plan or
a yearly plan. In a plan, considerations should include the learner, availability of materials, time
requirements of particular activities, the strategies needed to achieve the objectives and the

29

teacher. The planning phase recognizes the intent that it will be the learners who will learn, hence
the next phase will engage more the learner.
The implementation phase requires the teacher to implement what has been planned.
Based on the objectives, implementation means to put into action the different activities in order
to achieve the objectives through the subject matter. Here, two important players are involved:
the teacher and the learner. Their interaction is important in the accomplishment of the plan.
Most often the planning phase directs what will be done in the activity but such can also be
flexible. The use of the different teaching styles and strategies should be included in the
implementation phase.
In the evaluation phase, a match of the objectives with the learning outcomes will be
made. The kind of information should be determined so that the type of the evaluation should be
chosen to fit the purpose. Simply, the evaluation phase will answer the question if the plans and
implementation have been successfully achieved.
In all the three phases of teaching, a continuous process of feedback and reflection as to
whether the three phases were appropriately done and gave good results. In short, feedback is the
reflection on the feedback. Is there a need to adjust something in planning, implementation and
evaluation? Reflection is a process embedded in teaching where the teacher inquires into his or
her actions and provides deep and critical thinking.
On the basis of the diagram, basis assumptions can be made. These assumptions are:
(1)
(2)
(3)
(4)

That teaching is goal-oriented with the change of behavior as the ultimate end;
That teachers are the ones who shape actively their own actions;
That teaching is a rational and a reflective process; and
That teachers by their actions can influence learners to change their own thinking or
desired behavior, thus teaching is a way of changing behavior through the intervention of
the teacher.

To further clarify, what teaching is all about there are some indicators which you can use to
guide in the process of good teaching.

Good teaching is one that is well planned and where activities are interrelated to each
other.
Good teaching is one that provides learning experiences or situations that will ensure
understanding, application and critical thinking.
Good teaching is based on the theories of learning.
Good teaching is one where the learner is stimulated to think and reason.
Good teaching utilizes prior learning and its application to new situations.
Good teaching embeds a sound evaluation process.

30

Learning as a Process in Curriculum

To teach is to make someone to learn. This statement means that the end product of
teaching is learning. What is learning? What are the ways of learning? When do say that we have
learned?
Let us now look closer at the concept of learning as it relates to the concept of
curriculum.
Learning is usually defined as a change in an individuals behavior caused by experiences
or self-activity. It implies that learning can only happen through the individuals activity or
his/her own doing. Most learning is intentional, like when a learner acquires knowledge in the
classroom or when one observes a demonstration activity. Intentional learning occurs when
activities are purposefully arranged for the students to participate and experience. On the other
hand, learning sometimes is unintentional like when a child touches a lighted candle and feels it
is hot. All individuals are engaged in learning every waking moment, however learning occurs
more when the various stimuli are properly arranged for purposes of learning.
Broadly speaking, there are two principal types of learning theories to explain how
individuals learn according to educational psychologists. These are behavioral learning theories
and cognitive learning theories. Behavioral learning theories emphasize observable behavior
such as new skills, knowledge, or attitudes which can be demonstrated. These forms of behavior
are observable and measurable. According to this group of theories, if the individual has changed
behavior, he has learned.
Among the early behavioral learning theories were those of Ivan Pavlovs Classical
Conditioning Theory, Edward Thorndikes Laws of Learning and B.F. Skinners Operant
Conditioning. The outgrowth of the behavioral learning theory is Albert Banduras modelling or
observational learning. These and many more were discussed lengthily in your previous courses.
On the other hand, cognitive learning theories are concerned with human learning in
which unobservable mental processes are used to learn and remember ne information or acquire
skills. Related to these theories is the concept of meaningful learning through cognitive models.
Jerome Bruner (1966), David Ausubel (1968) and Robert Gagne (1970) described three models
of teaching which are anchored on the cognitive learning theory.
Discovery learning theory of Jerome Bruner states that the individual learns from his own
discovery of the environment. Learners are inherently curious, thus they can be self motivated
until they find answers to the problems. Learners, when actively involved in their own learning,
will continuously construct their own knowledge. Each individual is capable of learning how to

31

learn. Bruners idea gave rise to the emerging theory of constructivism and self-learning.
Learning is flexible, exploratory and independent.
Reception learning of David Ausubel poses a contrast to the discovery learning of Bruner.
To Ausubel, though learners are inherently curious, they may not be able to know what is
important or relevant and they need external motivation in order to learn. However, both theories
believe that learners should be actively involved in their own learning. Both also emphasizes that
prior learning is important in order to learn new things and because knowledge continuously
changes once it is in the learners mind.
Events of learning of Robert Gagne proposed that an act of learning involves a series of
eight internal events:
1. Motivation phase The learner must be motivated to learn by expectation that
learning will be rewarding.
2. Apprehending phase The learner attends or pays attention if learning has to take
place.
3. Acquisition phase While the learner is paying attention, the stage is set and the
information presented. Learner transforms information into meaningful form. The
mental images formed associates the ne information with old information. This is
where advance organizers are useful.
4. Retention phase The newly acquired information must be transferred from shortterm to long-term memory. This may take place by means of practice, elaboration or
rehearsal.
5. Recall phase Recall previous learned information. To learn to gain access to that
which has been learned is a critical phase in learning.
6. Generalization phase Transfer of information to new situations allows application
of the learned information in the context in which it was learned.
7. Feedback phase Students must receive feedback on their performance. This will
serve as reinforce for successful performance.
Some general statements which describe learning based on the theories of learning may
include the following:

Learning does not take place in an empty vessel. Each learner is assumed to have prior
learning and maybe able to connect these to present learning.
Learning is a social process where interactions with other learners and the teacher are
needed.
Learning is a result of individual experiences and self-activity.
Learning is both observable and measurable.
Learning takes place when all the senses are utilized.
Learning will be enhanced when the learner is stimulated, directed, guided and feedback
is immediately given.

32

Each learner has his/her own learning styles.

Teaching and Learning Go Together

How does teaching and learning connect to each other? One process cannot succeed
without the success or support of the other. A teacher cannot claim she/he has taught if the
learners have not learned substantially. The teaching styles of the teachers should jibe with the
learners learning styles. Unless the two are fit, teachers and learners will be existing in two
different worlds.
Teaching as a process cannot be taken independently in its entirety. With so many
ingredients needed, the most important is still the learner. The learner being in the center of the
teaching, will influence to a great extent teaching. It is therefore important that the knowledge of
the learner and his learning styles be considered. With the advancement of information about the
uniqueness of each learner, the multiple intelligences theory and many more, teaching has to
consider more factors in order to be effective.
On the other hand, the concepts of learning have become so vast that the simple stimulusresponse theory alone cannot explain it. Thus as learners become complex individuals capable of
learning on their own, the repertoire of teaching should also increase. The different teaching
styles with the support of simple to sophisticated teaching materials are now necessary to effect
good learning.
In many cases, it has been observed that teaching is the cause and learning the effect.
Learning outcomes can indicate teaching performance. The quality of teaching is related to the
quality of learning. If the students fail to learn, the grater factor is the failure in teaching. We
always attribute the kind of learning to the kind of teaching. It has now become a fallacy that
some learners are non-teachable. If our theories of learning and development are strong, then all
individuals are teachable, therefore they are capable of learning. The question is now raised.
How can you a teacher, make someone, the learner, learn something?
As the direct relationships of teaching and learning become clear, success of both brings
out something like, learning in teaching and teaching for learning. This means that while the
teacher, teaches, he or she also learns in the process. On the other hand, as the students learn,
they are also teaching themselves how to learn.
Some Ways of Doing Teaching and Learning
Since both teaching and learning are interrelated processes and are important components
in the curriculum, let us review some ways of doing these. This section will simply give some
examples because the details of the methods of teaching and learning are included in another
course.

33

The different methods of teaching can be clustered according to the number of students
being taught. Teaching methods or strategies can be clustered according to the number of
students in a class. Large group is composed of thirty or more students, small groups of two to
thirty members or individualized teaching. For large group teaching, methods like lecture,
expository, panel discussion, seminar, forum, demonstration or a combination of lecture
demonstration are appropriate. On the other hand, for a small group, teaching methods like role
playing, buzz session, workshop, process approach, discovery learning, cooperative learning in
various forms, laboratory methods are few of the examples. For individualized teaching, modular
instruction, e-teaching, programmed instruction are some of the examples.
Another grouping of teaching methods will be traditional time-tested methods which
include among others the following: inductive method, deductive method, type study method,
project method, laboratory method, question and answer method or Socratic method, and lecture
method. Those that belong to the other group are the improved teaching practices which include
among others integrative technique, discovery approach, process approach, conceptual approach,
mastery learning, programmed instruction, e-learning, simulation, case-based teaching,
conceptual teaching, cooperative learning and many more.
If there are various ways of teaching, there must be various ways of learning too. Since
the arrays of teaching should fit the ways of learning or learning styles, let us look into ways of
how human beings learn. Each of the different ways are based on learning theories. Here are
some ways of learning:
Ways of Learning
1. Learning by trial and error. This type of is related to the stimulus-response theory of
learning. Reaction, action and reaction where the beginning reaction is due to a stimulus.
When the result is correct or satisfying then the response will be repeated. When the
reaction is wrong or negative then it will not be repeated. Learning will take place in both
instance. This type of learning is oftentimes risky and time consuming because the next
step will only follow depending on the result. Making several errors would be very
expensive in time, effort and money. However, trial and error is the easiest way of doing
things without necessarily anticipating a definite objective.
2. Learning by conditioning. The classical conditioning theory of Pavlov serves as the
basis of this learning. Training is the simple term to describe learning here, thus even
animals can be trained to do something but such action does not refer to learning. Aside
from Pavlovs classical conditioning. Skinners operant conditioning plays a great role in
this kind of learning. Learning here is a product of what the individual does which will
result to either pleasant or unpleasant behavior. Drill and practice are some learning
activities based on conditioning.

34

3. Learning by insight. From a simple trial and error learning to learning by conditioning,
educational psychologists believe that human beings learn also by insights. In this type of
learning a higher level of intelligence is being utilized. Insight is looking into oneself
with deeper thinking. A sudden flash of idea or solution to a problem sometimes called
aha learning is an example of insightful learning. Learning by insight requires higher
thinking skills of the learner. Through insights the learner will also be capable of deep
reflection.
4. Learning by observation and imitation through modelling.The process of learning
assumes that one learns from someone. It is through observation and imitation from a
model that a person will able to do similar thing. Anchored on the social learning of
Albert Bandura, learning by observation and imitation requires a model, hence it is
referred to as no-trial learning. This process of learning involves four phase; attention
phase where the learner observes a model; retentionphase, where the learners copies,
practices or rehearse what has been observed; reproduction phase, where the learners
matches their behavior to model and motivational phase where learners will imitate the
behavior for getting a chance to be reinforced by becoming like the one from whom the
behavior was copied.
Teaching and Learning in the Curriculum
One of the crucial issues raised today in education is not what the student should learn
but rather how the student should learn how to learn. The deluges of information in our midst
and the different ways of retrieving them have become a challenge to both teaching and learning.
The curriculum seems to be overloaded: to many subjects to cover, too many topics to teach.
Sometimes the curriculum is fragmented or is simply boxed. Unfortunately, the learners life is
not compartmentalized. Subject matter overlaps and intergrades naturally and holistically.How
then should teaching approach this challenge? How should students learn? How can curriculum
be design to enhance to process of teaching? What kind of learning will be achieved from such
kind of teaching?
Teaching and learning give life and meaning to the curriculum. Each compliment and
supplement each other. The value placed in teaching will reap the same value in learning , thus a
good curriculum can be judge by the kind of teaching and quality of learning derived from it.

TAKE ACTION
To enhance learning in Lesson 3, you will do the activity below.
Activity 1 Matching Teaching and Learning
With your group mates, study the matrix below. Discuss your answers.

35

Fill in the matrix to match teaching and learning. Consider teaching as the role of the teacher and
learning as the responsibility of the learners.
Teaching ( Role of the Teacher)
Example: Show the different color of the
rainbow.
1. Take student of field trip to a zoo.

Learning (Responsibility of the Learner)

Example: Memorize the different colors of the
rainbow.
1.

2. Organize class to conduct experiment.

3. Assigns group to interview different
professional on the their contribution to
the community.
4. Reads a story about the life of Jose
Rizal

REFLECT
Consider this.
You have been going to school for several years now. You were taught by several teachers
while you were in the elementary, high school of college.

Can you recall what you have learned from what they taught?
List the them in your notebook.
Are there other things you learned which were not taught by your teachers? Make
another list for these.
Have your teacher in elementary. High school or college taught you how to learn
on your own? Explain your answer.
When you become a teacher, would it be good if you teach your students to learn
how to learn? Defend your answer.

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SELF-CHECK
1. Based on the lesson, give at least five words to describe teaching and also five words to
describe learning
Teaching

Learning

2. Why are teaching and learning important elements in the curriculum?