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Probationary exams.

1.

Electric current is the rate of flow of electric

charge.
q dq ne
=
=
t dt
t
where n is the number of electrons crossing a
certain cross-section of conductor in time t.
S.I. unit of current is (A) 1 ampere = 1 coulomb/s.
Current density is the current flowing per unit
area.

5.

I ne
=
A At
where A is the cross-sectional area of the
conductor.
Ohms law: Temperature and other physical
conditions remaining same, the electric current
flowing through a conductor is directly
proportional to its potential difference.
V = IR
where R = Resistance of the conductor.

7.

I=

2.

J=

3.

4.

m l rl
R =
=
ne 2 t A A
where r is the specific resistance of the material
of the wire.
Drift velocity : When a potential difference is
applied across the ends of a conductor, electrons
are drifted towards the positive terminal of the
field, this velocity is called drift velocity (vd)

r
eEt
m
Relation between current and drift velocity: Drift
velocity is directly proportional to current,
I = nAevd
Specific resistance ( r ) of a material is defined
as the resistance of unit length and unit crosssectional area of the conductor. Its S.I. unit is
ohm-m.
Conductance is the reciprocal of resistance and
conductivity is the reciprocal of resistivity.
Mobility ( m ) is defined as the magnitude of the
drift velocity per unit electric field.
vd = -

6.

8.

| vd |
S.I. unit is m2/sV or cm/sN
E
Combination of resistances:
(a) Series combination: Current remains same
through every resistance.
V = V1 + V2 + V3
R = R1 + R2 + R3
(b) Parallel combination: Potential difference
across each resistance is same.
I = I1 + I2 + I3
m=

9.

1
1
1
1
=
+
+
R R1 R 2 R 3

10. Internal resistance of a cell (r): It is the

resistance offered by the electrolyte and

11.

12.

electrodes of a cell when current flows through

it.
E.m.f and terminal potential difference of a cell
V = E Ir when current is withdrawn from
the cell
V = E + Ir when the cell is charged.
Grouping of cells:
(a) Cells in series:

n cells

13.

Kirchhoffs laws:
Ist law : The algebraic sum of the currents
meeting at a junction in a closed circuit is
zero. i.e.

2nd law: In any closed loop of an electrical

circuit the algebraic sum of the e.m.fs is
equal to the algebraic sum of the products
of the resistances and the respective
currents flowing through them.

E = IR

I
14.

I = 0

nE
E is the e.m.f of each cell.
R + nr
r is the internal resistance of each cell.
R is the external resistance.
(b) Cells in parallel:

Current = I =

Wheatstone Bridge Principle: The bridge is

said to be balanced when no current flows
through the galvanometer G. Then the potentials
at points B and D are same.
Then,

P R
=
Q S
B
P

I1 - Ig

Ig

I1

m cells

A
I

mE
mR + r
(c) Cells in mixed grouping : Let n cells in
series in a row and m rows of cells in parallel.

I - I1

I - I 1 + Ig

Current = I =

\ Current = I =

mnE
mR + nR

15.

Potentiometer: An instrument based on

wheatstone bridge.

X E R C I S E S
3.1.

Sol.

The storage battery of a car has an emf of 12

V. If the internal resistance of the battery is
0.4 W what is the maximum current that can
be drawn from the battery?
Given, E = 12V, r = 0. 4W, Imax. = ?

Sol.

E
R+r
For maximum current, R = 0.
So, Imax. = E/r = 12/0.4 = 30A.
A battery of emf 10 V and internal resistance
3 W is connected to a resistor. If the current
in the circuit is 0.5 A, what is the resistance
of the resistor? What is the terminal voltage
of the battery when the circuit is closed?
Given, E = 10 V, r = 3 W, I = 0.5 A,
R = ?, V = ?
E
By Formula, I =
and
R+r

By Formula, I =

3.2.

Sol.

3.3.

Sol.

3.4.

R = (E/I) r = (10/0.5) 3 = 20 3 = 17 W
By relation, V = IR = 0.5 17 = 8.5 V
(a) Three resistors 1 W , 2 W and 3 W are
combined in series. What is the total
resistance of the combination?
(b) If the combination is connected to a
battery of emf 12 V and negligible
internal resistance, obtain the potential
drop across each resistor.
Given, R1 = 1 W, R2 = 2 W, R3 = 3 W,
Rs = ?
e = 12 V, V1 = ?, V3 = ?
(a) By Formula, Rs = R1 + R2 + R3
=1+2+3=6W
(b) By relation, I = E/R = 12/6 = 2A
& V = RI
V1 = R1I = 1 2 = 2V
V2 = R2I = 2 2 = 4V
V3 = R3I = 3 2 = 6V.
(a) Three resistors 2 W , 4 W and 5 W are
combined in parallel. What is the total
resistance of the combination?
(b) If the combination is connected to a
battery of emf 20 V and negligible
internal resistance. Determine the

current through each resistor, and the

total current drawn from the battery.
Given, R1 = 2 W, R2 = 4 W, R3 = 5 W,
Rp = ?
V = 20 V, I1 = ?, I2 = ?, I3 = ?, I = ?
1
1
1
1
=
+
+
(a) By Formula,
R p R1 R 2 R 3
=

1 1 1 10 + 5 + 4 19
+ + =
=
2 4 5
20
20

Rp =

20
ohm.
19

(b) By formula, I =

V
;
R

I1 =

V 20
=
= 10A ;
R1
2

I2 =

V
20
=
= 5A ;
R 2 40

V 20
=
= 4A
R3
5
By relation, I = I1 + I2 + I3 = 10 + 5 + 4
= 19A.
At room temperature (27.0C) the resistance
of a heating element is 100 W . What is the
temperature of the element if the resistance
is found to be 117 W given that the
temperature coefficient of the material of the
resistor is 1.70 104 C1.
Given, R1 = 100 W, R2 = 117 W,
a = 1.7 104 C1, t1 = 27C, t2 = ?
By Formula, R2 = R1 [1+ a(t2 t1)]
R2 R1 = R1a(t2 t1)

I3 =

3.5.

Sol.

t2 =
=
=

R 2 - R1
+ t1
R1a

117 - 100
100 1.7 10-4

+ 27

17 104
+ 27 = 1000 + 27 = 1027 C.
100 1.7

4
3.6.

Sol.

A negligibly small current is passed through

a wire of length 15 m and uniform crosssection 6.0 107 m2, and its resistance is
measured to be 5.0 W . What is the resistivity
of the material at the temperature of the
experiment?
Given, l = 15 m, A = 6.0 107 m2, R = 5 W,
r=?
By relation, R = r

3.7.

Sol.

l
A

+ 27 = 840.34 + 27
2.8 1.7 10-4
= 867.34C.
Determine the current in each branch of the
network shown in Fig.

3.9.

Sol.

5W

10 W
A

10 W
D

R 2 - R1
2.7 - 2.1
=
R1 (t 2 - t1 ) 2.1(100 - 27.5)

0.6
= 3.941 103 C1.
2.1 72.5
A heating element using nichrome connected
to a 230 V supply draws an initial current of
3.2 A which settles after a few seconds to a
steady value of 2.8 A. What is the steady
temperature of the heating element if the
room temperature is 27.0C? Temperature
coefficient of resistance of nichrome averaged
over the temperature range involved is
1.70 104 C1.
230
W,
3.2
230
R2 =
W, a = 1.7 10-4 C-1,
2.8

Given, R1 =

t1 = 27C, t2 = ?
By Formula, R2 = R1 [(1 + a(t2 t1)]
R - R1
+ t1
t2 = 2
R1a
230 230
2.8 3.2
+ 27
=
230
1.7 10-4
3.2

5W
5W

E
10 W

3.8.

0.4

RA
5 6.0 10 -7
= 2 10 -7 ohm-m.
or, r =
=
15
l
A silver wire has a resistance of 2.1 W at
27.5C, and a resistance of 2.7 W at 100C.
Determine the temperature coefficient of
resistivity of silver.
Given, R1 = 2.1 W, t1 = 27.5 C, R2 = 2.7 W,
t2 = 100 C, a = ?
By formula, R2 = R1 [1 + a(t2 t1)]

a=

3.2 - 2.8
+ 27
1
1.7 10-4
3.2 2.8
3.2

Sol.

10V

From Kirchhoffs loop rule,

For loop ADCEA,
5(I I 1) 10(I I2) 10I + 10 = 0
i.e., 25I 5I1 10I2 = 10
or 5I I1 2I2 = 2
(1)
For loop ABDA,
10I1 5(I1 I2) + 5 (I I1) = 0
i.e., 20I1 + 5I2 + 5I = 0
or I 4I1 + I2 = 0
(2)
For loop BCDB,
5I2 + 10(I I2) + 5 (I1 I2) = 0
i.e., 20I2 + 10I + 5I1 =0
or 2I + I1 4I2 = 0
(3)
Adding (2) and (3), 3I 3I1 3I2 = 0
i.e., I I1 I2 = 0
or I = I1 + I2
(4)
Applying value of I in (1),
5I1 + 5I2 I1 2I2 = 2
i.e., 4I1 + 3I2 = 2
(5)
Applying value of I in (2),
I1 + I2 4I1 + I2 = 0
or

3I1 + 2I2 = 0 I2 =

3
I1
2

I2 =

3
6
I1 = A
2
17

4 6 10
+ = A
17 17 17
Currents in different branches can be
calculated from these values.
3.10. (a) In a metre bridge, the balance point is
found to be at 39.5 cm from the end A,
when the resistor Y is of 12.5 W .
Determine the resistance of X. Why are
the connections between resistors in a
Wheatstone or meter bridge made of
thick copper strips?
(b) Determine the balance point of the
bridge above if X and Y are
interchanged.
(c) What happens if the galvanometer and
cell are interchanged at the balance
point of the bridge? Would the
galvanometer show any current?

I = I 1 + I2 =

(a)

Sol.

Thick copper str ips are used for

connections to minimise resistance of
connection which are not accounted for
in bridge formula.
(b) When X and Y are interchanged, values

9
4
I1 = 2 I1 =
A;
2
17

Putting in (5), 4I1 +

CELL

KEY
Fig. (a)

12W
X

C
G
+

CELL

KEY
Fig. (b)

Given that

X= Y

Given, l1 = 35 cm, l 2 = 63 cm,

E1 = 1.25 V, E2 = ?
By relation,

Y = 12.5W,l1 = 39.5cm,

l 2 = 100 39.5 = 60.5 cm, X = ?

By Formula,

112
= 7.0A.
16
For battery being charged, terminal voltage,
V = E + Ir = 8.0 0.5 = 11.5V.
a series resistor is used to reduce charging
current to a proper value.
3.12. In a potentiometer arrangement, a cell of emf
1.25 V gives a balance point at 35.0 cm length
of the wire. If the cell is replaced by another
cell and the balance point shifts to 63.0 cm.
What is the emf of the second cell?

Sol.

Then l1 = 60.5 cm. Hence balance point

will be at 60.5 cm.
(c) When galvanometer and cell are
interchanged, condition for balance of
bridge remains satisfied. Hence
galvanometer will not show any current.
3.11. A storage battery of emf 8.0 V and internal
resistance 0.5 W is being charged by a 120
V D.C. supply using a series resistor of
15.5 W . What is the terminal voltage of the
battery during charging? What is the
purpose of having a series resistor in the
charging circuit?
Sol. The total circuit resistance becomes
15.5 + 0.5 = 16W.
The total e.m.f. of circuit will be 120 8 = 112
V (Battery emf opposing supply emf)
Charging current becomes

G
+

of l1 and l 2 also become interchanged.

X l1
=
and
Y l2

l1 12.5 39.5
=
= 8.1612W.
l2
60.5

or E 2 = E1

E2 l2
=
E1 l1

l2
63
= 1.25
= 2.25 V.
35
l1

3.13. The number density of free electrons in a

copper conductor estimated in Example 3.1 is
8.5 1028 m3. How long does an electron
take to drift from one end of a wire 3.0 m long
to its other end? The area of cross-section

Sol..

of the wire is 2.0 106 m2 and it is carrying

a current of 3.0 A.
Given, n = 8.5 1028 m3, A = 2.0 106 m2,
e = 1.6 1019 C, I = 3.0 A, vd =?
By formula, I = nAvde
or

vd =
=

I
nAe

3
8.5 10

28

2.0 10-6 1.6 10-19

3
m / sec
85 2 16 10
Time taken to travel 3m,

t=

Sol.

l 3 85 2 16 10
=
= 27200sec.
vd
3

each of emf 2.0 V and internal resistance

0.015 W are joined in series to provide
a supply to a resistance of 8.5 W . What
are the current drawn from the supply
and its terminal voltage?
(b) A secondary cell after long use has an
emf of 1.9 V and a large internal
resistance 380 W . What maximum
current can be drawn from the cell?
Could the cell drive the starting motor
of a car?
(a) Given, number of secondary cells, N = 6,
E.m.f. of each cell, E = 2.0 V
Internal resistance of each cell,
r = 0.015 W,
External resistance, R = 8.5 W
By Formula, current,
I=

3.14. The earths surface has a negative surface

charge density of 106 m2. The potential
difference of 400 kV between the top of the
atmosphere and the surface results (due to
the low conductivity to the lower atmosphere)
in a current of only 1800 A over the entire
globe. If there were no mechanism of
sustaining atmospheric electric field, how
much time (roughly) would be required to
neutralise the earths surface? (This never
happens in practice because there is a
mechanism to replenish electric charges,
namely the continual thunderstorms and
lightning in different parts of the globe).
(Radius of earth = 6.37 106 m.)
Sol.. Given, charge per unit area of surface of earth
= 109 Cm2,
Current = 1800 A, radius of earth = 6400 km
= 6.4 106 m
Charge on entire surface of the earth = 4p
(6.4 106)2 109C.
As rate of flow of charge is 1800 C per sec,
time taken for flow of entire charge,
4 3.14 (6.4 106 ) 10 -9
t=
1800

4 314 64 64
10-3 = 285.8sec.
18
3.15. (a) Six lead-acid type of secondary cells

NE
6 2
=
R + Nr 8.5 + 6 0.015

12
= 1.397 A.
8.5 + 0.09

Terminal voltage, V = IR =

12 8.5
8.59

= 11.874 V.
(b) Given, E = 1.9 V,r = 380 W, Imax = ?
Maximum current can be drawn by short
E 1.9
=
= 0.005 A.
r 380
Which cannot start a car, because a
starter motor requires a large current
( 700 A) for few seconds.
3.16. Two wires of equal length, one of aluminium
and the other of copper have the same
resistance. Which of the two wires is lighter?
Hence explain why aluminium wires are
preferred for overhead power cables.
( rAl = 2.63 108 W m,

circuit, Imax =

Sol.

rCu = 1.72 108 W m,

Relative density of Al = 2.7, of Cu = 8.9.)
By formulae,

R= r

l
l2
l 2 rl 2 d
=r =r =
a
al
V
m

Where V = al = volume of wire,

ma = mass of wire, d = density of wire
material.

7
r l2 d
For aluminium wire, R A1 = A1 A1 A1
m A1

For copper wire, Rcu =

rCu l 2Cu dCu

m Cu

For equal length and resistance,

rAl d Al rCu d Cu
=
m Al
mCu
m Cu rCu dCu
=
rAl d Al
m Al
m Cu 1.72 10 -8 8.9 172 89
=
=
m Al 2.63 10-8 2.7 263 27
= 2.1558.
Aluminium wires are preferred for
overhead cables because the ratio shows that
aluminium wire is lighter than copper wire.
3.17. What conclusion can you draw from the
following observations on a resistor made of
alloy manganin?

Current
A
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1
2

Sol.

Voltage
V
3.94
7.87
11.8
15.7
19.7
39.4

Current
A
3
4
5
6
7
8

Voltage
V
59.2
78.8
98.6
118.5
138.2
158

Ohms law is valid to a high accuracy; the

resistivity of the alloy manganin is nearly
independent of temperature.
3.18. Answer the following questions:
(a) A steady current flows in a metallic
conductor of nonuniform cross-section.
Which of these quantities is constant
along the conductor: current, current
density, electric field, drift speed?
(b) Is Ohms law universally applicable for
all conducting elements? If not, give
examples of elements which do not obey
Ohms law.
(c) A low voltage supply from which one
needs high currents must have very low
internal resistance. Why?

(d) A high tension (HT) supply of, say, 6 kV

must have a very large internal
resistance. Why?
Sol. (a) Only current (because it is given to be
steady!). The rest depends on the area
of cross section inversely.
(b) No, examples of non-ohmic elements
vacuum diode, semiconductor diode.
(c) Typical electrical insulators (e.g., glass),
difference in their resistivity from metals
enormously by a factor of the order of
10 22 . The corresponding factor for
thermal insulators versus thermal
conductors is only 103.
(d) (i) The internal resistance of a car
battery decreases with increase in
temperature.
(ii) Mainly in its internal resistance, but
partly in its emf also.
(iii) Because the maximum current drown
from source is equal to e/r.
(iv) Because, if the circuit is shorted
(accidentally), the current drown will
exceed safety limits, if internal
resistance is not large.
3.19. Choose the correct alternative:
(a) Alloys of metals usually have (greater/
less) resistivity than that of their
constituent metals.
(b) Alloys usually have much (lower/higher)
temperature coefficients of resistance
than pure metals.
(c) The resistivity of the alloy manganin is
nearly independent of/increases rapidly
with increase of temperature.
(d) The resistivity of a typical insulator
(e.g., amber) is greater than that of a
metal by a factor of the order of
(1022/103).
Sol. (a) greater
(b) lower
(c) nearly independent of,
(d) 1022
3.20. (a) Given n resistors each of resistance R,
how will you combine them to get the (i)
maximum (ii) minimum effective
resistance? What is the ratio of the
maximum to minimum resistance?
(b) Given the resistances of 1 W , 2 W , 3 W ,
how will be combine them to get an
equivalent resistance of (i) (11/3) W (ii)
(11/5) W , (iii) 6 W (iv) (6/11) W ?
(c) Determine the equivalent resistance of

8
networks shown in Fig.

parallel combination in series.

1W

1W

1W

1W

1W

2W

2W

2W

2W

2W

24 8 4
= = W
2+4 6 3
Since such four combination are in
series.

Each combination =

(i)

4 16
=
W.
3 3
(ii) It is equivalent to 5 resistors, each of
resistance R in series. Total resistance
= 5R.
3.21. Determine the current drawn from a 12 V
supply with internal resistance 0.5 W by the
infinite network shown in fig. Each resistor
has 1 W resistance.

Total resistance = 4

R
R
R
R
(ii)
Sol.

1W

(a) For maximum effective resistance,

resistors must be combined in series.
Maximum effective resistance = nR
For minimum effective resistance,
resistors must be combined in parallel.
Minimum effective resistance =
Ratio,

1W

1W

1W

1W

1W

1W

R
n

Maximum
of effective resistance
Minimum

nR
= n2 .
=
R
n
(b) (i) 1W and 2W in parallel with 3W in their
series.

1 2
2
11
+ 3 = + 3 = W.
1+ 2
3
3
(ii) 2W and 3W in parallel with 1W in their
series.

Resistance =

23
6
11
+ 1 = + 1 = W.
2+3
5
5
(iii) All in series, Resistance = 1 + 2 + 3 = 6W.

1W

Sol.

1W

1W

1W

1W

1W
(12V,
0.5W)
1W

Let the network have resistance R. Adding

one more set to it on battery end. The network
now becomes as shown in figure.
R 1
R
+1 = 2 +
R +1
R +1
The network has infinite such sets. So, this
resistance must still be R.

This has resistance = 1 +

Hence, 2 +

R
=R
R +1

Resistance =

(iv) All in parallel,

1
Resistance

1 1 1
11
= + + +=
1 2 3
6
6
W.
11
(c) (i) It is equivalent to four 2 W - 4 W

Resistance =

1W
R

1W
1W

or, 2R + 2 + R = R2 + R
R2 2R 2 = 0
R=

2 4+8 2 2 3
=
= 1 3
2
2

Taking only positive value, R = 1 + 3

9
= 2.732W.
Now total circuit resistance = 2.732 + 0.5
= 3.232 W
12
= 3.71292 A.
3.232
3.22. Figure shows a potentiometer with a cell of
2.0 V and internal resistance 0.40 W
maintaining a potential drop across the
resistor wire AB. A standard cell which
maintains a constant emf of 1.02 V (for very
moderate currents upto a few mA) gives a
balance point at 67.3 cm length of the wire.
To ensure very low currents drawn from the
standard cell, a very high resistance of 600
k W is put in series with it, which is shorted
close to the balance point. The standard cell
is then replaced by a cell of unknown emf E
and the balance point found similarly, turns
out to be at 82.3 cm length of the wire.
\

current =

2V

0.4W

G
600 kW

(a) What is the value E?

(b) What purpose does the high resistance
of 600 k W have?
(c) Is the balance point affected by this high
resistance?
(d) Is the balance point affected by the
internal resistance of the driver cell?
(e) Would the method work in the above
situation if the driver cell of the
potentiometer had an emf of 1.0 V instead
of 2.0 V?
(f) Would the circuit work well for
determining an extremely small emf, say
of the order of a few mV (such as the
typical emf of the thermo-couple)? If not,
how will you modify the circuit?

Sol.

(a) By Formula,
E=

E
l
=
E standard lstandard

l Estandard 82.3 1.02

=
67.3
lstandard

= 1.2474 V.
(b) To reduce current through the
galvanometer when the movable contact
is far from the balance point.
(c) No.
(d) No.
(e) No. If E is greater than the emf of the
drive cell of the potentiometer, there will
be no balance point on the wire AB.
(f) The circuit, as it is, would be unsuitable
because the balance point (for e of the
order a few mV) will be very close to the
end A and the percentage error in
measurement will be very large. The
circuit is modified by putting a suitable
resistor R in series with the wire AB so
that potential drop across AB is only
slightly greater than the emf to be
measured. Then the balance point will be
at larger length of the wire and the
percentage error will be much smaller.
3.23. Figure shows a potentiometer circuit for
comparison of two resistances. The balance
point with a standard resistor R = 10.0 W is
found to be 58.3 cm, while that with the
unknown resistance X is 68.5 cm. Determine
the value of X. What might you do if you
failed to find a balance point with the given
cell of emf E?

G
R
X
E
Fig.

10
Sol.

In this case,
or

X= R

R l1
=
X l2

2.0 V

l2 10 68.5
=
= 11.75W
l1
58.3

In case of failure, a high resistance is put in

series with the cell E. This will reduce current
through R and X and potential difference
across them will be reduced to values lower
than the potential difference across wire AB.
3.24. Figure shows a 2.0 V potentiometer used for
the determination of internal resistance of a
1.5 V cell. The balance point of cell in open
circuit is 76.3 cm. When a resistor of 9.5 W
is used in the external circuit of the cell, the
balance point shifts to 64.8 cm length of the
potentiometer wire. Determine the internal
resistance of the cell.

1.5 V

9.5 W

Sol.

In open circuit, balance point at 67.3 cm

balances e.m.f. of the cell. In close circuit
balance point at 64.8 cm balances terminal
voltage V of the cell.
Hence E = 76.3 kV and V = 64.8 kV
By formula, r = R
=

E - V 9.5(76.3 - 64.8)
=
V
64.8

9.5 11.5
= 1.686W.
64.8