Biology Unit 3

Dissolved substances

Dissolved substances can move by diffusion or active transport. Water is

moved by osmosis.

Osmosis

Osmosis the movement of water molecules from a high water

concentration to a low water concentration through a partially permeable
membrane.
Dilute solutions contain more water molecules than concentrated ones.
If a partially permeable membrane separates two solutions of different
concentrations there is a net movement of water molecules from the dilute
solution to the concentrated solution.
Animal cells do not have cell walls, so if too much water enters the cell
they burst.
If plant or animals cells lose too much water the cytoplasm shrinks,
limiting cell function.
The solution on the
right is 0.2m, the
solution on the left is
0.5m. 0.2m means that
the solution is more
dilute, so therefore the
water moves to the

Active transport

Active transport the movement of molecules

from a low concentration to a high concentration
using energy from respiration.
It enables cells to absorb ions from a very dilute
solution i.e a watery solution with a low
concentration of ions.

Sports drinks

Sports drinks contain water, sugar and ions.

The water and ions are replacing what is lost in sweat.
The sugar is replacing what is used up by muscles in
exercise.
If faced with a question which provides information on
sports drinks,
consider who it was written by, how
many people were tested, is it a scientific study?

Exchange surfaces

Many organ systems are specialised to exchange materials. The

effectiveness of these can be increased by:
1. Having a large surface area

2.
3.
4.

Having a good blood supply (in animals.)

Having good ventilation (for gaseous exchange in animals.)
Being thin walled, to provide a shorter diffusion distance.
Exchanging substances is more difficult as organisms get larger and more
complex because theres a long way from the exchange surfaces and
where substances are needed.

Exchange surfaces in
humans

Villi inside the small

intestine increase its
surface area, with an
extensive network of
capillaries so digested
food is quickly absorbed
into the blood by
diffusion or active
transport.
Alveoli in the lungs
increase its surface area, to increase diffusion of co2 and o2.
They both have also have thin walls.

Gaseous exchange

The lungs are located in the thorax (upper body) and are protected by the
ribcage.
The diaphragm separates the thorax from the abdomen (lower body).
The breathing system takes air into and
out of the body so that oxygen can
diffuse into the bloodstream, and carbon
dioxide can diffuse into the bloodstream
and out into the air.

How we breathe in:

1. The intercostal muscles and
diaphragm contract.
2. The volume of the thorax increases.
(ribs move up and out, diaphragm flattens)
3. Pressure decreases, so air is drawn in.
The opposite happens for breathing out.
Ventilation - the movement of air in and out of the lungs.

Exchange systems in plants

Roots

Water and mineral ions are absorbed by the roots.

Roots have root hair cells to increase their surface area for absorption.

Leaves

Carbon dioxide enters leaves by diffusion.

Leaves are flat to increase their surface area for
diffusion.
There are air spaces inside the leaf to increase the
surface area for gas exchange.
There are stomata on the upper and lower (mostly
lower) surface of leaves to allow carbon dioxide to
diffuse in, and oxygen from photosynthesis to diffuse
out.
The size of stomata is controlled by guard cells.

Evaporating water

Stomat
a

Evaporation is more rapid in dry, windy and hot conditions.

If plants lose water faster than being replaced, stomata can close to
reduce wilting.

The blood system

The blood system transports substances

around the body.
It is double circulatory as there are 2 circuits.
1. One pumps deoxygenated blood to the
lungs to take it oxygen.
2. The other pumps oxygenated blood to
the rest of the organs in the body.
Heart an organ which pumps blood around
the body.
The walls of the heart are made of muscle
tissue.

How the heart works

1. The blood enters the atria of the heart.

2. The atria contracts, forcing the blood into the
ventricle.
3. The ventricle contract to force blood out of the heart.
4. Blood flows from the heart to the organs via arteries and capillaries.

There are valves to allow the blood to flow the right way.

Arteries

Arteries have thick walls which contain elastic fibres and muscle.
This is because the blood is of a high pressure when it is forced from the
heart.
They carry blood AWAY from the heart.
If arteries begin to narrow, stents are used to keep them open and
increase the reduced blood flow. They are important in coronary arteries,
which are used by the heart.

Guard
cells

Arteries branch into capillaries.

Veins

Veins have thinner walls because the

blood pressure is lower.
They also have valves to prevent backflow
of blood.
Veins take blood INTO the heart.

Capillaries

They CARRY blood to cells to exchange

substances with them.
They have permeable walls so substances can diffuse in and out.
They supply substances needed by the cell and take away substances
produced by the cell.
Thin walls, so short diffusion distance.

Blood

Blood a tissue which contains a fluid called plasma which has red and
white blood cells as well as platelets suspended within it.
Blood plasma transports
Carbon dioxide from the organs to the lungs
- Soluble products of digestion from the small intestine to other organs
- Urea from the liver to the kidneys.

Red blood cells

They transport blood from the lungs to the organs.

They have no nucleus so there is more room to
carry oxygen.
It contains a red pigment called haemoglobin.
In the lungs, haemoglobin combines with oxygen
to become oxyhaemoglobin.
In other organs, oxyhaemoglobin breaks down to
release oxygen to cells.

White blood cells

Have a nucleus.
They form part of the bodys defence system against
microorganisms.

Platelets

Platelets have no nucleus.

They are fragments of cells.

They clot blood at the site of a wound.

Transport systems in plants

Xylem tissue transports water and mineral ions from the roots to the stem
and leaves.
Phloem tissue transports dissolved sugars from the leaves to the rest of
the plant including growing regions and storage organs.
The movement of water from the roots through the xylem and out of the
leaves is called the transpiration stream.

Homeostasis
Waste products

Waste products that have to be

removed from the body include:
-Carbon dioxide, produced from
respiration and removed via the lungs
when we breathe out.
-Urea produced in the liver from the
incomplete breakdown of amino acids
and removed from the kidneys by
urine, which is temporarily stored in
the bladder.

Water and ions

If the water or ion content in the body is wrong, too much water could
move in or out of the cells and damage them.
Water and ions enter our bodies by food and drink.

How urine in produced

1. First, the blood is filtered.
2. All the sugars are reabsorbed.
3. Amount of dissolved ions needed for the body are
reabsorbed.
4. Amount of water needed for the body is reabsorbed.
5. Releasing urea, excess ions and water as urine.

Treating kidney failure

Either a kidney transplant or dialysis machine can be used.

Dialysis
Treatment by dialysis restores the
normal level of concentration of
dissolved substances in the blood and
has to be carried out at regular
intervals.
In a dialysis machine a persons blood
flows between partially permeable
membranes.
The dialysis fluid contains the same
concentration of useful substances
such as glucose and mineral ions so
they arent lost.
Urea passes out of the blood into the dialysis fluid.
Kidney transplant
In kidney transplants a diseased kidney is replaced by a healthy one from
a donor.
However, the donor kidney may be rejected by the immune system.
Antigens - proteins on the surface of cells.
The recipients antibodies may attack the antigens on the surface of the
donor kidney as they do not recognise as part of the recipients body.
To prevent rejection:
- A donor kidney with the same tissue-type to the recipient is used.
- Drugs are given which suppress the immune system.

Temperature control
Sweat

Sweating helps to cool the body by evaporating and leaving behind a cool
surface.
You sweat more when its hot.
You need more water in food or drink to balance out this loss.

Thermoregulatory centre

Body temperature is monitored and controlled by the thermoregulatory

centre.
The centre has receptors sensitive to the temperature of blood flowing in
the brain.
Also temperature receptors in the skin send impulses to the brain about
skin temperature.

If the temperature is too high:

Blood vessels supplying the skin capillaries dilate to allow more blood to
flow to the skin so more heat can be lost.

Sweat glands release more sweat which cools

the body as it evaporates.

If the temperature is too low:

Blood vessels supplying the skin capillaries

restrict to reduce blood flow to the skin, so less
heat is lost.
Muscles can shiver, their contraction needs
respiration, and the energy can be used to
warm the body.

Sugar control

Blood glucose concentration levels are monitored and controlled by the

pancreas which produces the hormone insulin, which allows glucose to
flow from the blood into cells.
When glucose levels fall, the hormone glucagon is produced in the
pancreas. This allows glycogen to be converted to glucose and released
into the blood.

Type 1 diabetes

Someone with type 1 diabetes may have their blood glucose concentration
rise to a high level because they do not produce enough insulin.
This can be controlled by eating a careful diet, doing regular exercise or
injecting insulin.

Waste from human activity

An increase in the human population means the amount of waste has

increased.
Unless waste is properly handled, more
pollution will be caused.
Waste may pollute:
Air, with smoke and gases such as sulphur
dioxide, which contributes to acid rain.
Water, with sewage, fertiliser and toxic
chemicals.
Land, with toxic chemicals such as
herbicides and pesticides which may be
washed from land into waterways.
Humans reduce the land available for other plants and animals due to
building, farming, quarrying and dumping waste.

Deforestation and the destruction of areas of peat.

Problems

Large-scale deforestation to provide land for agriculture has:

-increased the release of CO2 into the atmosphere because of burning and
the activities of microorganisms.
-reduce the rate at which carbon is removed from the atmosphere
(because carbon dioxide is taken in in photosynthesis) and is locked up
for many years as wood.
Deforestation leads to a reduction in biodiversity.
Biodiversity is the variety of different species in a habitat.

Why is deforestation occurring

So more crops can be grown for biofuels based on ethanol to be

produced.
Increase in cattle and in rice fields to provide more food.
These organisms produce methane which releases more methane into
the atmosphere.

Peat bogs

They are areas of acidic and waterlogged land.

Plants living here dont fully decay as theres
not enough oxygen. These partly rotted plants
build up to form peat.
Carbon from the plants is stored in the peat.
Peat can be dried up and used as a fuel or
compost.
When peat decomposes when the bogs are
drained, CO2 is released, contributing to
greenhouse effect.
Peat-free composts are important to reduce the demand for peat.

Biofuels

Levels of carbon dioxide and methane in the atmosphere contribute to

global warming which can:
- cause big changes in the earths climate.
- cause a rise in sea levels.
- cause migration patterns to change, e.g birds.
- cause a reduction in biodiversity.
-result in changes in the distribution of species.
Carbon dioxide can be sequestered in lakes, oceans, ponds, green plants,
peat bogs, these are all important when removing carbon dioxide from the
atmosphere.

Fermentation and ethanol

Fermentation is when yeast or bacteria break sugars down by anaerobic

respiration.
Biofuels can be made from natural products by fermentation.
Biogas is mostly methane.
It can be made by anaerobic fermentation of plant products or waste
material containing carbohydrates.

The raw material is cheap and readily available.

Act as a waste disposal system, stop waste just causing disease and
polluting water. Gives it a use.

Biogas generators
3 things a biogas generator must have are:
An inlet to put waste material in.
An outlet to remove any digested material
(to be used as fertiliser
An outlet where biogas can be piped to
where needed.
There are two types of generators:

Batch
-Where the biogas is made in small
batches.
-It is manually loaded up with waste.

Continuous
-Where biogas is made all the time, it is
constantly fed into generator.
-Biogas is produced at a steady rate.
-Its best for large-scale biogas
projects.

There are 4 factors to consider when designing a biogas

generator:
1. Cost continuous is more expensive because waste is mechanically
pumped in and removed.
2. Convenience Batch generators are less convenient as they have to be
manually loaded, emptied and cleaned.
3. Efficiency Biogas is produced most quickly at 35c. If the climate is
cold, production is slower. In some areas they are insulated e.g by solar
heaters. The generator shouldnt have any leaks or gas will be lost.
4. Position Waste will smell during delivery, so should be away from
homes. It will be best located near a waste source.

Environmental and economic effects of using

biofuels

Biofuels are greener. The carbon dioxide they release was taken in by
plants which lived recently. So theyre carbon neutral.
Doesnt produce large amounts of sulphur dioxide or nitrogen oxides,
which cause acid rain.
Methane is given off by untreated waste. However, burning it as biogas
doesnt release it into the atmosphere.

Food production
Efficiency of food production

Theres less energy and less biomass as

you move up a stage in a food chain.
This means the efficiency of food
production can be improved by having
less stages in the food chain.
It can also be improved by restricting
movement of animals as they waste less
energy on movement and heating
themselves.
This makes the transfer of energy from
animal feed -> animal much more efficient. So they can grow faster on
less food.

Fish stocks

Fish stocks in the ocean are declining. We must keep them at a level
where breeding continues or certain species may disappear altogether
from some areas.
Net sizes there are limits on the mesh sizes. This is to allow unwanted
fish to escape, and also so younger fish can escape so they can reach
breeding age.
Fishing quotas limits on the number and size of fish that can be caught
in certain areas. This prevents overfishing of some species.
This is an example of sustainable food production.

Fusarium

Mycoprotein means protein made from fungi.

It makes meat substitutes for vegetarian meals.
The fungus is called Fusarium
Its grown in a fermenter, using glucose syrup as
food.
The fungus respires aerobically, so is put in
aerobic conditions

Food miles

Some food products have lots of food miles where they have been
transported a long way.
This can be expensive and bad for the environment.
Planes, ships and trucks all burn fossil fuels which release CO2,
contributing to global warming.