Plant and Animal

Organ System and

Their Functions
Gas Exchange
Gas exchange involves the
use of oxygen produced by
photosynthetic organisms
and the release of carbon
dioxide to the environment
as a waste product of
respiration.
• Gases are important because they are required for
different metabolic reactions to proceed.

• Gas exchange is also important biological process that

allows organism to survive.

• Different organisms have various ways of exchanging

gases inside and outside their bodies.
 The process of gas exchange in animals involves a
system of parts and processes. It starts with diffusion of
oxygen from the respiratory surface into the blood, which will
then transport the oxygen to the cells of the different parts of
the body. As, oxygen diffuses into the cells, carbon dioxide is
absorbed into the bloodstream, which will subsequently be
released to the environment through the respiratory surface.
 Oxygen availability to animals depends on the external respiratory
medium and environmental factors such as temperature, salinity (aquatic
life), altitude (terrestrial life), and distance from air interference.
Terrestrial organisms directly take in oxygen from the atmosphere
whereas aquatic organisms obtain the supply as dissolved oxygen, which
occurs in minute amounts. Thus, it is more challenging and energy
intensive for aquatic organisms to perform gas exchange.
Lists of different structures used by animals for gas exchange

Cell membrane
it is a structure used by
unicellular organisms for gas
exchange. Gases directly pass
through the cell membrane through
diffusion.

Example: Bacteria
Body surface / Skin
it is a respiratory surface covered with thin
and moist epithelial cells that allow oxygen and
carbon dioxide exchange. Gases can only cross
the cell membrane when they are dissolved in an
aqueous solution, and thus the surface should be
moist.

Examples:
flatworms and frogs
Gills
they greatly increase the
surface area for gas exchange in
aquatic organisms. Gills are
convoluted outgrowths containing
blood vessels covered by a thin
layer of epithelial cells. They can
be found either externally or
internally.

Examples:
external gills—axolotl (an amphibian)
Internal gills—fish
Tracheal systems
they are composed of a series of
respiratory tubes that carry the
gases directly to the cells for gas
exchange. Gases enter and exit
through the openings at the body
surface called spiracles.

Examples:
Grasshoppers and cockroaches
Lungs
these are ingrowths of the
body wall that connect to the
outside environment by a
series of respiratory tubes
and small openings. The
lungs are one of the most
complex respiratory organs Example:
of animals. Humans
In plants, gas exchange mainly occurs in the leaves.
Photosynthesis and cellular respiration are two biological
processes involved in gas exchange in plants. In photosynthesis,
plants take in carbon dioxide from the air to make food; during
the process, oxygen is released as a by-product. At the same
time, plants take in oxygen to be used in cellular respiration,
releasing energy and carbon dioxide as by-products.
Plants have different
mechanisms for gas exchange
compared to animals. Plants
are able to perform this
process using the structures
present in the leaves.
 Gases enter the leaves
through specialized pores
called stomata (singular:
stoma). Each stoma contains
guard cells that control the
opening and closing of the
pores. The stomata normally
open when light strikes in the
morning, and they close during
the night.
 This happens because of the change in
turgor pressure, or the pressure involved
when the guard cell is pushed against the
cell wall. When turgor pressure develops
within guard cells the thin outer walls of the
guard cells bulge out, and the inner walls
form into a crescent shape. This change in
shape opens the stomata. When the guard
cells lose turgor pressure, the elastic inner
walls regain their original shape, closing the
stomata. The closing and opening of the
guard cells allow the exchange of gases
between the leaves of the plant and the
environment.
Roots and stems also contribute to gas exchange but only with a minimal
effect. Woody stems and mature roots are covered with an outer bark
composed of cork cells. These cork cells are impregnated with suberin, a
waxy, waterproof substance that does not allow gases and water to pass
through. However, these woody stems and mature roots are perforated by
nonsuberized pores called lenticels.

Lenticels
provide a pathway
for the direct exchange
of gases between the
internal tissue of the
plant and the atmosphere
 Transport of Materials
and Circulatory System
of Plants and Animals
 All organism should be able to transport
important particles or molecules into their
bodies. At the same time, they should be able
to remove wastes and other unwanted
substances from them. This is why plants and
animals have various types of circulatory
systems.
These circulatory systems allow important
biological fluids to be transported around the
organism, so that the organism can breathe,
gain nutrition, and maintain its internal
environment for survival.
 Transport of materials in Plants
Plants have two main circulatory
organs:
• Xylem- transport water
and nutrients from the
roots to the different
parts of the plant
• Phloem- transports
sugars and other
metabolic products
from the leaves to the
rest of the plant
Plants also have the following
supporting organs:

• Tr a c h e i d s - elongated
cells in the xylem that
help in the transport of
water and nutrients

• Sieve tubes- elongated

cells in the phloem that
serve as conduits of
sugar transport
 The plant transports food, water, and minerals
through its system by using the xylem and the
phloem. These conducting tissues, when viewed
as a cross-section under the microscope, appear
to be a mass of cell, arranged side by side.
Xylem vessels are composed of dead lignified
cells connected end to end. This allows the
transport of water and minerals in the upward
direction. Phloem is composed of sieve tubes,
which are closely associated with companion
cells to facilitate movement of materials across
the cell cytoplasm.
Gases are diffused through the air spaces,
such as stomata and the lenticels.
 Water is transported through the xylem. The upward movement of
water and minerals termed ‘ascent of sap’ is against gravity and is due
to transpiration pull. Transpiration is the process in which a lot of
water evaporates (as water vapour) from pores on the surface of leaf
called stomata. This evaporation creates a vacuum and pulls up water
through the xylem.

Sugars and other food molecules synthesized in the leaves are

transported to other parts of the plant through phloem. Sieve tubes are
living cells of the phloem, which transport food. Transport of food
material from leaves to other parts of the plant is called translocation.
This food may be stored in fruits, stem or roots.
Transport Materials in Animals
Animals have the following circulatory organs and tissues:
• Blood- has the following functions:
 transports gases and nutrients in the animal’s body;
 carries wastes out of the body;
 regulates the organism’s body temperature and pH (level of acidity)
 helps in healing and prevention of further damage (through platelet
formation); and
 plays an important role in the immune system
Most invertebrates such as mollusks and arthropods have hemolymph instead of
blood
Hemolymph-

• Blood vessels- tubular structures carrying blood

• Heart- hollow muscular organ that pumps throughout the different parts of the
body
Human circulatory system
Human circulatory system consists of :

Heart
a) Structure: Heart is a powerful muscular
organ lying between lungs in the upper part
of thorax of our body. It is four-chambered-
two (right and left) atria (sing. atrium, also
called auricles), and two (right and left)
ventricles..
The heart is made of specialized muscle cells
(also called cardiac muscle fibers), which
contract and relax all the time without getting
tired. The contraction and relaxation follows
a rhythm called heartbeat to pump blood In one minute, normal human heart beats
into the vessels. about 72 times.
Blood vessels
Blood vessels, which are tube-like
structures, connected to the heart.
Blood vessels are of three kinds:
• Arteries: Carry blood from heart to
various parts of body.
• Veins: Bring blood from various
parts of body to the heart.
• Capillaries: Thin vessels between
the artery and the vein. The capillaries
allow the exchange of materials
between blood and tissues.
Blood
Blood is a connective tissue that circulates throughout the body. It is made
up of a fluid medium called plasma in which float three types of blood
cells, called red blood cells, white blood cells and blood platelets. Blood
cells are manufactured in the bone marrow.
a) Red blood cells
(RBC or Erythrocytes)

• These are circular in shape, and

contain a red coloured pigment
called haemoglobin
• No nucleus is present in RBCs
• RBC carry oxygen to tissues and
bring back carbon dioxide from
tissues
• About 5 million mm³ erythrocytes
occur in circulating blood
b) White blood cells (WBC or
Leucocytes)
• In the circulating blood 5000 to 7000 mm³
WBCs are present
• Since they carry no pigments, therefore, they
so are colourless
• WBC have irregular shape
• They prevent body from infections by eating
up germs or by producing antibodies
c) Blood platelets
(Thrombocytes)
• These are very small fragments of
cells
• They have no nuclei
• They participate in clotting of
blood
 Blood carries nutrients, oxygen, carbon dioxide, hormones
and waste material to the relevant parts of the body. Some
medicines when taken in the body are also distributed
through blood.
 About 90% of water is transported through the blood
plasma.
 Food in the form of glucose is present in blood plasma.
 In mammals, oxygen is taken into the bloodstream by
combining with the blood protein called hemoglobin. This
enables the oxygen to be circulated throughout the body.
 Carbon dioxide, is also taken into the bloodstream by
combining with hemoglobin, so it can be transported out of
the body.
Regulation of Fluids in
Plants and Animals
Both plants and animals need to regulate the fluids inside
their bodies. This is because body fluids are essential for
carrying out the different bodily functions in organism
Fluid Regulation in Plants
In plants, the most important fluid is water. Water is one of the main substances
needed by plants to survive. In photosynthesis, water is used in photolysis, a
photochemical process that allows water molecules to split in the presence of light.
The amount of water that enters and leaves the plants is important. If the plants absorb
less water than needed, they may dry out and wither. Excessive amount of water is
also dangerous for plants. Thus, plants have several different ways of regulating the
amount of water that comes in and out of their bodies.
Here are the following processes that play a role in water regulation:

• Osmosis- this is the

tendency of water to pass
through the semipermeable
membrane of plant cells.
In this process, water
movement is from an area
with low solute
concentration to an area
with high solute
concentration. The solute
concentration inside the
plant cell is higher than
that of the soil. Thus,
water moves from the soil
to the plant cells.
• Tr a n s p i r a t i o n - t h i s i s t h e
process wherein water exits the
plant through the stomata of the
leaves because of evaporation.
Plants do not have any
specialized organs that
transport water throughout
their parts. However,
transpiration allows the water
to travel from the soil
throughout the plants because it
basically pulls the water up the
bodies of the plants. As water
evaporates through the stomata,
it creates a negative pressure,
exerting a pulling force that
draws the water upward.
• Adhesion-cohesion
property of water-this
also allows the water to
move up through a
plant. As the water and
nutrients get inside the
xylem, adhesion occurs
because the water
molecules cling to the
xylem tissue. At the
same time, cohesion
occurs because the
water molecules stick to
one another. When this
happens, the water
molecules may form a
huge chain that fills up
an entire column in the
xylem.
• Capillary action-this refers
to the movement of liquid
across a solid surface, which
is caused by adhesion. The
narrow xylem tubes allow the
water molecules to climb up
on their own because the
water molecules adhere to the
surface of the xylem tubes.
Fluid Regulation in Animals

Body fluids are vital to animals. Different animals exert various ways of regulating
their internal body fluids. Fluid regulation in animals depends on their excretory systems.
Water and minerals enter the body of the animals when they drink and eat the food.
However, most of the water and the minerals are lost by evaporation from the skin and
lungs, as well as by excretion. To maintain homeostasis in animals, the amount of water
acquired by the body should be equal to the amount of water lost.
Terrestrial and aquatic animals have different ways of regulating their body fluids.
Aquatic Animals
o Marine invertebrates — the
marine environment has a
greater solute concentration
than that of the body of
marine invertebrates. For this
reason, seawater may be
toxic to them. However,
marine invertebrates have a
high concentration of urea in
their blood, which matches
the tonicity of the water. This
allows the animals to survive
in their environment.
o Marine vertebrates — the body
fluids of marine vertebrates are at
a lower concentration than that of
seawater, which is why marine
vertebrates must reabsorb the
water for them to remain in
healthy state. They excrete ions
such as sodium and chloride at a
minimal rate because a high
amount of water must be retained
inside them.
o Freshwater vertebrates — the
body of freshwater vertebrates is
hypertonic, as compared to their
environment. This allows water to
continue to diffuse into the body
of the fish. The kidneys, which
deal with water uptake, allow
large amount of ions such as
sodium and chloride to go out of
their bloodstream. However,
these organisms need to reabsorb
some important ions via active
transport.
Terrestrial Animals
body fluids are regulated
by the excretory system. The
excretory system removes the
metabolic wastes and retains
proper amounts of water,
salts, and nutrients.
Te r r e s t r ia l animals have
various ways of reducing
water loss. Some live in
moist environments, develop
impermeable covering, and
even produce concentrated
urine. The excretory system
of terrestrial animals serves
to collect water and filter
body fluids, and it
eliminates excretory wastes
from the body.
Chemical and Nervous
Control
 Compared to plants, animals have chemical and nervous control that enable
them to respond to environmental stimuli. Chemical control is under the regulation
of the endocrine system and includes the various hormones. Chemical control is
slow-acting but the effect is long-term. On the other hand, nervous control is under
the regulation of the nervous system with its system of neuronal mechanisms.
Nervous control is fast-acting and the effect is short-term, although frequent
stimulation can be stored to produce a longer-lasting behavioral response.
Nervous System

Function: Sends, receives and

process information
throughout the body and
from the environment.

Parts: Brain, spinal cord and

nerves.
 Higher forms of animals have complex forms of nervous control. Plants may
not have such organ systems, but they do have parts that may be likened to certain
nervous control mechanisms in animals.
Three elements are needed for a nervous system response to occur. First, there
must be a means of detecting a change in the environment ( a stimulus). In most
animals, stimuli are detected by structures called receptors. Second, after the
stimulus is received, it must be transmitted. A stimulus is transmitted as an
impulse along a network of conductors. Conductors also transmit impulses to the
third necessary element, the effectors. Effectors are the responding parts. Effectors
carry out the correct responses to the stimuli. Muscles and glands are examples of
effectors.
NERVOUS CONTROL MECHANISMS IN ANIMALS
NERVE CELL = NEURONS
The conductors of a nervous response are specialized cells called neurons. There
are three types of neurons—sensory, motor, and interneurons in complex animals.
Neurons differ in structure and in the direction in which they carry impulses.
Sensory neurons- transmit incoming impulses
from receptors to a coordinating center, usually
the brain or spinal cord.
Motor neurons- transmit outgoing impulses
from the brain or spinal cord to the effectors.
These two types of neurons are joined in the
brain and spinal cord by interneurons. In
simple animals, interneurons may not be
involved. A sensory neuron may stimulate a
motor neuron directly. In some cases, a single
neuron may detect a stimulus and conduct an
impulse directly to an effector.
Parts of the Neuron

• Dendrite - Receives
information and passes it
to the cell body

• Cell Body - Location of

nucleus and organelles

• Axon - Single portion

that carries information
away from cell body
BRAIN
the brain is the main organ used by vertebrates for nervous control. It controls all the
activities of the body. It receives and processes sensory information, initiates responses, stores
memories, generates thoughts and emotion. Vertebrate brains differ in appearance, but each
has three general areas—forebrain, midbrain, and hindbrain. Each area of the brain controls
certain functions.

Forebrain—the cerebrum (top portion of brain, largest region), which is the major section of
forebrain, controls motor outputs as well as speech, reasoning, and emotions. The thalamus
and hypothalamus are also part of the forebrain.

Midbrain—the human midbrain serve as a relay station between brain parts.

Hindbrain—the hindbrain consists of the cerebellum (smaller portion toward lower back of
brain), which coordinates voluntary muscle activity, and the medulla oblongata (extension of
central portion of brain directly above the spinal cord), which regulates many involuntary
responses of internal organs.
On the other hand, some invertebrates do not have a main organ for
nervous control. Instead, they have a simple kind of nervous system known
as nerve nets. Nerve nets consist of individual nerve cells that form a
netlike arrangement throughout the animal’s body.

SPINAL CORD
the spinal cord is link between the brain and
the peripheral nervous system. It conducts
signals to and from the brain. Reflexes may be
controlled by either spinal cord or the brain.
VASCULAR STRANDS serve as the nerves in plants. The
leaves contain strands that combine to form the vascular bundles
of the stem and the vascular cylinder of the roots. The roots
contain vascular tissues and its strands are supported by
numerous cells forming the vascular cylinder.
Endocrine System
• The endocrine system is the
collection of glands that produce
hormones that regulate
metabolism, growth and
development, tissue function,
sexual function, reproduction,
sleep, and mood, among other
things.
• The endocrine system is made
up of the pituitary gland, 
thyroid gland, 
parathyroid glands, 
adrenal glands, pancreas, 
ovaries (in females) and 
testicles (in males)
• The endocrine and the nervous system coordinate with each
other through a series of feedback mechanisms to maintain
homeostasis.
• Animal’s hormone is mostly produced by the endocrine
system. Hormones are chemical signals secreted by
endocrine glands that communicate regulatory messages
within the body.
• The pituitary gland is called the master
gland of the endocrine system. This is
because it controls many other
hormone glands in the body.
• The master gland controls the thyroid
gland, adrenal gland, ovaries and
testicles. While it may be in charge of
these glands, it gets it orders from its
neighbor, the hypothalamus.
• The pituitary gland is located in the
brain, between the hypothalamus and
the pineal gland, just behind the bridge
of the nose. It is about the size of a pea
and is attached to the brain by a thin
stem of blood vessels and nerve cell
projections.
• The thyroid gland is a small, butterfly-
shaped organ in your throat, and it is
very important to your health and well-
being. The thyroid is part of the
endocrine system, which is essentially a
collection of glands. Glands produce
hormones that regulate mood and
various functions in the body.

• One of the most important functions of the adrenal gland is

the fight-or-flight response. When a person is stressed or
frightened, the adrenal gland releases a flood of hormones,
such as adrenaline and cortisol. These hormones increase
the heart rate, elevate blood pressure, boost energy
supplies, sharpen concentration and slow down other body
processes so the body can run from or fight a threat
• The testicles are the male gonads — the primary
male reproductive organs. They have two, very
important functions that are very important to the
male reproductive system: they produce gametes,
or sperm, and they secrete hormones, primarily
testosterone. 
Immune System
The role of the immune system is to protect the organism
from diseases or other potential damaging foreign bodies.
It identifies threats and finds ways to fight them. Animals
have the ability to become immune when they are
exposed to infection, but plants cannot do so.
Animals have a multifaceted and complex immune system
capable of protecting them against invasive pathogens or
disease-causing organisms. Their immune system is composed
of complex interactions that allow the organism to distinguish
their own cells from foreign bodies. As the body recognizes
foreign bodies, specialized blood cells called lymphocytes
travel through the circulatory system to destroy them.
 Plants, on the other hand, do not have a structural immune system. Plants
cannot defend themselves against pathogens such as bacteria, viruses, and
fungi. Plants also do not have a circulatory system. This is why plants have
cells that are able to respond to pathogens independently. Each plant cell
contains receptors that recognize pathogen molecules. When an invader is
identified by the receptor, it triggers defense responses. Such responses
include cell wall thickening, as well as production of antimicrobial
compounds such as phytoalexins and enzymes, and even cell death.
 The sensory and motor mechanisms of animals are directly
controlled by their nervous systems.
On the other hand, plants have sensory and motor mechanisms that give
them the ability to sense and responds to their environments. Plants
react to light, chemicals. Gravity, water, and even touch. The ability of
plants to respond to a certain stimulus is known as tropism.
Different Tropism in Plants

Phototropism- movement of the plant

in response to light, usually in the
direction toward the light

Geotropism- movement of the plant in

response to gravitational force
• Negative geotropism- when the plant part
moves away from earth
• Positive geotropism- when the plant part
moves toward earth
Hydrotropism- movement of the
plant in response in water

Thigmotropism- movement of the plant

in response to mechanical stimulation
Feedback
Mechanism
All our body systems are regulated by feedback mechanisms that serve to maintain
balance. This allows different organs of the body to work with one another.
Homeostasis refers to the body’s ability to maintain a constant internal
environment. This is important because it allows your body to function well in spite
of the ever-changing external environment.

Some of the substances that need to be maintained inside your body include
glucose, water, a healthy amount of carbon dioxide and oxygen, and mineral salts
such as sodium and chlorine. Internal conditions such as temperature, blood
pressure, and hormone concentration also need to be regulated.
Homeostasis

• Homeostasis helps the cells in your body

to function optimally.

• Cell membrane helps cells to maintain

homeostasis Cell
Membrane
-stable internal balance

Cell Wall
Control Mechanism
the stimulus-response model shows that event happen when a certain stimulus changes the internal condition
of the body. The following is a brief definition of the stimulus-response feedback model:
1. Stimulus – a structure that produces the change (signal)
2. Receptor – a structure that detects the change (sensor)
3. Control center – a structure that determines the appropriate response to the stimulus (integrator)
4. Effector – can be organs, glands, or tissues that are instructed to adjust the amount of output that produces a
desired effect
5. Response – the outcome of the adjustment that should remove the initial stimulus
Feedback Mechanism
• A form of regulation
– The body detects a change in internal
environment & responds to the change
• 2 Types of Feedback Mechanisms:
– Negative feedback
– Positive feedback
The Negative Feedback Mechanism

• This type of mechanism allows the

internal condition of the body to go back
to its normal or ideal state by inhibiting or
removing the stimulus.
• As the concentration of products or
substances inside the body increases, the
rate of process decreases.
Examples:

– As duck deaths decrease,

duck population increases

– As wolf population increases,

deer population decreases
Examples: Regulating Blood Sugar (glucose)
When your body absorbs a lot of glucose from the food you eat. As the glucose level in your body
increases, the receptors in your body will signal the brain to command the pancreas to secrete insulin
into the blood. Once the insulin is secreted, the blood sugar level effectively decreases. When the
sugar level in your blood finally reaches homeostasis, the pancreas will then stop secreting insulin.
The Positive Feedback Mechanism
• The positive feedback mechanism is exactly the
opposite of the negative feedback mechanism.
Positive feedback mechanisms allow the output to
enhance the original stimulus.
• Here, the increase in the concentration or
products or substances also results in an increase in
the rate of process.
Example:
Birth and Population

- More Births leads to higher population,

which leads to even more births, which
leads to even greater population, etc…
Example:

As the mother labors, oxytocin is

released inside her body. Oxytocin, a
hormone, causes muscle contractions to
speed up and intensify.
An increase in muscle contractions
allows more oxytocin to be released until
the baby is born. The birth of the baby
ends the continuous release of oxytocin,
and thus the positive feedback mechanism
comes to halt.
 REGULATION OF BODY TEMPERATURE
Thermoregulation
in living organism, thermoregulation may refer to—endothermy
and ectothermy.

• Endotherms (warm-blooded organisms) – create most of

their heat via metabolic processes.
 Example: mouse
Mouse regulates temperature by producing its own heat,
which is done by metabolism. During respiration, glucose is
converted to about 38 ATP and every ATP produced contains
7.3 kcal/mol. Each glucose molecule contains about 686
kcal/mol. If these molecules are processed via cellular
respiration, then only 38% of the energy in glucose is
recovered and trapped in ATP and the other 62% of the
energy from glucose is released as heat.
• Ectotherms (cold-blooded organisms) – use external sources
of temperature to regulate their body temperatures
 Example: lizard
REGULATION OF GLUCOSE CONCENTRATION
• Glucose is an important sugar in the body. When combined with
oxygen inside the cell, it produces energy necessary to perform
certain physiological processes.

• Many functions in the body are based on the energy sourced from
glucose. Without glucose, metabolic reactions would not occur.
Therefore, glucose should be regulated, as too much or too less of it
might result in brain damage and loss of consciousness.
• Hormones such as insulin and glucagon play
important roles in regulating blood glucose levels in
the body by allowing the glucose level to decrease or
increase, respectively.
 Insulin – is a hormone that facilitates glucose transport into
the cells. (helps decreases the blood sugar level)
 Glucagon – is a hormone produced by the pancreas that
raises the blood glucose level by stimulating the breakdown
of glycogen into glucose and by allowing glucose
production from amino acids and fatty acids.

• The pancreas and the adrenal gland are two major

organs responsible for the balance of blood glucose in
the body.