Atmospheric Electrostatics

Atmospheric Electrostatics
Lars Whlin
Colutron Research Corporation
Boulder, Colorado, USA
RESARCH STUDIES PRESS

Letchworth, Hertfordshire, England
JOHN WILEY & SONS INC.
New York, Chichester, Toronto,Brisbane, Singapore
Copyright 1989 by Colutron Research Corp.

All Rights reserved
Colutron Resesarch Corp.
2321 Yarmouth Ave.
Boulder, CO 80301
QC961.W34
1986
551.563
ISBN 0 471 91202 6 (Wiley)
86-13739
Editorial Foreword
Atmospheric Electrostatics is a welcome addition to the Electrostatics

Series of monographs.
The author has skillfully combined fundamental theories of
atmospheric electrostatic phenomena with his own unique explanation
of thundercloud charging. The arguments put forward are very
convincing and are supported by appealingly simple experiments.
Mathematical treatment of the subject is kept to a minimum, which
enables the non-expert to follow the reasoning with ease. At the same
time, the introduction of the electrochemical model for charge exchange
makes this compulsory reading for atmospheric scientists who are more
familiar with the traditional theories of thundercloud charging.
The subject is presented in a very logical manner, beginning with
early 19th Century experiments and leading finally to extraterrestrial
lightning phenomena. Congratulations to the author for presenting
this complex subject in such a way that even a novice to the field will
have no difficulty in following the text. All levels of readers are
guaranteed a fascinating conducted tour through this most
fundamental of electrical phenomena.
Dr. J.F.Hughes,PhD, MIEE, CEng, FInstP.
Southampton. April 1986
Preface
Static electricity became a fashionable science in the early 1700

century and several investigators drew a parallel between the sparks
produced in the laboratories to that of lightning and thunder produced
during foul weather. It is surprising, however, that even today with
our highly advanced technology in electronics and space science we
still do not know what causes thunderclouds to charge. The purpose of
this book is to give a general overview on atmospheric electricity and to
discuss several proposed charging mechanisms including resent
important discoveries in atmospheric electrochemistry. The aspects of
atmospheric electrochemistry becomes important when we realize that
the atmosphere, due to the constant bombardment of cosmic rays, is
ionized and behaves very much like an electrolyte. Electrochemical
potentials are produced on material surfaces that are exposed to our
ionized atmosphere and are as common
as contact potentials
generated when dissimilar conducting materials touch each other.
This book is not a review of the most current publications on
atmospheric electricity but serves as overview of the basic problems
still at large and the purpose is to try to inspire new fresh blood into
the oldest field of electricity.
Two excellent textbooks are
recommended for those interest in a detailed picture of the electrical
structure of our atmosphere: H. Israel, Atmospheric Electricity Vol. 1,
(1970), and Vol.2 1973.
J.A. Chalmers, Atmospheric Electricity,
(1957).
The author is thankful to the Burndy Library; The High Voltage
Research Institute, Uppsala University, Sweden and the High Voltage
Laboratory, T.U. Munchen for supplying historic illustrations.

Thanks is also due to Dr. John Hughes for initiating this work and
for editing and facilitating the publishing of this book.
Boulder, January 1985.
Lars Whlin
Table of Contents
Page
CHAPTER 1 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND
1.1 PRIMITIVE BELIEFS
1.2 EARLY ELECTROSTATICS
1.3 FRANKLIN VERSA NOLLET
1.4 THE LIGHTNING ROD
1.5 LATER DEVELOPMENTS
CHAPTER 2 THE ELECTRIC STRUCTURE OF THE

ATMOSPHERE
15
2.1 IONS
15
2.2 THE FAIRWEATHER ELECTRIC FIELD
21
2.3 THE AIR TO EARTH CURRENT
25
2.4 POINT DISCHARGE CURRENTS
26
2.5 PRECIPITATION CURRENTS
27
2.6 LIGHTNING CURRENTS
29
Page
2.7.1 THE ELECTRIC BUDGET
29
2.7.2 THE GLOBAL THUNDERSTORM CIRCUIT
30
2.7.3 THE ELECTROCHEMICAL MECHANISM
32
CHAPTER 3 CHARGING MECHANISMS
35
3.1 SUMMARY
35
3.2 CONTACT CHARGING
37
3.3 ELECTROCHEMICAL CHARGING
43
3.4.1 OTHER CHARGING PROCESSES
52
3.4.2 THE ELSTER-GEITEL PROCESS.
53
3.4.3 THE WILSON EFFECT
54
3.4.4 DIFFUSION CHARGING
55
3.4.5 FREEZING POTENTIALS
56
CHAPTER 4 THE THUNDERCLOUD
57
4.1 THERMAL DYNAMICS
57
4.2 THE ENERGY OF THUNDERSTORMS
59
4.3 THE ELECTRICAL ENERGY IN THUNDERSTORMS
59
4.4 THE LIGHTNING DISCHARGE
61
4.5 PROTECTION AGAINST LIGHTNING
67
4.6 THE ELECTRIC CHARGING OF CLOUDS
70
Page
4.7.1 BALL LIGHTNING
75
4.7.2 THE QUANTUM MODEL
76
4.7.3 THE STANDING WAVE MODEL
76
4.7.4 THE RING CURRENT MODEL
77
4.7.5THE PINCH EFFECT
78
CHAPTER 5 FAIRWEATHER PHENOMENA
83
5.1 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS
83
5.2.1 EXHAUST CHARGING
88
5.2.2 VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
89
5.2.3 EARTHQUAKE LIGHT
90
5.3 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS
92
5.4 THE ELECTRODE EFFECT
96
5.5 INTERPLANETARY STATIC ELECTRICITY
98
CHAPTER 6 INSTRUMENTATION
99
6.1 MEASUREMENTS
99
6.2 ELECTRIC FIELD MEASUREMENTS
99
6.3 THE ELECTROMETER
101
6.4 THE FIELD MILL
103
6.5 ELECTROMAGNETIC DETECTION
104
6.6 THE FUTURE
106
CHAPTER 7 MEASUREMENTS
109
7.1 RESULT OF FAIR-WAEATHER MEASUREMENTS
109
7.2 MEASURING TECHNIQUES
110
7.3 RELIABILITY OF MEASUREMENTS
111
7.4 RESULTS
112
7.5 APPENDIX
120
REFERENCES
109
INDEX
113
List of Illustrations
Fig.
1
Franklin's proposed sentry-box experiment.
Page
3
2 D'Alibard's version of Franklin's sentry-box experiment.
3 Professor Richmann is killed when lightning strikes

his experimental antenna in St. Petersburg, 1753.
Hat pin and umbrella lightning rods (Paris, 1778).
Points according to American standards (1959) not cheap and

only of psychological importance.
6 Boys camera photograph of cloud to ground discharge.
12
Ion production as function of altitude.
17
Conductivity as a function of altitude (Rocket data). 17
Gerdien conductivity apparatus.
18
10 Typical ion current readings from Gerdien cylinder. 19

11 Electrochemical equilibrium potentials for different material
as a function of ion concentration ratio.
20
12 The fairweather electric field in the atmosphere.
21
13 Relative distribution of radon atoms and excess positive

ions as a function of altitude.
22
14 Electric energy, charge and potential vs altitude.
23
15 Diurnal variations in fairweather fieldcompare

to world-wide convection.
24
16 The mirror-image effect.
27
17 The global electric circuit by C.T.R. Wilson.
30
18 Variation in fairweather field and current compared 31

to thunderstorm activity.
19 Lord Kelvin's condenser system.
38
20 Contact potential between zink and copper.

(a) Potential well diagram of metal surface.
(b) Electric field before contact is made.
(c) Electric field after contact is made.
39
21 Contact potentials in an ionized environment.

(a) Ion current with switch k closed.
(b) Potential build-up with switch k open.
42
22 Experiment demonstrating electrochemical charging.

(a) Galvanic cell with ionized air as electrolyte.
(b) Galvanic cell with water as electrolyte.
45
23 Charge-size measurements of rain drops compared to

values predicted by the electrochemical charging process.
51
24 The Elster-Geitel charging process of cloud drops.
53
25 Phillip's and Gunn's Experiment with metal spheres.

(a) Equilibrium potentials for different dia. spheres.
(b) Equilibrium potentials for different air velocities.
55
26 Electric diagram of thunderstorm (Kasemir).

27 Lightning discharge theory by Kasemir.
(a) Start of return stroke.
(b) Charge transfer by induction.
60
63
28 Lightning protection for houses.
69
29 Lightning protection for sail boats.
70
30 Typical charge distribution in a thundercloud.
71
31 Laboratory model of thundercloud.
74
32 The ring current model of ball lightning.
77
33 Two parallel wires which carry currents in the

direction attract each other.
78
34 The pinch effect causes the lightning channel to brake

up into small segments (bead of pearl lightning).
79
35 Magnetic ring field model of ball lightning.
80
36 Exhaust charging of a motor car.
88
37 Electrostatic charging of volcanic plume.
89
38 A person exposed to the electric fairweather field.
93
39 Apparatus measuring ion intake through the respiratory

system.
95
40 Ratio of charged ions inhaled at different bias voltages.
95
41 Dry mountain winds (fhn or chinook) and positive ions.
96
42 The electrode effect.
97
43 Different antennae configurations for electric field

measurementsin the atmosphere.
a) Disc antenna.
(b) Whip antenna.
(c) Whip antenna with radioactive probe.
(d) Long wire antenna.
100
44 Electrometer circuit.
101
45 Circuit for electric field measurements of thunderclouds.
102
46 Cylindrical electric field mill.
103
47 Rotating shutter electric field mill.
104
48 Loop antenna for lightning detection.
105
49 Diurnal variations for 16 fairwearher days Dec. 1990
110
50 Reliability of test data
112
51 Diurnal changes in fairweather generator
114
52 Diurnal changes in resistive load
114
53 Average field, current and ions Aug. 1990- Apr 1992
116
57 Diurnal variations compared to the Carnegie and Maud exp.
117
55 Diurnal power variations at different stations June 4, 1992
118
56 Diurnal power variations at different stations June 5, 1992
118
57 Recordings durin nearby earth quake
120
58 Electric field, current density and ion density.
121
59 Current density and temperature
121
60 Generator power and wind
122
61 Wind, temperature and relative humidity
122

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Atmospheric Electrostatics

RESARCH STUDIES PRESS

Copyright 1989 by Colutron Research Corp.

Atmospheric Electrostatics is a welcome addition to the Electrostatics

Static electricity became a fashionable science in the early 1700

Laboratory, T.U. Munchen for supplying historic illustrations.

Boulder, January 1985.

1.1 PRIMITIVE BELIEFS

1.2 EARLY ELECTROSTATICS

1.3 FRANKLIN VERSA NOLLET

1.4 THE LIGHTNING ROD

1.5 LATER DEVELOPMENTS

CHAPTER 2 THE ELECTRIC STRUCTURE OF THE

2.2 THE FAIRWEATHER ELECTRIC FIELD

2.3 THE AIR TO EARTH CURRENT

2.4 POINT DISCHARGE CURRENTS

2.5 PRECIPITATION CURRENTS

2.6 LIGHTNING CURRENTS

2.7.2 THE GLOBAL THUNDERSTORM CIRCUIT

2.7.3 THE ELECTROCHEMICAL MECHANISM

CHAPTER 3 CHARGING MECHANISMS

3.2 CONTACT CHARGING

3.3 ELECTROCHEMICAL CHARGING

3.4.1 OTHER CHARGING PROCESSES

3.4.2 THE ELSTER-GEITEL PROCESS.

3.4.3 THE WILSON EFFECT

3.4.4 DIFFUSION CHARGING

3.4.5 FREEZING POTENTIALS

CHAPTER 4 THE THUNDERCLOUD

4.1 THERMAL DYNAMICS

4.2 THE ENERGY OF THUNDERSTORMS

4.3 THE ELECTRICAL ENERGY IN THUNDERSTORMS

4.4 THE LIGHTNING DISCHARGE

4.5 PROTECTION AGAINST LIGHTNING

4.6 THE ELECTRIC CHARGING OF CLOUDS

4.7.2 THE QUANTUM MODEL

4.7.3 THE STANDING WAVE MODEL

4.7.4 THE RING CURRENT MODEL

4.7.5THE PINCH EFFECT

CHAPTER 5 FAIRWEATHER PHENOMENA

5.1 EXPERIMENTS AND OBSERVATIONS

5.2.1 EXHAUST CHARGING

5.2.2 VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS

5.2.3 EARTHQUAKE LIGHT

5.3 BIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

5.4 THE ELECTRODE EFFECT

5.5 INTERPLANETARY STATIC ELECTRICITY

6.2 ELECTRIC FIELD MEASUREMENTS

6.3 THE ELECTROMETER

6.4 THE FIELD MILL

6.5 ELECTROMAGNETIC DETECTION

6.6 THE FUTURE

7.1 RESULT OF FAIR-WAEATHER MEASUREMENTS

7.2 MEASURING TECHNIQUES

7.3 RELIABILITY OF MEASUREMENTS

Franklin's proposed sentry-box experiment.