ENGINEERING

STUDIES AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

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AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING
SCOPE OF THE PROFESSION
Responsible for design and development of new aircraft and modify existing ideas.
Use latest technology to fulfil design specifications.
Designing and maintaining systems for tracking and controlling the movement of aircraft, passengers and cargo
in airspace and on the ground.
Visually inspect aircraft in service and develop airport operational systems.
Office OHS Office Designers:
RSI Repetitive Stress Injury
Field OHS Field Managers
Lighting
Manufacturing
Ergonomics
Testing
4 key material properties in Aero:
Strength to Weight Ratio (S:W)
Durability/Fatigue
Formability
Corrosion Resistance
Most engine designs require stability at high temperature eg Titanium alloys, Nimonic (Ni based superalloys).
Use composites (good specific strength) and adhesive technology, (avoid bolts, rivets therefore no weak points).
Polymer adhesives are used instead of rivets as they provide a smooth surface, but fail catastrophically.
Effect on Society:
Greater accessibility to further locations, allowing time shortages.
More rapid overseas commerce, postal and freight.
Can be used save lives, in a military sense (reduce casualties) ambulances, fire-fighters.
Boosting tourism.
Residential areas under flight paths and near airports are subject to air and noise pollution as airplanes pass.
Opening new flight paths or new airports are subject to much criticism due to environmentalism, actual
necessity, NIMBYism, etc (see Sydneys second airport, Badgerys Creek).
Unique Technologies of Aeronautics
Advanced composite materials, computerised design, calculation and drawing systems, wind tunnel testing of
airframes.
Note that these technologies are not exactly exclusive to aeronautics, they are also used in other fields of
engineering, such as naval design.
As aeronautical engineers, they are expected to consider and calculate complex moments and forces on a 3D
airframe, in flight or not. Whilst programs can aid this process, engineers must consider as many points of
failure as possible, to root out these points of danger whilst still in design.
Environmental Impacts of Aviation
Large amounts of noise and air pollution. Despite new and more efficient engines (such as turbofan and
turboprop engines) being utilised, the rapid growth of air travel has increased its impact.
Biofuels, and other alternative fuels are being researched and developed to reduce the environmental impact
of flight. Commercial flight tests have been undertaken successfully (In December 2008, an Air New Zealand
jet completed the world's first commercial aviation test flight partially using jatropha-based fuel) but biofuels
arent yet a sustainable economically to be used worldwide.

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ENGINEERING STUDIES AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

Brief History of Aeronautics

1783
1797
1877
1785
1903
1911
1918
1924
1926
1930S
1950S
1969
1976

Montgolfier Brothers construct the first lighter-than-air vehicle (a balloon). First tethered balloon flight with
humans on board.
Andr-Jacques Garnerin carried out the first jump with a silk parachute.
Enrico Forlanini developed an unmanned helicopter powered by a steam engine. It rose to a height of 13
meters, where it remained for some 20 seconds.
First flight over the English Channel, traveling from Dover to France in a balloon.
Orville and Wilbur Wright fly first successful self-propelled airplane.
The Italian-Turkish war (September 1911 - October 1912), in Libya was the first military use of an aircraft, for
both reconnaissance and bombing runs.
United States Post Office establishes airmail service.
First flight around the world.
Air Commerce Act marks first federal attempt to set safety regulations for civil aeronautics and requires the
registration and licensing of pilots and planes.
Development of the jet engine began in Germany and in England.
Technologies such as long-range missiles, computer systems, electronic controls, combustion chemistry, and
new composite structures made possible by the aerospace industry.
Neil Armstrong and Buzz Aldrin become the first persons to walk on the moon.
Concorde flies.
The last quarter of the 20th century saw a slowing of the pace of advancement. No longer was revolutionary
progress made in flight speeds, distances and technology. This part of the century saw the steady
improvement of flight avionics, and a few minor milestones in flight progress. In general, aviation has
progressed through failed experiments since the 18th century.

Notable People in Aviation

Sir George Cayley (1773 - 1857)
First successful gliders.
Understood importance of separating lift and propulsion.
Developed whirling-arm apparatus to measure forces on aerofoils and wings.
Understood importance of camber.
Otto Lilienthal (1848 - 1896)
Father of hang-gliding.
Understood importance of control.
Developed extensive tables of lift and drag forces based on (flawed) whirling-arm experiments.
Died as a result of injuries sustained in a glider crash.
Wilbur (1867 - 1912) & Orville (1871 - 1948) Wright
Understood importance of 3-axis control (but not stability) - learned to control flight in extensive glider
experiments.
Discovered errors in Lilienthals whirling-arm data.
Built a wind tunnel for aerodynamic testing.
Developed first theory for propellers (and built one that had better than 80% efficiency).
(NOTE: This is not the most complete timeline regarding the history of aviation, it is merely a summary of what are
relatively major milestones. It is also not entirely expected for students to memorise the dates, but more so to
understand the progression and development of aviation. Further research to understand the process and application of
aforementioned and other innovations is recommended).

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ENGINEERING STUDIES AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

ENGINEERING MECHANICS AND HYDRAULICS

Flight Mechanics
Level Flight
Weight - Gravitational pull.
Lift - Net force generated by the airflow over wings and tailplane.
Thrust - Forward force generated by the engines.
Drag - Air resistance. There are two components:
Induced Drag - as a result of lift.
Parasitic Drag - moving aircraft through air (ie friction).
Level Flight (complex)
In normal flight, the actual forces acting do not act through the
centre of gravity. The following factors influence the point of
application of various forces:
Weight force acts through CoG (centre of gravity).
Line of thrust force is inclined to the direction of flight - AoA
(angle of attack).
Forces of lift are generated at the aerodynamic centre of wing
and tailplane.
CoG of aircraft moves in flight due to changes in cargo, fuel
usage.

Basic Aerodynamics
The design of aerofoils and their passage through air governs the basic principles of flight. The aerofoil refers to the
cross sectional shape of a planes wings, or anything that creates lift. The asymmetry of the aerofoil is called camber.
A lift-to-drag ratio (L/D ratio) is simply the amount of lift generated divided by the drag it creates. A high L/D ratio a major
goal in aircraft design since an aircrafts required lift is set by its weight, delivering that lift with lower drag leads directly
to better fuel economy, climb performance, and glide ratio.

Bernoullis Principle
Air travels faster across top surface and slower across lower surface.
Creates low pressure on the top surface and therefore high pressure at
the bottom.
Pressure differential results in an upward lifting force to act on the wing.
Planes travel on the runway at high speed to produce adequate lifting
force to overcome gravity and drag.

Stalling refers to the situation when the wing no longer produces lift.
Lower airspeed does not produce adequate pressure difference between
the upper and lower wing surface, therefore, not producing the necessary
lifting forces.
High AoA will cause air turbulence on the top surface resulting in
increased pressure, which in turn lifts downwards to oppose lift.
Stalls may occur during tight turns, steep climbs or landings ie airflow over the top of the aerofoils is broken.

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ENGINEERING STUDIES AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

Bending Stresses (Airframe)

The airframe will have to withstand the compressive loading due to drag and acceleration, withstand moment forces at
the connection between wing and body due to lift as well as cyclic loadings on all components due to pressure
differentials and varying forces during no flight (on ground) and steady flight.
At the aircraft wings during flight, a UDL is applied along the length of the beam, similar to simply supported beams
(cantilevered beams).

Fluid Mechanics
Pascals Principle
Pressure applied to an enclosed liquid is transmitted undiminished to every point in the fluid and to the walls of the
container.
Hydrostatic pressure is applied to cylinder with a moving piston. Pressure acts at right angles to every surface w/in the
cylinder, including the piston. Therefore, force is created to move the piston. Also, some hydraulic rams are two-way,
like in diagram. It is able to provide movement and force in 2 directions.
This is particularly useful in aeronautics as using mechanical linkages and levers to move control surfaces on an
aircraft, such as the flaps and rudder, from the cockpit would be quite difficult and nigh impossible. With hydraulics, the
force from a lever in the cockpit can be efficiently transferred through pipelines to where it is needed. Furthermore, given
Pascals principle that pressure is constant throughout the pipelines, input forces can be magnified into a far larger force
(eg the pilot pushes a lever in the cockpit to move large flaps on the wing).
!

Mathematically: As P (pressure) is constant, ! = = ! (), if the output piston is 5 times the area of
the input piston, the output force has to be correspondingly 5 times larger.

Hydrostatic and Dynamic Pressure

Hydrostatic Pressure (PS) pressure resulting from a static fluid, such as air pressure in an air cabin.
Dynamic Pressure (PD) pressure resulting from moving fluids, such as airflow over an aerofoil. Pressure is
created, by moving fluids due to the velocity involved.
!

! = ! ! . = ! + ! = ! + ! ! =

! !! !!!
!

(pressure changes with speed).

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ENGINEERING STUDIES AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

Venturi Effect is the reduction in fluid pressure that results when a fluid flows through a constricted section of pipe.
Velocity of the fluid increases as the cross sectional area decreases, with the static pressure correspondingly
decreasing.

Effects on Aircraft Structures

Both PS and PD have a large effect on the planes structure.
Planes flying at high elevations are pressurised, ie the air pressure inside is
far greater than the air pressure outside. This results in forces pushing
outwards on the planes superstructure as well as windows, doors and seals.
Metal fatigue is of concern due to the cyclic nature of this pressure
eg planes have life span - safe operation time.
Pressure is also exerted on the outer plane surface, and therefore the
airframe, by the fast moving air, ie PD. The jet engines are also exposed to
large amounts of PD because of the intake of air and the thrust produced. The
pressure from the thrust is two-directional as jet aircraft use reverse thrust
vanes during the braking procedures.

Applications to Aircraft Instruments

Vital flight info is obtained from gauging the velocity and air pressure surrounding a plane using instruments such as
altimeter and speed indicators.
Pitot Tube
Placed under the wing or in the nose. Gauges diff between PS
and PD.
Air entering tube has velocity, therefore PD. Other openings
connected to the inside (not pressure) of the plane allow PS to
surround the tube. By measuring the PS and the total pressure,
the planes airspeed can be found.
Airspeed Indicator
Total pressure entering pitot tube acts on inside of diaphragm.
Outside of diaphragm is surrounded by PS.
Diaphragm connected to linkage that controls airspeed indicator
and positions itself according to the difference between PT and
PS.
Altimeter
Uses a small expandable vessel or air, called an aneroid,
surrounded by static AP.
As aircraft ascents, the static AP falls, allowing the aneroid to
expand.
This acts on a linkage system, controlling the needles on the
altimeter.

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Propulsion Systems
Piston Engines - generally used for smaller aircraft and resemble simple car type internal combustion engines.
These engines can be turbo or supercharged to improve performance. Both force air into the engine under
greater pressure, resulting in a boost of power.
Super - driven by a belt working off the crankshaft of the actual engine (better at higher speeds).
Turbo - works off exhaust gases of the engine (better fuel consumption).
Dual ignition systems are used in these engines, which provide safety and better efficiency.

Jet Engines - must have high fatigue, abrasion, oxidation and corrosion resistance.
Last and faster aircraft use Jet Engines. There are 4 basic types:
Turbojets (TJ) - original type. Very loud.
Inlet - Air is compressed slightly..
Compressor - Air is heated and compressed by turning blades
Combustor - A mixture of compressed air and injected fuel is burnt in
the combustion chamber.
Turbine - Small amount of the energy from the burning gases is used to
drive the turbine out the back of the engine, which provides energy to
drive the compressor.
Nozzle - Very hot outlet and high velocity gases, expanding on
combustion, leaving through the nozzle to provide thrust.
Turboprop (TP) - better at slower speeds and lower altitudes.
Similar to TJ except turbine is used to drive propeller.
Most of energy produced is used the turbine, and therefore the
propeller, leaving a small volume of exhaust to provide thrust.
The propeller provides most of the thrust.
Turbofan (TF) - developed in response to reduce noise from TJ.
Known as the bypass engine because most of the air entering the
engine nacelle passes around the main engine/combustion chamber.
The fan produces most of the thrust from the air bypassing the engine,
whilst the engine still produces some of the thrust.
TF jets are more efficient that TJs and the bypass air reduces noise
significantly by shielding the engine core gases.
Having less moving parts than TP means more power from
afterburners.
Ramjet (RJ)
Simple design that isnt good at low speed.
Air is compressed and therefore heated by the shape of engine interior
before it is mixed with fuel and ignited. Again, the expanding gases
from burning fuel provide the thrust.
Scramjet is a variant of ramjet in which combustion takes place
in supersonic airflow.
Rockets - a large thrust is produced from burning fuel dedicated to escaping
earths gravity.

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ENGINEERING STUDIES AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

ENGINEERING MATERIALS
Specialised testing of Aircraft Materials
Destructive testing can only be tested on specimen material, not actual component.

Fatigue Testing
(Fatigue is a major structural consideration in aircraft, as weakening structural components in aircraft are generally not
desired, especially mid flight).
Initiation - Many microscopic crack forms due to slip along shear planes. Impossible to detect.
Stable Growth - Visible cracks develop perp. to the local tensile stresses. Detected through non-destructive
testing.
Unstable Growth - As crack grows, the structure remaining to carry load decreases. At critical length, it becomes
unstable and grows at near the speed of sound, leading to sudden failure.
4 conditions necessary for fatigue crack development and growth:
Material is prone to stress cracking.
Tensile stress must be present.
Stress, at least at the crack tip, must be in plastic range of material.
Stress with cyclically varying intensity (the basis of fatigue).
Different manufacturing processes can directly influence component fatigue life. Even machining/grinding marks/burrs
can concentrate stress for fatigue cracking.
Processes (Increasing Fatigue Life)
Case hardening (induction heating), nitriding.
Cold rolling, cold working.
Shot peening and grit blasting (compresses surface layer).
Good quality machining (sharp precision tools).

Processes (Reducing Fatigue Life)

Cladding of aluminium (different materials, different
expansion rates).
Cadmium plating;
Decarburising of steel (using oxygen to reduce carbon in
steel).
Chrome plating (more brittle).
Galvanising (hot working).

The initial design requires a safety factor of 4, so requires accelerated testing equivalent to at least 16 lifetimes, even
under the worst environmental conditions.
Modern aircraft design allows for serious fatigue cracking, corrosion or accidental damage, and still be able to carry
reasonable loads. This affects the design of critical airframe components and determines the critical fatigue crack
allowed in each.
For aircraft to remain airworthy, aircraft structural integrity must be maintained, achieved through full-scale fatigue
testing under controlled, simulated operating conditions and coupled with actual flight data, predictions on component
life expectancy can be made, as well as a development of inspection schedules and component replacements. Thus,
techniques can be implemented to extend component life, such as extra reinforcement, component replacement,
specialised repairs (composite repair kits can be used on primary structural members, even metal ones).

Non-Destructive Testing
Design phase - wind tunnels used along with models of new designs = predict in-flight performance X-ray, Dye
Penetrant, Ultrasonic have been previously discussed. Gamma ray works similarly to x-ray.

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Visual
Inspection
Magnetic
Particle
Inspection

Magnifying glass to identify external flaws. Fill tubular

structures and under pressure, hot oil will seep through
cracks.
Useful on only ferrous materials (irons, steels). Item is
magnetised, flaws/cracks are seen to accumulate
magnetic particles when applied, either dry or suspended
in oil. Sides of crack become magnetic.

To check re-welded and repaired

structures.
Dry: Find subsurface defects in heavy
welds, forgings and castings.
Wet: Use on more complex shapes to
allow better particle distribution.

Aluminium and its Alloys

Pure Aluminium is has high corrosion resistance, but it is unsuitable as it is too soft and lacks strength. Thus
Aluminium alloys such as duralumin were developed to increase strength and hardness, but these lacked
corrosion resistance and so a layer of pure Aluminium was pressure welded onto both sides, resulting in Alclad,
commonly used on airframe skins.
Copper (2xxx)
Enhances ductility and malleability. Prevents stress crack formation. Makes some alloys more shock resistant.
Strength and hardness increases with age.
Duralumin. 2017. High tensile strength, S:W high. Strengthened by precipitation hardening.
Manganese (3xxx)
Provides wear resistance, corrosion resistance, increases strength.
Silicon (4xxx)
Non-metal. Harder alloy, but not brittle. Reduces melting point, so easier to cast.
Magnesium (5xxx)
2/3rds weight of aluminium. Can be used structurally when alloyed with Al, Zn, Mn. Tensile strength is
increase, as is corrosion resistance, hardness and weld-ability. Often in sheet form, but Al-Mg 5056 rivets are
commonly used to hold skins to Magnesium surfaces.
Zinc
Creates stiffer and more brittle alloy than pure Al and with a bit of Mg, gives a higher strength. Often used for
skin applications, but doesnt have as much corrosion resistance as pure Al.
Other metals to alloy with are:
Titanium. Higher melting point than steel, therefore good for high speed aircraft especially at hot sections
(nose). Possesses high strength, thus used in load bearing applications (landing gear). High expense means
that it is only used for critical load bearing applications that require superior strength.
Steel. Heavy and brittle at low temperatures at high altitudes, so used sparingly in restricted areas where
strength is needed (carriageways).
Stainless Steel (Fe/C/Cr/Ni). High corrosion resistant due to chromium oxide. Commonly cold rolled to
increase strength (firewalls, skins, structural parts, fasteners).
Chrome Molybdenum. High shock and corrosion resistant (engine mounts and shock struts).
Magnesium. Castings - landing wheels. Sheet alloy/forgings/pressings - tanks, wings.
Metal manufacturers are forced to develop new alloys that improve on the properties of composites in order to make all
designs lighter and stronger eg Titanium alloys, new Aluminium/composite structures, superalloys.

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ENGINEERING STUDIES AERONAUTICAL ENGINEERING

Heat Treatment of Applicable Alloys

Heat Treatable
These alloys commonly harden by precipitation hardening.
Heat, then soak material, then quench to hold it in soften state = solid solution hardening (very important)!
Then age it; that is to let it rest in room or elevated temperature for some period of time, to precipitate submicroscopic particles out the alloying element, which inhibit dislocation movements and causing internal stress.
This will increase its hardness and (yield) strength.
Solution treated parts may be refrigerated to prevent age hardening.
Duralumin is a common alloy to be heat treated, so copper is predominant alloying element.
Natural Aging
Room temperature for 5-7 days. Sub-microscopic
particles precipitate out of the structure, inhibiting
dislocation movements and causing internal stress,
therefore increase hardness and strength.
Artificial Aging/Precipitation Hardening
Soak in oven between 100-200C for 4-24hrs.
Increased strength, stability, corrosion resistance,
hardness, reduced malleability and ductility.
This is often chosen over natural aging as it is
markedly faster but produces very similar results.

Non-heat Treatable
May be hardened by alloying or cold working
(anything elongating the grains; rolling).
Al alloy 1100. Small diameter low-pressure tubing,
rivets.
5052. Low pressure tubing, storage tanks for hydraulic
fluids, fuel, oil.
5056. Rivet stock for magnesium control surface skins.

Other Heat Treatment Processes

Stabilising (>UCT)
Tempering for aluminium. Relieves residual stresses when soaked at 250O (for some aluminium alloys) under
5hrs, this retains the majority of strength and hardness.
Annealing (>UCT)
Soak at 360O for 1 hour, cool in air. Cool slower to further soften alloy. Too rapid cooling may produce
conditions that will lead to age hardening (quench like).
When annealing aluminium clad materials, soaking for too long will allow some of alloying elements to diffuse
into pure aluminium and consequently reduce corrosion resistance.
Localised annealing can be used in work-hardened materials, simply with gas torch. As aluminium doesnt
change appearance when heated, use crayon that melts at certain temperature.
Reheat Treatment
If the alloy was solution treated at too low a temperature, precipitation occurred at too high a temperature, or
aging for too long, can be solution treated again to get full desired properties. Do NOT re-heat treat clad
materials.

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Polymers
Properties of Polymers

Low specific gravities ie lightweight.

Good thermal and electrical resistance.
Good surface finish from forming dies.
Generally easy to form.
Flexibility allows for versatility in applications.

Low strength compared to metals.

Unsuitable for service where temperature exceeds
several hundred degrees.
Poor - fair dimensional stability, especially in moist
conditions.

Thermosetting Polymers
Once formed this type of polymers cannot be reheated or softened. The chains have covalent bonds along and across
the molecules. Heating will char and burn them.

Manufacturing Processes
Compression moulding has been mentioned in P&PT.
Hand Lay-up
1. Release Agent: A wax/non-binding polymer is first coated onto the
mould. This allows the finished cured part to be easily removed.
2. Laminate: A resin (typically a 2-part polyester, vinyl or epoxy) is
mixed with its hardener and applied to the surface.
3. Reinforcement: Sheets of fibreglass matting are laid into the mould,
then more resin mixture is added using a brush or roller. This is all
done by hand.
Additional resin is applied, and possibly, additional sheets of fiberglass.
4. Removing gas bubbles: The material must conform to the mould and air must not be trapped between the
fiberglass and the mould and so hand pressure, vacuum (i.e. vacuum lay-up) or rollers are used to make sure the
resin saturates and fully wets all layers, and any air pockets are removed.
In some cases, the work is covered with plastic sheets and vacuumed to remove air bubbles and press the
fiberglass to the shape of the mould.
Thermoplastic Polymers (NOTE: thermoplastic polymers are not included in this section of the syllabus, it would be
useful to know some types, and their applications in aeronautics).
Polyethylene
Acrylic/Perspex
Nylon
Teflon
Polyurethane

Excellent electrical insulator. Easily formed by

extrusion or injection moulding
Can be transparent
Good strength, heat and wear resistant, low
coefficient of friction
Very low coefficient of friction. Chemically inert.

Coating on electrical wiring. Ventilation fans

Windows
Gears and brushes in instruments

Wing ball bearings. Inner hose on hydraulic

lines
Foamed polymer that can be either flexible or Insulation, filler in sandwich construction (see
rigid
below)

Most common use for polymers is to provide the matrix in composite materials. The polymer binds the reinforcing fibres
together and transfers the load to and between the fibres. This polymer matrix also keeps reinforcement fibres in the
correct orientation, distributes load evenly, provides crack resistance and inter-laminar shear strength. Also determines
overall shape, service temp limitations, and may control corrosion.

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Composites

Airframe Composites (eg matrix material + reinforcing materials)

Advantages
Disadvantages
High S:W and stiffness
Hard to inspect for flaws
Tailored directional properties
Sudden and catastrophic failure
Non-corroding in salt environment
Labour intensive and expensive to fabricate
Excellent fatigue resistance
Moisture pickup
Dimensional stability
Susceptible to lightning strikes
Less parts required
Susceptible to extreme temperatures

Early composite Plywood propellers, airframes.

Boeing. Integrated fibreglass in 1958, when fibreglass skins were used to cover Al honeycomb cores on a few
secondary control surfaces.
Early 1960s. Filament fibres (boron, carbon) mixed in an epoxy resin matrix. High strength and stiffness.
New materials (Kevlar), matrix materials (thermoplastics), metals (Al, Ti, Ni)
Composite materials allow for up to a 30% reduction in mass whilst having the same strength
Performance of composite depends on:
Composition, direction, length and shape of fibres
Properties of matrix material
Bond between fibres and matrix

Fibres

To carry load in the composite

Provide tensile strength, flexural strength and stiffness
Determine electrical and thermal properties
Mostly circular cross section. Hollow fibres increase compressive strength.

Glass

Kevlar

Relatively low cost, light weight, high

strength, non-metallic characteristics

Used for aircraft parts that dont carry heavy loads. Eg/
fuselage interior, trailing edge panels on larger craft.
Used extensively in primary structures of small aircraft,
helicopter rotor blades.
Poor compressive strength has prevented its use in
primary aircraft structures.
Kevlar/Phenolic skins lower surfaces of some military
craft damage resistance

High toughness, tensile strength, stiffness

with low density. Low compressive strength,
but overcome with Kevlar/Carbon hybrid.
Good fatigue properties, chemical
resistance, high temp strength
Polyethylene Better impact resistance than glass/carbon
Difficult to combine with matrix. Still in developmental
fibres, stronger than Kevlar. Melts at lower
stage.
temp, absorbs little moisture
Carbon or
Careful placement can produce composites Most widely used.
Graphite
stronger and stiffer than steel at have the
e.g. stabilisers, rudders (most control surfaces),
weight. Have fatigue limits > Al./Steel with
sections of fuselages ribs, struts, skins.
low thermal expansion. Best balance of
properties and cost.
Quartz
Can be used up to 1040, >500 greater than glass fibres. Strongest of the high temperature fibres, also
has good S:W, good radar transparency (like glass)
Fabrics can be woven from a mixture of fibres to provide a blending of properties

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Two directional woven fabrics are stronger, tougher and less likely to delaminate and are thinner

Matrices

Binds the fibres together

Transfers load between the fibres and keeps them in correct orientation
Protects fibres from abrasion and oxidation/corrosion
Provides overall dimensions of the component
Determines the service temp and compressive strength

Thermoset Matrix
Thermoplastic Matrix
Epoxy
Polyethylene
Polyester
Polystyrene
Phenolics
Polyurethane
Thermosets
Can be used to form complex shapes, easily bond to different fibres. Provide a high strength and stiff structure
when cured.
Polyester
Secondary structures, cabin interiors with glass fibres. Low cost, processes easily, but not very tough or
strong
Epoxy
Most widely used. Principal resin used in carbon fibre structures. Excellent mechanical properties, good
toughness, fairly low cost
Phenolics
Also used in secondary structures often with glass fibres. Good for cabin interiors as it has low smoke
generation in case of a fire. Poor toughness, fair mechanical properties but low cost. Used for dimensional
stability at high temp and pressures
Thermoplastics
Used more extensively recently. Excellent strain capabilities, high moisture resistance. Major advantages over
thermosets are the shorter fabrication cycle, ability to weld and ease in machining/drilling
Military aircraft are one of the major catalysts in their development, requiring 3 things:
High temp capabilities under severe hot/wet conditions
Better damage control in structural members
Easy mass production to reduce costs

Metal Matrices strength offsets the extra weight. Greater strength and stiffness than polymers, superior fracture
toughness, greater S:W

Aluminium
Principal metal matrix. Improved properties when reinforced. Light and easily processed
E.g. reinforced with carbon. Use for structures of missile, helicopters. Boron fibres are used in compressor
blades and structural supports
Titanium

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Light and good resistance to high temp. Difficult to reinforce, quite expensive
E.g. Reinforced with boron fibres. Use in jet engine fan blades.
Magnesium
Bonds well with the reinforcing. Light but poor corrosion resistance.
Example Boron fibres are used in antenna structures. Alumina fibres are used for helicopter transmission
structures.
Copper
Improved shear strength over aluminium at elevated temperatures but denser.

Carbon Matrices

Excellent S:W and high stiffness but also possesses high temperature capabilities.
Carbon matrices with carbon fibre reinforcing (carbon/carbon composites) are sometimes used for nose zones, jet
engine turbine wheels
Also aircraft brakes. Outwear steel up to twice as long, high heat absorption rate (heat sink) and maintain consistent
performance with no reduction in stopping ability

Ceramic Matrices

Already used in braking systems. But impossible to machine or join with conventional fasteners so components
must be made in one piece.
Designing to retain high temp properties whilst improving toughness and impact strength

Carbon Fibre

Composite of carbon fibres embedded in an epoxy resin matrix.

Overall very lightweight, high S:W, high modulus of elasticity
Resistance to cyclic stress = good for aircraft. E.g. control surfaces, wingtips
Sudden/catastrophic failure. Damage detection and repair is more complex

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Sandwich Core Materials (whilst not specifically

part of the syllabus, this is a very common manufacturing
technique and it would not unreasonable for the examiners
to blindside students with such a question)

Suitable in aircraft as the thin surface skins separated

by the core combines light-weight with strength. Used
since 1940s. Cells now often made from composites
(Kevlar, fibreglass, CF). Outer skins are composite or metals. These materials are rigid and show low deflection. Eg/
nose cones, wing leading and trailing edge panels, fuselage floor panels.
Syntactic cores combine microspheres with resin matrix as filler. Will fit to
contoured shapes. Denser, so, used in thinner panels. Provides greater strength,
continuous support of face material, little moisture seeping into core.

Corrosion
Frames and skins are already stressed, therefore weakening via corrosion is a
concern. Although composites resist electrochemical corrosion, UV and weather
may degrade. But as many aircraft use metal airframes and skins, problems arise when carbon composites are coupled
with metals as part of an aircraft structure eg/ metal rivet used to hold composite skins to airframe.
This form of metal to composite corrosion can be reduced by:

Excluding moisture from the structure

Using a layer of inert cloth (Kevlar, fibreglass) as an insulator between the materials
Anodising Al parts
Finish external surfaces of both Al and composite with paint (epoxy)

Corrosion must be identified early before costly replacements or repairs are needed

Al alloys. White powdery deposits with a surface dulling of unpainted parts.

Alloy and plain steels. Red dust deposits on surface and some pitting of affected area
Stainless steels. Black pits or a uniform reddish-brown surface

Forms of Corrosion

Pitting. Occurs to unprotected metals when acids/alkalis/saline solutions chemically react with the metal = Small
holes/pits form = Losses in ductility and strength. Keep clean and keep surface coating in good condition
Uniform etch. Frosty appearance resulting from general corrosion over the entire surface
Fretting corrosion. Rapid form attacking ferrous metals. Occurs at the junction between two highly loaded
components subject to vibration. Use lubrication.
Inter-granular corrosion. Greater concentration of impurities at grain boundaries, resulting in a potential difference
with the centre of grain = Loss of strength and ductility. Use plating of cladding of metal e.g. Alclad. Coating is
anodic relative to core = electrolytic protection as well as physical protection.

Conditions Causing Corrosion

Dissimilar metals

Likely to cause EC reaction, even with similar metals with diff. heat treatment conditions.

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Heat treatment

Welding

Fretting

Stress
High temperatures

Electrical Equipment

Damaged Protective
Coatings and
Surfaces
Crevice corrosion

E.g. steel bolts through Al alloy structural members

E.g. Copper and steel hydraulic lines attached to Al alloy members
Incorrect heat treatment may lower a materials corrosion resistance.
High strength aluminium alloy is quenched too slowly = more susceptible to inter-granular
corrosion
Heated strip around the join is anodic and will corrode in preference to surrounding metal.
Can be reduced if part is annealed after welding.
Heating caused by localised friction promotes oxidation of steel and greatly reduces the
fatigue strength of the metal.
Overcome by plating structural assembly bolts with non-ferrous metal (cadmium). As tight
as possible. Use lubricating grease.
Corrode more readily than unstressed metals. Can also crack protective coatings.
Oxidise more quickly than unheated parts. Minimise using alloys containing nickel or
chromium
Electrical insulation should be kept in good condition as leakage of current may lead to the
corrosion of both the electrical equipment and surrounding metal parts
Scratching/abrasion here may become starting pts for corrosion
Any foreign particles embedded into the surface may initiate corrosion, AWA scratches.
Concentration cell that occurs due to diff oxygen levels at top/bottom of crevice.
Low Oxygen = Anodic. Often occurs at fine gaps that should be riveted.
All enclosed areas in aircraft should be vented to prevent oxygen deprivation and drained
to remove the electrolyte (water) necessary for corrosion to proceed

Prevention and Control of Corrosion

Keep all surfaces clean (dirt, mud, acids)
Minimise moisture accumulation (drain out, condensation, rain)