Space Charge in Solid Dielectrics

11
SPACE CHARGE IN SOLID DIELECTRICS
T his chapter is devoted to the study of space charge build up and measurement of
charge density within the dielectric in the condensed phase. When an electric field
is applied to the dielectric polarization occurs, and so far we have treated the
polarization mechanisms as uniform within the volume. However, in the presence of
space charge the local internal field is both a function of time and space introducing non-
linearities that influence the behavior of the dielectrics. This chapter is devoted to the
recent advances in experimental techniques of measuring space charge, methods of
calculation and the role of space charge in enhancing breakdown probability. A precise
knowledge of the mechanism of space charge formation is invaluable in the analysis of
the polarization processes and transport phenomena.
11.1 THE MEANING OF SPACE CHARGE
Space charge occurs whenever the rate of charge accumulation is different from the rate
of removal. The charge accumulation may be due to generation, trapping of charges, drift
or diffusion into the volume. The space charge may be due to electrons or ions
depending upon the mechanism of charge transfer. Space charge arises both due to
moving charges and trapped charges.
Fig. 11.1 shows the formation of space charge due to three processes in a dielectric that
is subjected to an electric field1.
(a) The electric field orients the dipoles in the case of a homogenous material and the
associated space charge is a sharp step function with two peaks at the electrodes.
(b) Ion migration occurs under the influence of the electric field, with negative charges
migrating to the positive electrode and vice-versa. The mobility of the various carriers
515
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Copyright n 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

are not equal and therefore the accumulation of negative charges in the top half is
random. Similarly the accumulation space charge due to positive charges in the bottom
portion is also random and the voltage due to this space charge is also arbitrary. The
space charge is called "heterocharges".
(c) Charges injected at the electrodes generate a space charge when the mobility is low.
The charges have the same polarity as the electrode and are called "homocharges."
V o
Fig. 11.1 Development of charge distribution p (z) in a dielectric material subjected to an

electric field, (a) dipole orientation, (b) ion migration, (c) charge transfer at the interfaces
(Lewiner, 1986, © IEEE).
A modern treatment of space charge phenomenon has been presented by Blaise and
Sarjeant2 who compare the space charge densities in metal oxide conductors (MOS) and
high voltage capacitors (Table 11.1). The effect of moving charges is far less in charging
of the dielectric and only the trapped charges influence the internal field.
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11.2 POLARONS AND TRAPS
The classical picture of a solid having trapping sites for both polarities of charge carriers
is shown earlier in Fig. 1.11. The concept of a polaron is useful in understanding the
change in polarization that occurs due to a moving charge.
Table 11.1
Electronic space charge densities in MOS and HV capacitors (Blaise and Sargent, 1998)
(with permission of IEEE)
MOS HV capacitors
Parameter unit Mobile Trapped Mobile Trapped
charges charges
mobility m2/Vs ~20xl O'4
7
10' -10-4
Current density A/m2 10-104 10'2-0.1

Applied field MV/m 100-1200 100-1200 10-100 10-100
Charge density C/m3 20u-0.02 300-30,000 200u-0.02 -
Charge cone. /m3 10'8-10'5 0.1-0.01 8
2xlO' -2xlO- 6 3
10' -10
An electron moving through a solid causes the nearby positive charges to shift towards it
and the negative charges to shift away. This distortion of the otherwise regular array of
atoms causes a region of polarization that moves with the electron. As the electron
moves away, polarization vanishes in the previous location, and that region returns to
normal. The polarized region acts as a negatively charged particle, called polaron, and its
mass is higher than that of the isolated charge. The polarization in the region due to the
charge is a function of the distance from the charge. Very close to the charge, (r < re ),
where r is the distance from the charge and re is the radius of the sphere that separates the
polarized region from the unpolarized region. When r > re electronic polarization
becomes effective and when r > r^ ion polarization occurs.
Let us consider a polaron of radius rp in a dielectric medium in which a fixed charge q

exists. The distance from the charge is designated as r and the dielectric constant of the
medium varies radially from z at 1*1 < rp to ss at r2 > rp. The binding energy of the
polaron is, according to Landau
1 1
(11.1)
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where rp is the radius of the polaron, So, and ss are the dielectric constants which shows
that smaller values of rp increase the binding energy. This is interpreted as a more
localized charge. The localization of the electron may therefore be viewed as a coupling
between the charge and the polarization fields. This coupling causes lowering of the
potential energy of the electron.
The kinetic energy determines the velocity of the electron which in turn determines the
time required to cross the distance of a unit cell. If this time is greater than the
characteristic relaxation time of electron in the ultraviolet region, then the polarization
induced by the electron will follow the electron almost instantaneously. The oscillation
frequencies of electron polarons is in the range of 1015-1016 Hz. If we now consider the
atomic polarization which has resonance in infrared frequencies, a lower energy electron
will couple with the polarization fields and a lattice polaron is formed. The infrared
1 0 1 1
frequency domain is 10 -10 Hz and therefore the energy of the electron for the
formation of a lattice polaron is lower, on the order of lattice vibration energy. The
lattice polaron has a radius, which, for example in metal oxides, is less than the
interatomic distance.
Having considered the formation of polarons we devote some attention to the role of the
polarons in the crystal structure. Fig. 11.2(a) shows the band structure in which the band
corresponding to the polaron energy level is shown as 2JP [ Blaise and Sargent, 1998]. At
a specific site i (11.2b) due to the lattice deformation the trap depth is increased and
therefore the binding energy is increased. This is equivalent to reducing the radius of the
polaron, according to equation (11.1), and therefore a more localization of the electron.
This variation of local electronic polarizability is the initiation of the trapping
mechanism.
Trapping centers in the condensed phase may be classified into passive and active
centers. Passive centers are those associated with anion vacancies, that can be identified
optically by absorption and emission lines. Active trapping centers are those associated
with substituted cations. These are generally of low energy (~leV) and are difficult to
observe optically. These traps are the focus of our attention.
11.3 A CONCEPTUAL APPROACH
Focusing our attention on solids, a simple experimental setup to study space charge is
shown in fig. 11.34. The dielectric has a metallic electrode at one end and is covered by a
conducting layer which acts as a shield. The current is measured through the metallic
end. The charges may be injected into the solid by irradiation from a beam of photons,
X-rays or gamma rays. Photons in the energy range up to about 300 keV interact with a
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solid, preferentially by the photoelectric effect. Photons above this energy interact by
Compton effect; an increase of wavelength of electromagnetic radiation due to scattering
by free or loosely bound electrons, resulting in absorption of energy (Gross, 1978). The
secondary electrons are scattered mainly in the forward direction. The electrons move a
certain distance within the dielectric, building up a space charge density and an internal
electric field which may be quite intense to cause breakdown.
c.b.
/ \
\\v\\ u\\vuu\\\\\\\vvx\\vvvvv (a)
w
(a)
WJ
polaron sites (b)

ion
(b)
I trap
Fig. 11.2 (a) Potential wells associated with polaron sites in a medium of uniform
polarizability, forming a polaron band of width 2Jp. (b) Trapping effect due to a slight
decrease of electronic polarizability on a specific site i, (adi < ad). The charge is stabilized at
the site due to lattice deformation. This leads to the increase of trap depth by an amount
dWion- The total binding energy is Wb= 8Wir + 5WiOn (Blaise and Sargent, 1998, © IEEE).
The space charge build up due to irradiation with an electron beam is accomplished by a
simple technique known as the 'Faraday cup'. This method is described to expose the
principle of space charge measurements. Fig. 11.4 shows the experimental arrangement
used by Gross, et al5. A dielectric is provided with vacuum deposited electrodes and
irradiated with an electron beam. The metallic coating on the dielectric should be thin
enough to prevent absorption of the incident electrons. The electrode on which the
irradiation falls is called the "front" electrode and the other electrode, "back electrode".
Both electrodes are insulated from ground and connected to ground through separate
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current measuring instruments. The measurements are carried out in either current mode
or voltage mode and the method of analysis is given by Gross, et al.
Dielectric
a —
Build-up
region scatter
Region
Radiant Energy Flux

Density
Compton Current Density
Space Charge Density
Electric Field Strength
Fig. 11.3 (a) Technique for measurement of current due to charge injection, (b) Schematic for
variation of space charge density and electric field strength (Gross, 1978, ©IEEE).
Electrical field, particularly at high temperatures, also augments injection of charges into
the bulk creating space charge. The charge responsible for this space charge may be
determined by the TSD current measurements described in the previous chapter. In
amorphous and semicrystalline polymers space charge has a polarity opposite to that of
the electrode polarity; positive polarity charges in the case of negative poling voltage
and vice-versa. The space charge of opposite polarity is termed heterocharge whereas
space charge of the same polarity is termed homocharge. In the case of the hetero
charges the local space charge field will intensify the applied field, whereas in the case
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of homo charges there will be a reduction of the net field. In the former case of
heterocharges, polarization that occurs in crystalline regions will also be intensified.
•1
Fig. 11.4 Split Faraday cup arrangement for measurement of charge build up and decay. A-
Front electrode, B-back electrode, s-thickness of dielectric, r -center of gravity of space
charge layer. The currents are: Ii-injection current, H -front electrode current, I2=rear current,
I=dielectric current (Gross et. al. 1973, with permission of A. Inst. Phys.).
The increase in internal electric field leads to an increase of the dielectric constant s' at
high temperatures and low frequencies, as has been noted in PVDF and PVF . It is
important to note that the space charge build up at the electrode-dielectric interface also
leads to an increase of both &' and s" due to interfacial polarization as shown in section
4.4. It is quite difficult to determine the precise mechanism for the increase of dielectric
constant; whether the space charge build up occurs at the electrodes or in the bulk.
Obviously techniques capable of measuring the depth of the space charge layer shed light
into these complexities.
The objectives of space charge measurement may be stated as follows:
(1) To measure the charge intensities and their polarities, with a view to understanding
the variation of the electric field within the dielectric due to the applied field.
(2) To determine the depth of the charge layer and the distribution of the charge within
that layer.
(3) To determine the mechanism of polarization and its role in charge accumulation.
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(4) To interpret the space charge build up in terms of the morphology and chemical
structure of the polymer
In the sections that follow, the experimental techniques and the methods employed to
o
analyze the results are dealt with. Ahmed and Srinivas have published a comprehensive
review of space charge measurements, and we follow their treatment to describe the
experimental techniques and a sample of results obtained using these techniques. Table
11.2 presents an overview of the methods and capabilities.
11.4 THE THERMAL PULSE METHOD OF COLLINS
The thermal pulse method was first proposed by Collins9 and has been applied, with
improvements, by several authors. The principle of the method is that a thermal pulse is
applied to one end of the electret by means of a light flash. The flash used by Collins had
a duration of 8us. The thermal pulse travels through the thickness of the polymer,
diffusing along its path. The current, measured as a function of time, is analyzed to
determine the charge distribution within the volume of the dielectric. The experimental
arrangement is shown in Fig. 1 1.5.
The electret is metallized on both sides (40 nm thick) or on one side only (lower fig.
11.5), with an air gap between the electret, and a measuring electrode on the other. By
this method voltage changes across the sample are capacitively coupled to the electrode.
The gap between the electrode and the electret should be small to increase the coupling.
The heat diffuses through the sample and changes in the voltage across the dielectric,
AV(t), due to non-uniform thermal expansion and the local change in the permittivity, are
measured as a function of time. The external voltage source required is used to obtain the
zero field condition which is required for equations (1 1 .3) and (1 1 .4) (see below).
Immediately after the heat pulse is applied, temperature changes in the electret are
confined to a region close to the heated surface. The extent of the heated zone can be
made small by applying a shorter duration pulse. The process of metallizing retains heat
and the proportion of the retained heat can be made small by reducing the thickness of
the metallizing. In the ideal case of a short pulse and thin metallized layer, the voltage
change after a heat pulse applied is given by
(11.2)
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where pT is the total charge density (C/m2). Determination of the total charge in the
electret does not require a deconvolution process.
Table 11.2
Overview of space charge measuring techniques and comments (Ahmed and Srinivas,
1997). R is the spatial resolution and t the sample thickness.
(with permission of IEEE)
Method Disturbance Scan mechanism Detection process r(nm) *(M"0 Comments
Thermal pulse method Absorption of Diffusion according to \foltagechangeacross 3*2 ~200 High resolution requires
short-tight pulse in front heat-conduction sample deconvolution
electrode equations
laser intensity Absorption of Frequency-dependent Current between sample >2 ~25 Numerical
modulation method modulated light in front steady-state heat profile electrodes deconvolution is
electrode required
Laser induced pressure Absorption of short Propagation with Current between sample 1 100 - 1000 No deconvolution is
pulse method laser light pulse in front longitudinal sound electrodes required
electrode velocit)
Thermoelasncally Absorption of short Propagation with Current or voltage I 50-70 Deconvolution is
generated UPP laser light pulse in thin longitudinal sound between sample required
buried layer velocity electrodes
Pressure wave Absorption of short Propagation with \foltageorcurrent 10 5-200 Resolution improved
propagation method User light pulse in metal longitudinal sound between sample with deconvolution
target velocity electrode Also used for surface
charge measurements
Non-structured acoustic HV spark between Propagation with \foltage between sample 1000 < 10000 Used for solid and
pulse method conductor and metal longitudinal sound electrode liquid dielectric Higher
diaphragm velocity resolution with
deconvoluhon
Laser generated acousbc Absorption of short Propagation with \Wtage between sample 50 <3000 Deconvolution is
pulse method laser light pulse in thin longitudinal sound electrodes required Target and
paper target velocity sample immersed in
dielectric liquid
Acoustic probe method Absorption of laser light Propagation with \foltage between sample 200 2000 - 6000
pulse in front electrode longitudinal sound electrodes
velocity
Piezoelectncally- Electrical excitation of Propagation with Current between sample 1 25 Deconvolution is
generated pressure step piezoelectric quartz longitudinal sound electrodes required
method plate velocity
Thermal step method Applying two Thermal expansion of Current between sample 150 2000 - 20000 Deconvolution is
isothermal sources the sample electrodes required
across sample
Electro-acoustic stress Force of modulated Propagation with Piezoelectric transducer 100 < 10000 Deconvoluhon is
pulse method electric held on charges longitudinal sound at sample electrode required Also used for
in sample velocity surface charge
measurements
Photoconductivity Absorption of narrow External movement of Current between sample ^1.5 Nondestructive for
method light beam in sample light beam electrodes — short illumination time
Space charge mapping Interaction of polarized parallel illumination of Photographic record 200 - Mostly used on
light with field sample volume or transparent dielectric
movement of light beam liquids
or sample
Spectroscopy Absorption of exciting External movement of Relative change in the 5*50 - Few applications
radiation in sample radiation source or observed spectrum
sample
Field probe None Capacinve coupling to Current 1000 < 20000 Destructive
the field
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Incident light
Metallizing
Etectret
To preamplifier
Incident light
^ Air gap
f Electret /•/
>\ ' \1 ' l\ \>\
x
/////. //A ! V C
P \ ^ Sue
^ Sens ng
To preamplifi
Fig. 11.5 Schematic diagram of the apparatus for the thermal pulsing experiment in the double
metallizing and single metallizing configurations. (Collins, 1980, Am. Inst. Phys.)
The observed properties of the electret are in general related to the internal distribution
of charge p (x) and polarization P(x) through an integral over the thickness of the sample.
The potential difference V0 across the electret under open circuit conditions (zero
external field) is given by
*;=• ^00
(11.3)
where p(x) is the charge density in C/m3 and d the thickness of the sample.
Collins (1980) derived the expression
*S*00
J A f \ D
Ap(x)-B—
ax J
(11.4)
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where A = ax - ae and B = ap - a^- ae, x is the spatial coordinate with x = 0 at the pulsed
electrode. p(;x;) and P(JC) are the spatial distributions of charge and polarization. The
symbols a mean the following:
ax = Thermal coefficient of expansion
a£= Temperature coefficient of the dielectric constant
a p = Temperature coefficient of the polarization
There are two integrals, one a function of charge and the other a function of temperature.
Two special cases are of interest. For a non-polar dielectric with only induced
polarization P = 0, equation (1 1 .4) reduces to
(11.5)
For an electret with zero internal field
/>(*) = +faxr (1L6)
.7)
Collins used a summation procedure to evaluate the integral in equation (11.5). The
continuous charge distribution, p(x) is replaced by a set of N discrete charge layers pn
with center of gravity of each layer at mid point of the layer and having coordinate x-} = (j
- V^d/N with j = 1, 2, ...N. The integral with the upper limit x in equation (11.5) is
replaced with the summation up to the corresponding layer Xj. Equation (11.5) then
simplifies to
(11.8)
Assuming a discrete charge distribution the shape of the voltage pulse is calculated using
equation (1 1.8) and compared with the measured pulse shape. The procedure is repeated
till satisfactory agreement is obtained. Collins' procedure does not yield a unique
distribution of charge as a deconvolution process is involved.
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The technique was applied to fluoroethylenepropylene (FEP, Teflon™) electrets and the
depth of charge layer obtained was found to be satisfactory. Polyvinylidene fluoride
(PVDF) shows piezo/pyroelectric effects, which are dependent on the poling conditions.
A copolymer of vinylidene fluoride and tetrafluoroethylene (VF2-TFE) also has very
large piezoelectric and pyroelectric coefficients. The thermal poling method has revealed
the poling conditions that determine these properties of the polymers. For example, in
PVDF, a sample poled at lower temperatures has a large spatial non-uniformity in the
polarization across its thickness. Even at the highest poling temperature some non-
uniformity exists in the spatial distribution of polarization. Significant differences are
observed in the polarization distribution, even though the samples were prepared from
the same sheet.
Seggern10 has examined the thermal pulse technique and discussed the accuracy of the
method. It is claimed that the computer simulations show that the only accurate
information available from this method is the charge distribution and the first few
Fourier coefficients.
11.5 DEREGGI'S ANALYSIS
DeReggi et al.11 improved the analysis of Collins (1980) by demonstrating that the
voltage response could be expressed as a Fourier series. Expressions for the open circuit
conditions and short circuit conditions are slightly different, and in what follows, we
consider the former12.
The initial temperature at (x,0) after application of thermal pulse at ;t=0, t=0 may be
expressed as
ro,o) = ^+Aro,o) (11.9)

where TI is the uniform temperature of the sample before the thermal pulse is applied,
and AT(x,0) is the change due to the pulse. AT(jc,0) is a sharp pulse extending from x = 0
with a width s«d. From equation (11.9) it follows that the temperature at x after the
application of the pulse is
T(x,t) = Tl+AT(x,t) (11.10)
where
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-n2t
cos exp (11.11)
n=1
= \imAT(x,t) (11.12)
a
(11.13)
" ~ 7 a
The temperature at the surface is given by
(11.14)
(11.15)
n=l
0 o
where T = d /TI K and k is called thermal diffusivity. The dimensionless quantities

AT(0,t)/ao and AT(d, t)/ao can be obtained by measuring the transient resistance of one or
both the electrodes. Then the ratios an/ao and TI can be determined without knowing the
detailed shape of the light pulse.
Substituting equation (11.15) into (11.5) the voltage at time t is given as
(11.16)
n
where the following relationships hold.
A0 = (11.17)
r , , . ,n7rx
= jp(x)sm(— -)dx (11.18)
The terms an and An are the coefficients of Fourier series expansions for AT(x,0) and p(jc)
respectively, if these are expanded as cosine and sine terms, respectively.
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For the short circuit conditions, equations for the charge distribution and the polarization
distribution are given by Mopsik and DeReggi (1982, 1984). About 10-15 coefficients
could be obtained for real samples, based on the width of the light pulse. The
polarization distribution determined will be unique as a deconvolution procedure is not
resorted to. Fig. 11.6 shows the results for a nearly uniformly poled polyvinylidene
fluoride (PVF2) which was pulsed alternately on both sides. An interesting observation in
this study is that there is a small peak just before the polarization falls off.
A further improvement of the thermal pulse technique is due to Suzuoki et. al.13 who
treat the heat flow in a slab in the same way as electrical current in an R-C circuit with
distributed capacitance. The electrical resistance, capacitance, current and voltage are
replaced by the thermal resistance Rt, thermal capacitance Q, heat flow q (jc, t) and
temperature T(;c, t), respectively.
The basic equations are:
-N 1 /•>
/•> V /
OX Ot
= ^ rZ v-v (H20)
dx dt
The heat flux is given by
^ /( — CO 1 / / 2 2 > \ / /rx^-v \
'" 01.21)
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2.0
1.0
0.0
_ 4 i i
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

X
Fig. 11.6 Polarization in PVF2 sample. The solid line is experimental distribution. The dashed
line is the resolution expected for a step function, at x = 0.5 (DeReggi, et al., 1982, with
permission of J. Appl. Phys.).
The total current in the external circuit at t = 0, when the specimen is illuminated at x = 0
is given by
(11.22)
Similarly, the current, when the specimen is illuminated at x = d, is
(11.23)
The total amount of space charge is
a=- (11.24)
The mean position of the space charge is
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72(0)
*- (11.25)
The thermal pulse was applied using a xenon lamp and the pulse had a rise time of 1 00
îs, width SOOus. Since the calculated thermal time constant was about 5ms, the light
pulse is an approximation for a rectangular pulse. The materials investigated were HDPE
and HDPE doped with an antistatic agent. Fig. 11.7 shows the measured currents in
doped HDPE. Homocharges were identified at the anode and in doped HDPE a strong
heterocharge, not seen in undoped HDPE, was formed near the cathode.
11.6 LASER INTENSITY MODULATION METHOD (LIMM)
Lang and Das Gupta14 have developed this method which is robust in terms of data
accuracy and requires only conventional equipment, as opposed to a high speed transient
recorder, which is essential for the thermal pulse method. A thin polymer film coated
with evaporated opaque electrodes at both surfaces is freely suspended in an evacuated
chamber containing a window through which radiant energy is admitted. Each surface of
the sample, in turn, is exposed to a periodically modulated radiant energy source such as
a laser. The absorbed energy produces temperature waves which are attenuated and
retarded in phase as they propagate through the thickness of the specimen. Because of
the attenuation, the dipoles or space charges are subjected to a non uniform thermal force
to generate a pyro-electric current which is a unique function of the modulation
frequency and the polarization distribution.
Let CD rad s"1 be the frequency of the sinusoidally modulated laser beam and the specimen
illuminated at x = d. The surface at x = 0 is thermally insulated. The heat flux absorbed
by the electrode is q (d. t) which is a function of the temperature gradient along the
thickness. The one dimensional heat flow equations are solved to obtain the current as
r. J>(*)coshD(y + l)xdx
iw * (1 1 .26)
DsmhD(j + \}d
1 /O
where D= (o/2K) , j is the complex number operator and C contains all the position
and frequency-dependent parameters. The current generated lags the heat flux because of
the phase retardation of the thermal wave as it progresses through the film. The current
therefore has a component in phase and in quadrature to the heat flux.
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The mathematical treatment of measured currents at a number of frequencies for
determining P(;c) involves the following steps: The integral sign in equation (11.26) may
be replaced by a summation by dividing the film into n incremental thickness, each layer
having its polarization, Pj, where j=1,2,....n. The matrix equation [I] = [G] [P] where
[CVo(/ + l) cosh £>(/•

(11.27)
[DsmhD(i-
is solved. The in-phase component of measured current is used with the real part of G
and the quadrature component is used with the imaginary part. It is advantageous to
measure I(o) at more than n frequencies and apply the least square method to solve for P.
—v 500 US
-50
(J
250 V
-100 500 V
1500 V
-150L
Fig. 11.7 Experimental thermal pulse currents in doped HDPE for (a) cathode illumination
(b) anode illumination. Negative currents show the existence of a positive space charge in the
sample (Suzuoki et al, 1985; with permission of Jap. J. Appl. Phys.)
Fig. 11.8 shows the polarization distributions and pyroelectric currents versus frequency.
Because of the impossibility of producing an experimentally precise type of polarization,
a triangular distribution was assumed and the currents were synthesized. Using the in-
phase and quadrature components of these currents, the polarization distribution was
calculated as shown by points. The parameters used for these calculations are d = 25.4
um, K = 0.1 x 10"7 mY1, 102 < f < 105 Hz (101 values), obtaining 51 values of Pk. Lang
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and Das Gupta (1981) have used the LIMM technique to study spatial distribution of
polarization in PVDF and thermally poled polyethylene.
11.7 THE PRESSURE PULSE METHOD
The principle of the pressure pulse method was originally proposed by Laurenceau, et
al.15 and will be described first. There have been several improvements in techniques that
will be dealt with later. The pressure probe within a dielectric causes a measurable
electrical signal, due to the fact that the capacitance of a layer is altered in the presence
of a stress wave. The pressure pulse contributes in two ways towards the increase of
capacitance of a dielectric layer. First, the layer is thinner than the unperturbed thickness
due to the mechanical displacement carried by the wave. Second, the dielectric constant
of the compressed layer is increased due to electrostriction caused by the pulse .
A IN-PHASE
• QUADRATURE
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

POSITION (X/L)
Fig. 11.8 (a) Pyroelectric current versus frequency (x = 0 and x = d refers to heating from x
= 0 and x = d side of the film, fy = 0 and § = 7i/2 refers to in phase or in quadrature with heat
flux respectively, (b) Polarization distributions (solid line) and calculated distributions
(points). Selected data from (Lang and Das Gupta, 1981, with permission of Ferroelectrics).
A dielectric slab of thickness d, area A, and infinite-frequency dielectric constant 8*. with
electrodes a and b in contact with the sample, is considered. The sample has acquired,
due to charging, a charge density p (x) and the potential distribution within the dielectric
is V (x). All variables are considered to be constant at constant x; the electrode a is
grounded, electrode b is at potential V. The charge densities a a and (Jb are given by
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d_-(AQV_
<% 7 A °° 7
d A d
(11.29)
v
^
" d A d
where
a
\xp(x)dx d
n
and ^= \p(x)dx (11.30)
Expressions (1 1.28) and (1 1.29) show that if V = 0 and if the sample is not piezoelectric,
a uniform deformation along the x axis does not alter the charges on the electrodes since
(d-(x))/d remains constant. This implies that in order to obtain the potential or charge
profiles, a non-homogeneous deformation must be used. A step function compressional
wave propagating through the sample with a velocity v, from electrode a towards b,
provides such a deformation. As long as the wave front has not reached the opposite
electrode, the right side of the sample is compressed while the left part remains
unaffected (Fig. 1 1 .9). The charge induced on electrode b is a function of the charge
profile, of the position of the wave front in the sample, but also of the boundary
conditions at the electrodes: Open circuit or short circuit conditions. In the first case the
observable parameter is the voltage, in the second case, the external current.
Let the unperturbed thickness of the sample be d0, and A p the magnitude of pressure
excess in the compressed region, (3 the compressibility of the dielectric defined as the
fractional change in volume per unit excess pressure, (3 = -AV/(VAp). The compressed
part of the dielectric has a permittivity of s' and ;cf is the position of the wave front at
time t, which can be expressed as Xf = d-v0 t. In the compressed region charges, which
are supposed to be bound to the lattice, are shifted towards the left by a quantity u (x,t) =
-(3 Ap (x-Xf). In the uncompressed part the charges remain in the original position.
The electric field in the uncompressed part is E(;c,t) and E' (jc,t) in the compressed part.
At the interface between these regions the boundary condition that applies is
f,f) = e'E'(xf,i) (11.31)
The boundary condition for the voltage is
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(11.32)
-> z
a
t'
Fig. 11.9 Charge in a dielectric between two electrodes, divided into a compressed region of
permittivity s' and an uncompressed region of permittivity s; the step function compression travels
from right to left at the velocity of sound. The position of the wave front is Xf. The undisturbed
part has a thickness do (Laurenceau, 1977, with permission of A. Inst. of Phy.).
Laurenceau, et al. (1977) provide the solution for the voltage under open circuit
conditions as
(11.33)
The current under short circuit conditions is
(11.34)
A xf+(e/£')(d-xf)
Equations (11.33) and (11.34) show that the time variation of both the voltage and
current is an image of the spatial distributions of voltage and current inside the sample
TM

prior to perturbation. The front of the pressure wave acts as a virtual moving probe
sweeping across the thickness at the velocity of sound.
Laurenceau, et al. (1977) proved that the pressure pulse method gives satisfactory
results: a compressional step wave was generated by shock waves and a previously
charged polyethylene plate of 1 mm thickness was exposed to the wave. The short circuit
current measured had the shape expected for a corona injected charge, reversed polarity,
when charges of opposite sign were injected. Further, the charges were released
thermally and the current was reduced considerably, as expected.
Lewiner (1986) has extended the pressure pulse method to include charges due to
polarization P resulting in a total charge density
dP
p(x) = ps(x)- — (11.35)
ax
where ps is the charge density due to the space charge. The open circuit voltage between
the two electrodes is given by
x
r
V(t) = j3G(sr) $E(x,0)p(x,t)dx (1 1.36)
o
where Xf =vt is the wave front which is moving towards the opposite with a velocity v,
G(sr) is a function of the relative permittivity which in turn is a function of pressure. In
short circuit conditions the current I(t) in the external circuit is related to the electric field
distribution by
(1L37)
where C0 is the uncompressed geometric capacitance, C0 = S0sr A/d. Equations (11.36)

and (11.37) show that if p(jc, t) is known, the electric field distribution may be obtained
from the measurement of V(t) or I(t). If the pressure wave is a step like function of
amplitude Ap (fig. 1 1-9) then V(t) will be a mirror image of the spatial distribution of the
potential in the sample as discovered by Laurenceau, et al. (1977), whereas I(t) is directly
related to the electric field. If the pressure wave is a short duration pulse, then V(t) and
I(t) give directly the spatial distributions of the electric field and charge density. If the
pressure wave profiles change during its propagation through the sample, this effect can
be taken into account by a proper description of p(x, t). The techniques used to generate a
short rise time pressure waves are shock wave tubes, discharge of capacitors in fluids,
TM

piezoelectric transducers and short rise time laser pulses. Fig. 11.10 shows a typical
experimental set up for the laser pulse pressure pulse method.
electrodee • ample
fast recorder
X-Y oecilloecope
computer
recorder
Fig. 11.10 Experimental set up for the measurement of space charge (Lewiner, 1986, © IEEE)
The choice of the laser is governed by two conditions. First, the homogeneity of the
beam must be as good as possible to give a uniform pressure pulse over the entire
irradiated area. Second, the duration of the laser pulse is determined by the thickness of
the sample to be studied. For thin samples, < 100 jam, short duration pulses of 0.1-10 ns
duration are appropriate. For thicker samples broader pulses are preferred since there is
less deformation of the associated pressure pulse as it propagates through the thickness.
The power density of the laser beam between 106-108 W/cm2 yields good results.
The measured voltage and current in 50 um thick Teflon (FEP) film charged with
negative corona up to a surface potential is of 1250 V is shown in Fig. 11.11. The charge
decay as the temperature of the charged sample is raised, is shown in Fig. 11.12. The
charged surface retains the charge longer than the opposite surface, and higher
temperature is required to remove the charge entirely. The LIPP technique is applied
with several variations depending upon the method of generating the pressure pulse. The
methods are briefly described below.
TM

6 10 -
40
« tlm. (n.)
Fig. 11.11 Current and voltage wave forms measured during the propagation of a pressure pulse
through a negative corona charged FEP film of 50 jam thickness. T is the time for the pulse to
reach the charged surface (Lewiner, 1986, © IEEE).
120:
140s
160'
180V
200s
220*
240*
260
20 40 60
tlm* (n«)
Fig. 11.12 Charge decay with temperature in negative corona charged FEP film. Charged side
retains charges longer (LEWINER, 1986, © IEEE)
TM

11.7.1 LASER INDUCED PRESSURE PULSE METHOD (LIPP)
A metal layer on one side of a dielectric absorbs energy when laser light falls upon it.
This causes stress effects and a pressure pulse, < 500 ps duration, is launched, which
propagates through the sample with the velocity of sound. Fig. 11.13 shows the
experimental arrangement used by Sessler, et al.17. The method uses one sided metallized
samples and it is charged at the unmetallized end by a corona discharge. The laser light
pulses, focused on the metallized surface, having a duration of 30-70 ps and 1-10 mJ
energy, are generated by a Nd:YAG laser.
FRONT SAMPLE
ELECTRODE \
PULSED -SURFACE CHARGE
LASER N, SAMPLE-HOLDER
ABSORBING
/ELECTRODE
'ELECTRODE OSCILLO
r
\ , LAYERX
AIR
GAP I I—n>i—i®
L^-J
'SCOPE
U-J
PRESSURE! AMPLIFIER
PULSE
Fig. 11.13 Experimental setup for the laser-induced pressure-pulse (LIPP) method for one sided
metallized samples (Sessler, et al., 1986, © IEEE).
The pressure pulse generates, under short circuit conditions, the current signal
Apr
7(0 = (11.38)
3*. dx x=vt
where A is the sample area, p the amplitude of the pressure, i the duration of the pressure
pulse, PO the density of the material, s the sample thickness, g the air gap thickness, e (x)
the piezoelectric constant of the material, ss the static (dc) dielectric constant and £*, the
infinity frequency dielectric constant.
TM

11.7.2 THERMOELASTIC STRESS WAVES
This method has been adopted by Anderson and Kurtz (1984). When some portion of an
elastic medium is suddenly heated thermoelastic stress waves are generated. A laser
pulse of negligible duration enters a transparent solid and encounters a buried, optically
absorbing layer, causing a sudden appearance of a spatially dependent temperature rise
which is proportional to the absorbed energy.
optical absorber
\
sapphire
window brass
laser
pulse .^ fi~~
¥•—
^ 50 Q
My lar
lay e r s
coax
/ -A AA,—r» V
i io 6 Q
Fig. 11-14 (a) Pressure pulse in a slab of dielectric containing a plane of charge Q. The pulse
travels to the right. Electrode 2 is connected to ground through a co-axial cable and measuring
instrument, (b) Experimental arrangement for measuring injected space charge. The Mylar film
adjacent to the sapphire window acquires internal charge as a result of being subjected to high-
field stress prior to installation in the measurement cell. Thicknesses shown are not to scale.
(Anderson and Kurtz, 1984 © Am. Inst. Phys.)
The thickness of the sample in the x direction is assumed to be small compared to the
dimensions along the y and z directions so that we have a one dimensional situation. At
the instant of energy absorption the solid has inertia for thermal expansion and hence
compressive stress appears in the solid. The stress is then relaxed by propagation, in the
opposite direction, of a pair of planar, longitudinal acoustic pulses which replicate the
initial stress distribution. Each of these pressure pulses carries away half of the
mechanical displacement needed to relax the heated region. The measured signal is the
voltage as a function of time and a deconvolution procedure is required to determine the
charge density (Anderson and Kurtz, 1984).
TM

11.7.3 PRESSURE WAVE PROPAGATION (PWP) METHOD
i ft
In this method the pressure wave is generated by focusing a laser beam to a metal target
bonded to the dielectric sheet under investigation. Earlier, Laurenceau, et al. (1977) had
used a step pressure wave to create non-homogeniety as described in section 12.7 above.
Though the step function has the advantage that the observed signal is the replica of the
potential distribution within the volume before the pressure wave arrived, the difficulty
of producing an exact step function limited the usefulness of the method. When a high
spatial resolution is required the pulse shape should be small, which is difficult to
achieve with a shock tube for two reasons.
First, the shock wave travels in the shock tube with a velocity of a few hundred meters
per second; a small angle between the wave front and the sample results in a strong
decrease of the spatial resolution. Second, the reproducibility of the wave shape is poor.
In the PWP method Alquie, et al. (1981) generalize the calculation to an arbitrary shape
of the pressure pulse. The time dependence of the voltage across the sample has a unique
solution for the electric field distribution within the sample. Fig. 11.15 shows the sample
which has a floating electrode in the middle and two identical samples of FEP on either
side. The solution for the electric field shows a sharp discontinuity at the point where
there is a charge reversal as expected.
aluminum target
laser beam - — V(0,t)
bonding layer
Fig. 11.15 Sample preparation for field distribution study in FEP. Two discs metallized on both
sides are joined in the middle creating a floating electrode through which the sample was charged
(Alquie, 1981, © IEEE).
TM

11.7.4 NONSTRUCTURED ACOUSTIC PROBE METHOD
The measurement of electric field within a charged foil of relatively small thickness, -25
um-lmm, offers more flexibility in the choice of methods because the pulses are not
attenuated as much as in thicker samples. For larger systems or thicker samples a
different approach, in which the electric field is measured by using a nonstructured
acoustic pulse to compress locally the dielectric of interest, has been developed by
Migliori and Thompson19. In this technique the pulse shape is unimportant, and
attenuation effects are easily accounted for, thereby increasing the effective range of the
probe to several tens of centimeters in polymers. Because the probe is sensitive to
electric fields, small variations in electric fields and space charge are detectable. Fig.
11.16 shows the experimental arrangement. An acoustic pulse is generated using a spark
gap which is located in a tube and situated at about 0.1 mm from a replaceable metal
diaphragm. An energy storage capacitor, also located in the same tube (fig. 11.16a)
provides the energy for a spark.
CHARGING
INPUT I ENERGY
OIL STORAGE
EXHAUST CAPACITOR
Fig. 11.16. (a) Diaphragm-type acoustic pulse generator used to generate non-structured acoustic
pulses for electric field measurements in oil and polymers, (b) Block diagram of the
instrumentation used to acquire and process the acoustic and electrical signals required for an
acoustic electric field measurement. The box labeled CLART represents the capacitance- like
acoustic receiving transducer, and the two pre-amplifiers are described in the text (Migliori and
Thompson, 1980, with permission of J. Appl. Phys.).
TM

The other end of the tube is closed with a thick brass plate and the tube is filled with
transformer oil. The capacitor is charged until breakdown occurs between the conductor
and the metal foil. The spark current ( -100A) has a rise time of a fraction of a us and
launches an acoustic wave having a peak amplitude of ~103 Pa.
The acoustic signal is measured by a capacitance-like acoustic transducer, preamplifier

and bias supply immersed in oil in its own tank, which is shielded. This tank is shown as
CLART in fig. (1 1-1 6b). The measured voltage due to the acoustic pulse is given by
(11.39)
where i is the time required to pass a particular point. The technique was employed to
measure space charge in an oil filled parallel plate capacitor, and 16mm thick
poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA).
11.7.5 LASER GENERATED ACOUSTIC PULSE METHOD
The non-structured acoustic pulse method described in the previous section has the
disadvantage that the generated pulse is not reproducible. It also suffers from insufficient
bandwidth and the ratio of low frequency energy to high frequency energy is too high.
An improved technique is adopted by Migliori and Hofler20 using a laser to generate the
acoustic pulses (Fig. 11.17). Light from a ruby laser which generates pulses of 1.5 J and
15 ns half width is directed through a plate glass window into an aluminum tank filled
with liquid freon. The tank contains a laser beam absorber to convert radiation to
pressure, a pressure transducer and pre-amplifier, the sample under test and its
preamplifier.
The beam strikes an absorber which consists of a carbon paper stretched flat and with the
carbon side towards the film. Alignment of the laser perpendicular to the beam is not
critical. The paper absorbs radiation and the freon entrained between the paper fibres is
heated. The pressure wave has a rise time of about 15 ns and a peak of 0.5 Mpa. The
method is sensitive enough to determine the electric fields in the range of 50 kV/m, with
a spatial resolution of 50 um in samples 3 mm thick.
TM

11.7.6 ACOUSTIC PULSE GENERATED BY MECHANICAL EXCITATION
Mechanical excitation may also be used to generate acoustic pulses for probing the
electric field within a charged dielectric and this method has been adopted by Roznov
and Gromov21. A Q-switched ruby laser is used to illuminate a graphite disk with 30 ns
pulses and an energy density of 0.5 J/cm2.
oil coupling film acoustic step

\ / signal
50ft
electrode
Fig. 11.17 Laser generated acoustic pulse method to measure the electric field
inside a solid dielectric (Migliori and Hofler, 1982, with permission of Rev. Sci.
Instr.).
11. 7. 7 PIEZOELECTRIC PRESSURE STEP METHOD (PPS)
The pressure pulse step method used by Gerhardt-Multhaupt, et al.22 is shown in fig.
11.18. Charging a cable and discharging through a relay-trigger, generates a square pulse
of 400-600 V and 100 ns duration. The sequence of the positive and negative pulse is
applied to a 3 mm thick piezoelectric quartz pulse. A thin (-100-200 nm) layer of
silicone oil couples the generated pressure pulse with the metallized surface of the
sample. This sandwich of quartz-oil-sample ensures good acoustic contact. The
unmetallized surface is in contact with a conducting rubber disc which is connected to a
preamplifier and an oscilloscope. The sample is charged by electron beam of varying
energy. This method of charging has the advantage that increasing the energy of the
beam can vary the depth of penetration of charges.
TM

FRONT
CHARGE
-HOLDER
23
Fig. 11.18 Principle of Piezoelectric pressure step method (PPS) (Sessler , 1997, © IEEE).
11.7.8 PULSED ELECTRO-ACOUSTIC STRESS METHOD
The method adopted by Takada and Sakai24 is based on the principle that an electrical
pulse applied to a dielectric with a stored charge launches an acoustic pulse that
originates from the bulk charge. A dc electric field is applied to deposit charges in the
bulk and an ac field of a much smaller magnitude, having 1 MHz frequency, is applied
to launch the acoustic wave. The dc supply and ac oscillators are isolated appropriately
by a combination of resistance and capacitance.
A piezoelectric transducer is attached to each electrode and the acoustic field excited by
the alternating field propagates through the electrodes to the transducer. The electrical
signal detected by the transducer is amplified and rectified. The method measures the
electric fields in the interface of a dielectric, and utilizes a transducer and associated
equipment at each electrode. Further, the signal from the grounded electrode may be
measured by directly connecting to a recorder, but the signal from the high voltage
electrode needs to be isolated by an optical guide and appropriate data transfer modules.
The technique was improved subsequently by Takada, et al25 whose experimental

arrangement is shown in fig. 11.19. The oscillator of the previous method is replaced
with a high voltage pulser and the signal from the piezoelectric transducer is recorded on
a dual beam oscilloscope for further analysis.
TM

Upper
X electrode
i
Oil
d-
*"
Al-metallized
Piezo
device
Acoustic
Dual-beam absorber
oscilloscope
Fig. 11.19 Pulsed Electro-Acoustic Method [Takada et. al., 1987, © IEEE)
11.7.9 ELECTRON BEAM METHOD
This method was used by Sessler, et al. prior to the methods described above26. A mono-
energetic electron beam is incident through the front electrode under short circuit
conditions (both electrodes connected to ground through small impedance). A brief
97
comment about the method of charging is appropriate here. Arkhipov, et al. have
shown, by theoretical analysis, that if the rear electrode is grounded and the front
(radiated) electrode is open circuited, the space charge build up takes place mostly in the
un-irradiated region. For a grounded front electrode, with the rear open circuited, there is
only weak charging in the irradiated region. Consequently, a dielectric is much less
charged for the second mode than the first.
The beam generates a radiation induced conductivity to a depth determined by its energy.
At the plane of the maximum penetration maximum conductivity occurs and the plane is
treated as a virtual electrode (thickness ~5um). Since the depth of the plane depends on
the energy, the virtual electrode may be swept through the dielectric by increasing the
energy of the electrons. The currents are measured at each electrode from which the
spatial distribution of charges are determined. The method is destructive in the sense that
the charge is removed after experimentation.
TM

11.7.10 SPECIAL TECHNIQUES
Techniques dependent on special effects or restricted to selected dielectric materials are

described below.
1. Kerr Effect: The Kerr effect, generally applied to birefringent liquids such as
nitrobenzene, consists of passing plane polarized light (called a polarizer) through a cell
containing the dielectric. The electric field in the dielectric splits the plane polarized light
into two components, one component traveling faster than the other. The phase
difference between the two components makes the emerging light circularly polarized.
This effect is known as the Kerr effect and the intensity of the output light measured by a
photomultiplier is dependent on the square of the electric field. The Kerr effect, when it
occurs in solids is usually referred to as Pockels effect. This method has been employed
by Zahn, et al.28 to study electron beam charged PMMA, having a self field of 1-2.5
MV/m.
2. Spectroscopic Method: In an electric field the spectral lines shift or split and this
phenomenon is known as the Stark effect. By observing the spectrum in a spectroscope
the field strength may be determined .
A variation of the Stark effect is to make use of the principle that very weakly absorbed
visible monochromatic light liberates carriers that move under the field of trapped
charges. By detection of the photocurrent produced one could infer the charge
distribution30.
3. Field Probe and Scanning Microscopic Methods: Measurements of an electric field

by probes have been used to compute the charge distribution (Tavares, 1973). A scanning
microscope has also been used to determine the charging behavior of PMMA under
electron beam irradiation31.
4. Vapor Induced Depolarization Currents (VIDC): This method is based on the

principle that, when a charged dielectric is exposed on one of its faces to a saturated
vapor of a solvent, diffusion occurs and the trapped charges are released. A current is
detected in the external circuit from which the magnitude of the trapped charge may be
evaluated32.
TM

11.8 EXPERIMENTAL RESULTS
The experimental results in fluoropolymers have been succinctly summarized by Sessler

(1997), considering different methods of charging and different techniques of
measurement. Table 11.3 provides references to selected data. In the following we
briefly discuss some polymers of general interest.
Poly(ethylene) (PE); (a) unirradiated
The PEA method has been applied by Mizutani, et al.33 to study space charge in three
different grades of PE at electric field strengths up to 90 MV/m. Homocharges were
observed and the space charge was dependent on the electrode material suggesting
carrier injection from both electrodes. These results confirm the results of the earlier
field probe method adopted by Khalil and Hansen34. To separate injected charges from
the ionized impurities, Tanaka, et al. have adopted a technique of charge injection
suppression layers35. The pulsed acoustic technique was employed to measure spa charge
density. In LDPE with suppression layers on both electrodes heterocharges are observed.
However, by removing charge suppression homo charges were observed. This technique
yields the true charge injected by the electrodes into PE.
In HDPE homocharges are identified at the anode, and in doped HDPE a strong
heterocharge, not seen in undoped HDPE, is formed near the cathode (Suzuoki et. al.
(1995).
Poly(ethylene) (PE); (b) irradiated
Chen, et al.36 have observed, by LIPP technique, that the energetic ionizing radiations
such as a y-source can alter the chemical structure and may also give rise to the presence
of trapped charges. Low radiation doses (< 10 kGy) were observed to affect the low
density polyethylene differently when compared with high doses (> 50 kGy).
A. CROSS LINKED POLYETHYLENE (XLPE)
XLPE is being used increasingly in the power cable industry and two main chemical
methods are employed to produce it from low density polyethylene. One method is to use
a peroxide (dicumyl peroxide, DCP) which decomposes to form free radicals or a silane
based grafting process. The space charge accumulation has been measured by the LIPP
technique and the observations are:
TM

1. The cross linking method appears to determine the polarity of the space charge
adjacent to the electrodes. The DCP cross linking favors heterocharge, and silane cross
linking favors homocharge. The charge densities do not vary appreciably.
2. Reversing the applied voltage polarity results in a near-perfect inversion of the space
charge across insulator/polymer interface. This is interpreted as evidence for electron
transfer by tunneling from donor to acceptor states centered on the Fermi level.
B. FLUOROETHYLENE PROPYLENE (FEP)
The LIPP technique of Sessler et. al. (1977) is applied to FEP, which is charged with
electron beams, energy ranging from 10 to 50 keV, as permanent polarization does not
occur. Surface charges are observed and very little trapping occurs within the sample
volume, in agreement with the results of laser induced acoustic pulse method. Das
Gupta, et al'38 have measured the spatial distribution of charges injected by
monoenergetic electrons by both LIPP and LIMM techniques and good agreement is
obtained between the two methods (Fig. 11.20).
400
TEFLON-FEP:Sample C
25 keV from free surface
•ea
-300
0.4 0.6
Thickness
Fig. 11.20 LIPP and LIMM techniques applied to 25 j-im FEP with 40 keV electrons from non-
metallized side (Das Gupta, et al. 1996, with permission of Inst. Phys., England).
Fig. 11.21 shows the evolution of charge characteristic in FEP charged by electron beam
at 120° C. As the annealing duration is increased the charge peak broadens with the
charge depth increasing from about 10 um with no annealing, to about 22 jam with
annealing at 120°C. This broadening is caused by charge release at the higher
TM

temperature, charge drift in the self-field extending towards the rear electrode and fast
retrapping. The calculated available trap density is 2.5 x 10^22 m"-3 but the highest filled-
trap density in electron beam experiments is 6 x 1021m-3(Sessler, 1977).
In a recent study Bloss, et al.39 have studied electron beam irradiated FEP by using both
the thermal pulse (TP) and LIPP method. The TP method has high near-surface
resolution, better than 100 nm. The Lipp method has nearly constant resolution with
depth. The electron beam deposits a negative charge and in addition, a negative charge
layer was formed close to the electrode-polymer interface if the electron beam entered
the dielectric through the interface. This effect is attributed to the fact that the metal
electrode scatters the electron beam, producing secondary electrons. The secondary
electrons have much less energy than the primary ones and do not penetrate deep in to
the volume. Since there is no scattering at the unmetallized surface, there are no
secondary electrons and only the primary electrons enter the sample.
Teflon charged with 30 keV e-beam

annealing at 120%
rear •(•eirod*
Depth ((im)
Fig. 11.21 Evolution of charge distribution in 30 keV electron-beam charged Teflon FEP with
annealing time at 120°C, as obtained by LIPP method, (Sesslerl997, © IEEE).
C. POLY(VINYLIDENEFLUORIDE) PVDF
The LIPP technique of Sessler, et al. (1986) has shown that the piezoelectric material
does not form permanent polarization till a threshold electrical field of 100 MV/m is
attained. The permanent component of the polarization increases more than
proportionally to the voltage, which is characteristic of ferroelectric material. The
TM

permanent polarization is reasonably uniform in the volume, which is typical for high
field room temperature poling of PVDF. The same result has also been obtained by the
thermal pulse method of De Reggi (1984). The polarization is due to combined effects of
instantaneous polarization, electrode charges and space charges accumulated near the
electrodes.
D. POLY(TETRAFLUOROETHYLENE)
Corona charged PTFE shows that the trapped charge does not spread as measured by the
thermal pulse method. However, PPS measurements of positively and negatively corona
charged laminates of the dielectric show that there is some minor spreading towards the
electrodes. At high humidity the centroid of the charge has even been observed beneath
the sample surface. Positive and negative corona charging at temperatures of 260°C
shows a larger and definite bulk charge which is non-uniformly distributed.
11.9 CLOSING REMARKS
As discussed above, a number of methods have been developed for the measurement of
space charge in both thin and relatively thick samples (Table 11.3). The method of
analyses of the signals have also increased the accuracy of determination of the charge
distribution and charge depth. The thermal methods require a deconvolution technique to
derive the spatial distribution of charges, p(x), from the measured current as a function of
time, I(t). The deconvolution may be achieved by the Fourier coefficients of p(x). The
accuracy of the current measurement limits the number of coefficients to -10, if the
sample is pulsed from both sides (Sessler, et al., 1986).
TM

Table 11.3
Selected Space Charge Measurement in Polymers
The number within square brackets refers to references at the end of the section.
Method Polymer Reference
Thermal Pulse Method Polyethylene Suzuoki et. al.,
(1985),|40]
Fluoroethylenepropylene (FEP) Collins (1980),
Bloss et. al.
(2000)
DeReggi's Method PVDF DeReggi et. al.
(1982,1984)
[41]
LIMM Polyethylene
Fluoroethylenepropylene (FEP) Das Gupta et.
al. (1996)
PVDF Lang and Das
Gupta (1981)
Pressure Pulse Method Poly(ethylene) Laurenceau
(1977)
PET Anderson and
Kurtz (1984).
Laser Induced Pressure Pulse Method (LIPP) Fluoroethylenepropylene Alquie et. al.
(1981),
Lewiner
(1986), Das
Gupta et. al.
(1996)
PVDF Sessler(1997)
Polyimide (Kapton) Sessler(1997)
PET (Mylar) Sessler(1997)
Cross linked polyethylene Bambery and
(XLPE) Fleming
(1998)
Polyethylene Lewiner
(1986),[42]
Thermoelastic Stress Waves PET Sessler (1997)
Pressure Wave Propagation (PWP) Method Fluoroethylenepropylene
Nonstructured Acoustic Probe method PMMA Migliori and
Thompson
(1980)
Mechanically generated acoustic Probe PMMA Rozno and
Method Gromov
(1986)
Polyethylene Rozno and
Gromov
(1986)
TM

Table 11.3 Continued
Method Polymer Reference
Piezoelectric Pulse Step (PPS) Fluoroethylenepropylene Gerhard-
Multhaupt et.
al. (1983)
Mylar Gerhard-
Multhaupt et.
al. (1983)
P(VDF-TFE) [43]
Pulsed Electro-acoustic Stress Method PE, PET, PS, PVDF, XLPE, (Takada et al.
[45]
1983), l44],
LDPE Tanaka et. al.
(1995)
PMMA [46]
Electron beam sweeping FEP Sessler et. al.

(1977)
Kerr Effect PMMA Zahn et. al.
(1987)
Field Probe LDPE Khalil et. al
(1988)
The thermal methods have the advantage of a high depth resolution for thickness less
than ~ 100|um. The acoustic methods have the advantages of a good resolution
throughout the bulk (~l-2 um). The Thermal Pulse method, LIMM, LIPP and PEA are
being increasingly used in preference to other methods. It is now possible to measure the
space charge by more than one technique and these complementary measurements have
been carried out in FEP, using the LIMM and LIPP techniques (Das Gupta et. al., 1996),
and LIPP and TP methods (Bloss, et al. 2000). Such techniques help to isolate
experimental artifacts from the characteristics of the dielectric under study.
Damamme, et al.47 have discussed the points to which attention should be paid in
calibrating the experimental setup. Calibration generally falls into two broad categories:
one, the parameters that are associated with the charging method, charge, potential,
temperature, energy of injected electrons and their total charge, etc. The latter may be
measured to an accuracy of ± 1 pc. The charge response resolution is ~ 2 f C but it may
be particularly difficult to achieve this accuracy in case of short laser pulses. The second
is connected with the measurement technique used. The analyses of measurements
require several physical properties of the polymer, such as the speed of sound, the
thermal diffusivity, the permittivity, the high frequency dielectric constant, etc. These
properties should be measured in situ, preferably, to remove ambiguity in their values.
Since a host of experimental techniques are required it may not always be possible to
accomplish this. In such situations the properties obtained for the same sample with
particular reference to humidity, previous history, etc. should be used.
TM

The role of the space charge in the performance characteristics of dielectrics has been
A ft
discussed by Bartnikas in both communication and power application areas. Future
work should be concentrated on establishing a clear connection between charging
characteristic and operational performance in the technological applications.
TM

11. 10 REFERENCES
1
J. Lewiner, IEEE Trans, on El, 12 (1986) 351.
2
G. Blaise and W. J. Sarjeant, "IEEE Trans, on Diel. EL, 5 (1998) 779.
3
H. Frolich, "Introduction to the theory of the polaron", in "Polarons and Excitons", Eds
: C. G. Kwyer and G. D.Whitefield,: Oliver & Boyd, London, 1963.
4
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TM

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TM

APPENDIX 1
TRADE NAMES OF POLYMERS
Chemical name Trade name Formula Remarks

Poly(tetrafluoroethylene) Teflon PTFE rods, sheets,
Halon Film,
fluon extrusion
Poly(fluoroethylene- Teflon FEP (CF2-CF2), (C3F6)y Film,
propylene) molding and
extrusion
Poly(3- Teflon PFA (C2F4), (C2F3OX C3F4 Film,
perfluoropropoxy- extrusion
perfluorohexamethylene)
Poly(ethylene Mylar (CO2 C6H6 CO2 C2H4X Film, tubing
terephthalate) (PET)
Aromatic polyamide Nomex,Kevlar (NH C6H6 NH CO C6H6 Paper,
CO)* laminates
Polyimide (PI) Kapton [(C6H6)3 O (C2NO2)2L Film,
Upilex enamel,
Pyre-ML resin
Polyetherimide (PEI) Ultem [(C2 N02)2 (C6H6)5 O Film,
C3H6]X molding
resin
Poly(methyl Perspex (C5 H8 O,), molding
memacrylate) (PMMA) Acrylic resin, sheets
Lucite
Acrylite
Plexiglas
557
TM

Chemical name Trade name Formula Remarks
ethylene Tefzel (C4H4F4)X Film,
tetrafluoroethylene (ETF) Hostaflon extrusion
Polyetherketone PEEK [(C6H6)3 C molding
resin
Polyvinylidene fluoride Kynar (C2 H2 N)n Film,
(PVDF)
Polychlorotrifluoro- Kel-F (C2 F3 Cl)n Film,
ethylene extrusion
(PCTFE)
Polystyrene-butadiene K-resin molding
resin
Polycarbonate (PC) Lexan, Calibre, H [(C6H6)2C4H6O3]n OH Molding
Makrolon compound
Polybutylene Ultradur [(C6H6) C6 O4 H8)]n Molding
Terephthalate (PBT) or Valox Resin
Polytetramethylene Celanex
terephthalate (PTMT)
Nylon Capron, Rilsan, [Ci2H22O2N2]n Molding
Ultramid, Resin,
Celanese, Zytel extrusion,
and Vydyne enamel
Polysulfone Udel, [(C6H6)4 C3H6 O S02]n Molding
Ultrason S resin
Phenol formaldehyde Bakelite [(C6H6)4 C3 O3 H8]n Resin,
Laminate
Polyester-imide (PEI) Teramid [(C 6 H 6 ) 4 C 18 H 8 0 18 N 8 ] enamel
Isomid
TM

APPENDIX 2
General Classification of Polymer Dielectrics
Thermoplastic Elastomers Thermosetting Ceramic/glass

RESINS Films
Acetal Cellulose Natural rubber Alkyds or Alumina
Acetate (polyisoprene) thermosetting
(CA) polyester
Acrylic Butyl rubber Allyls Aluminum
nitride
Amide (Nylon) Cellulose Styrene Aminos Aluminum
triacetate Butadiene silicate
Rubber
Polyetherimide PTFE Neoprene Epoxy Beryllia
Polyarylate PFA EPDM Phenolics Boron nitride
Polybutylene FEP EPR Cordierite
Terephthalate
Polycarbonate ETFE chlorosulfonated Diamond
polyethylene
(CSM)
Polyetheretherketone ECTFE Chlorinated Magnesia
polyethylene
(CP)
Polyethylene ether PVDF Porcelain
Polyphenylene PCTFE Sapphire
Polypropylene PC Silica
Polystyrene PET Steatite
Styrene-Butadiene PE Zircon
559
TM

Thermoplastic Elastomers Thermosetting Ceramic/glass Thermoplastic
Styrene acrylonitrile PI
Acrylonitride PPA
butadiene styrene
Polysulfone PP
Polyether sulfone P&
PVC
PS
PES
PEI
TM

APPENDIX 3
Selected Properties of Insulating Materials
TM

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PH
I
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o o o o o oo o
m o
O oO o
a!m T— H
o CN r-- CO o o oo
ll o
oo
o
0
in - CN „ o o o CO o
oo 00 CN CN
in o m
CN ' •
CO ffi o o
o o o ooo o
fl ^ o o (N i i CO
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o i<r
^ CN ffi
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CN (N CN CN CN ^»o CN CN CN CO CO CO CN
"I
CO CO CO
^
fl
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^
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H o O O O o
^f*l
in
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oo CN CN ^vj
O CN r-
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methacrylate (PMMA)
Polyphenylene ether
Polycarbonate (PC)
HH
Polyvinyl chloride
PQ
Polyester (PET)
sulphide (PPS)
Polyphenylene
W I-H PH,
PH
Polymethyl
03 ^ VO 0>
Material

ECTFE
PCTFE
vo
(PVC)
PH
(PPE)
~CD fl PH
fl Q
s
o o
*
• T—I
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1
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l-H PH
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PH
TM
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O
in
i-H
o o
CN
o . 1
. • • in o
o o
CN
o
0
CO ±3 in
o O o o oo
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in
HH O O
CO HH O o o in o m
PH ^ O oo O 0\ o , o r-H00 1 1 , CN o
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r-H
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in
in
ffi o CN CO co
o oo
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CN CO
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in
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u CO ^
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in in CN
PH
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in
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r-H CN ' —' '—' r-H g CN
A
m o O oo o
DJ
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M-l <—' r-H
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in ^H
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CN "~
" CN
Natural Rubber (hard)

Glass filled Melamine
diene rubber (EPDM)

Alkyd/Polyester resin
Natural Rubber (soft)

Terephthalate (PBT)
Ethylene propylene
Poly(ether sulfone)
Styrene Butadiene
Silicone Rubber
Rubber (SBR)
Molding resin
.a
Silicone resin
rH
Polybutylene
Polyurethane
Glass Filled
(U
Neoperene
Material

^Q
(PES) ^J>
<U OJ) |
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1 0 PH ""O
ex
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CN
(§)
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03
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Aluminum silicate
03
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Aramid Paper
Porcelain
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r£>
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TM
APPENDIX 4
Relative Ranking of Thermoplastic Polymers
1= Most desirable, 18= Least desirable
567
TM

• i—i
(N ON OO in OO OO vo o (N m o in
•^
^
t/5
• 1-H
C/3
(D ,p
a ;g S ~ OO
S in <N 0- ^ <N
!-} ON ON <N ON OO •VO m
>l ^
in
ON
ON
fl
_o ^
©
1§
.& 1
<^ OO ^ OO
T— 1
^0 in = o
T—1 ^ ON r^ <N in
C/5 ,Cv
03 H-H
Q OJO
3
« -t--
'G. & GO
o ^
CD to ^f •"fr m OO vo r~- O
-— ' ON OO 00 ,_, (N (N ^j- f- (N H
13 ^ ^
Q ° CO
13
•cCD
o
'-oB ^
op in in in in in (N 00 (N
CD H in i—H OO m ^
1— 1
^H in oo 00 OJ)
r^ CD
.sa S a
M
Q I
O
"S
o
CD 43
CD
S o
• ^H CD CD
-Jj
X
0 -P
3
(VJ 03 CD CO
w 'c3 £3
<D
CD
S 'x -8
CD
S3 r-H CD CD
o
Acrylonitrile butad:
Polystyrene butadie
Polybutylene terepl
Modified polyphen
Polyphenylene sulf
\ Polyamide-imide 'Bo
Polyethersulfone
0 • rH
(D
Polyetherimide
OH J3
Polycarbonate
Polypropylene
i w

Polysulfone
tt-l
Polystyrene
O o
o O \ 03
o Q
y
a o
b ô
1—H
C^
• T-H
fl o
t>
O
Q^
o O
JO (U
GO
TM
APPENDIX 5
SELECTED PROPERTIES OF POLYMER INSULATING MATERIALS
POLYMER Recommended Volume Arc

Temp resistivity resistance
(°C) (Qm) (s)
13
Acetal homo-polymer 90 IxlO 220
Acetal copolymer 105 IxlO 1 4 240 (burns)
Acrylic 95 IxlO 1 6 no tracking
Acrylonitrile butadiene - 95 2xl0 14 100
styrene
Epoxy, Bisphenol A 1003
Modified polyphenylene - 105 IxlO 1 4 75
oxide
Nylon 6/6 130 IxlO 1 3 130
Nylon I I 1 65 IxlO 1 4 123
Polyamide-imide 260 8xl0 14 230
Polybutylene terephthalate 150 4xl0 14 184
Polycarbonate 115 8xl0 14 120
Polyetherimide 170 7xl0 15 128
Polyethersulfone 180 >lx!0 15 70
Polyethylene, LD 80 IxlO 1 4 1602
569
TM

Polyethylene, HD 90 IxlO 1 4 235
Polyimide, unreinforced 240 IxlO 1 6 152-2303
Polyphenylene sulfide 205 IxlO 1 4 34
Polypropylene 105 >lx!0 14 150
Polystyrene 70 IxlO 1 4 65
Polysulfone 150 5xl0 14 122
Poly(tetrafluoroethylene) 260 >lx!0 16 >2003
Poly(trifluorochloroethylene) 200 >lx!0 16 >3603
PVC 80 IxlO 1 2 60-802
Poly(vinylidene fluoride) 135 2xl0 12 50-603
Styrene acrylonitrile 80 >lx!0 14 115
Styrene butadiene 65 IxlO 1 4 50
1. W. T. Shugg, Handbook of Electrical and Electronic Insulating Materials, IEEE, 1995

2. J. Brandrup and E. H. Immergut, Eds., Polymer Handbook, Wiley-Interscience, New
York (1977).
3. Vishn Shah, Handbook of Plastics Testing Technology, Wiley-Interscience, New York
(1984).
TM

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11

SPACE CHARGE IN SOLID DIELECTRICS

11.1 THE MEANING OF SPACE CHARGE

Copyright n 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Fig. 11.1 Development of charge distribution p (z) in a dielectric material subjected to an

Copyright n 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Current density A/m2 10-104 10'2-0.1

Let us consider a polaron of radius rp in a dielectric medium in which a fixed charge q

Copyright n 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

11.3 A CONCEPTUAL APPROACH

Copyright n 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

polaron sites (b)

Copyright n 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

Radiant Energy Flux

Compton Current Density

Space Charge Density

Electric Field Strength

Copyright n 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

The objectives of space charge measurement may be stated as follows:

Copyright n 2003 by Marcel Dekker, Inc. All Rights Reserved.

11.4 THE THERMAL PULSE METHOD OF COLLINS

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Collins (1980) derived the expression

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For an electret with zero internal field

/>(*) = +faxr (1L6)

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11.5 DEREGGI'S ANALYSIS

ro,o) = ^+Aro,o) (11.9)

T(x,t) = Tl+AT(x,t) (11.10)

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The temperature at the surface is given by

where T = d /TI K and k is called thermal diffusivity. The dimensionless quantities

Substituting equation (11.15) into (11.5) the voltage at time t is given as

where the following relationships hold.

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The basic equations are:

The heat flux is given by

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0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1.0

Similarly, the current, when the specimen is illuminated at x = d, is

The total amount of space charge is

The mean position of the space charge is

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11.6 LASER INTENSITY MODULATION METHOD (LIMM)

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[CVo(/ + l) cosh £>(/•

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11.7 THE PRESSURE PULSE METHOD

0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8

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f,f) = e'E'(xf,i) (11.31)

The boundary condition for the voltage is

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The current under short circuit conditions is

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where C0 is the uncompressed geometric capacitance, C0 = S0sr A/d. Equations (11.36)

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