CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

Cranes with electromagnetic lift are also known as electromagnetic cranes. Such cranes are used
widely in lifting and moving scrap metals. Even in a production line of many products,
electromagnetic lifts are used to lift and move metal objects. Electromagnets have special
simplicity and many advantages to other lifting tools. They are faster and easier to work with.

1.1 INTRODUCTION TO FLUID POWER

Fluid power is a term which was created to include the generation, control, and
application of smooth, effective power of pumped or compressed fluids (either liquids or
gases) when this power is used to provide force and motion to mechanisms. This force and
motion maybe in the form of pushing, pulling, rotating, regulating, or driving. Fluid power
includes hydraulics, which involves liquids, and pneumatics, which involves gases. Liquids and
gases are similar in many respects. The differences are pointed out in the appropriate areas
of this manual. This manual presents many of the fundamental concepts in the fields of
hydraulics and pneumatics. It is intended as a basic reference for all personnel of the
Navy

whose

duties

and responsibilities require them to have a knowledge of the

fundamentals of fluid power.

Consequently, emphasis is placed primarily on the theory of operation of typical fluid power
systems and components that have applications in naval equipment. Many applications of fluid
power are presented in this manual to illustrate the functions and operation of different
systems and components.

1.2 INTRODUCTION TO HYDAULIC

In this type of machine, hydraulic fluid is transmitted throughout the machine to
various hydraulic motors and hydraulic cylinders and which becomes pressurised according to
the resistance present. The fluid is controlled directly or automatically by control valves and
1 | Page

distributed through hoses and tubes. The popularity of hydraulic machinery is due to the very
large amount of power that can be transferred through small tubes and flexible hoses, and the
high power density and wide array of actuators that can make use of this power.
Hydraulic machinery is operated by the use of hydraulics, where a liquid is the powering
medium. A fundamental feature of hydraulic systems is the ability to apply force or torque
multiplication in an easy way, independent of the distance between the input and output, without
the need for mechanical gears or levers, either by altering the effective areas in two connected
cylinders or the effective displacement (cc/rev) between a pump and motor. In normal
cases, hydraulic ratios are combined with a mechanical force or torque ratio for optimum
machine designs such as boom movements and track drives for an excavator.
Hydraulic pumps supply fluid to the components in the system. Pressure in the system develops
in reaction to the load. Hence, a pump rated for 5,000 psi is capable of maintaining flow against
a load of 5,000 psi. Pumps have a power density about ten times greater than an electric motor
(by volume). They are powered by an electric motor or an engine, connected through gears, belts,
or a flexible elastomeric coupling to reduce vibration.
Hydraulic machines are machinery and tools that use liquid fluid power to do simple work.
Heavy equipment is a common example. In this type of machine, hydraulic fluid is transmitted
throughout the machine to various hydraulic motors and hydraulic cylinders and which becomes
pressurised according to the resistance present. The fluid is controlled directly or automatically
by control valves and distributed through hoses and tubes. The popularity of hydraulic machinery
is due to the very large amount of power that can be transferred through small tubes and flexible
hoses, and the high power density and wide array of actuators that can make use of this power.
Hydraulic machinery is operated by the use of hydraulics, where a liquid is the powering
medium.
If a hydraulic rotary pump with the displacement 10 cc/rev is connected to a hydraulic rotary
motor with 100 cc/rev, the shaft torque required to drive the pump is 10 times less than the
torque available at the motor shaft, but the shaft speed (rev/min) for the motor is 10 times less
than the pump shaft speed. This combination is actually the same type of force multiplication as
the cylinder just that the linear force in this case is a rotary force, defined as torque.
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1.3 INTRODUCTION TO ELECTROMAGNET

Using the principle of electromagnetic induction, these large machines are used to handle scrap
ferrous metals, such as iron and steel, which can be found in junk yards and recycling plants.
Beyond the area of lifting magnetic materials, another use of an electromagnetic crane is that it
makes for smooth and safe stops due to its solenoid brakes (electrically controlled brakes which
can be turned on and off by a solenoid). These brakes are the ones being used on movable
bridges as it allows the passage of boats and barges. Essentially, an electromagnet consists of a
soft iron core and turns, or windings, of electrically conducting wire. Increasing the size of the
core, the number of windings and the level of current that flows through the wire can produce a
magnet much stronger than any natural magnet.

1.4 OBJECTIVE OF PRESENT WORK

The main objective of this project to build a unique kind of robotic algorithm to achieve a new
kind of approachability in the field of robotics. The Robotic arm is one of those types of different
view for automation in machines. These robots are designed to clean or pull up & down any kind
obstructions. Hydraulic machines are machinery and tools that use liquid fluid power to do
simple work. Heavy equipment is a common example.
In this type of machine, hydraulic fluid is transmitted throughout the machine to
various hydraulic motors and hydraulic cylinders and which becomes pressurised according to
the resistance present. The fluid is controlled directly or automatically by control valves and
distributed through hoses and tubes. The popularity of hydraulic machinery is due to the very
large amount of power that can be transferred through small tubes and flexible hoses, and the
high power density and wide array of actuators that can make use of this power.
Hydraulic machinery is operated by the use of hydraulics, where a liquid is the powering
medium. A fundamental feature of hydraulic systems is the ability to apply force or torque
multiplication in an easy way, independent of the distance between the input and output, without
the need for mechanical gears or levers, either by altering the effective areas in two connected
cylinders or the effective displacement (cc/rev) between a pump and motor.
3 | Page

CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE

2.1 Materials used for Hydraulic Arm

Innovation components allow for greater alternative and innovative designs. They are not
required, but are suggested to bring more engineering and innovation to the activity. Only a few
innovation components are usually needed to create alternative designs, so your supply of
innovation components can be used for many hydraulic arms and other activities. Here are the
components that are used in this project:
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o
o

Hydraulic cylinders (Syringe with clips and mounts)

Hydraulic Lines (Vinyl Tubing)
Perpendicular wooden blocks and Dowels
Chip board
Screws
#10 square nuts
#10 washers
Connector strips
Galvanised coloured wire
Electromagnet
Switch
Battery
Copper wire

Fluid
Power
Gas

Liquid

Pneumati
cs
4 | Page

Hydraulic
s

Figure 2.1Power of Fluid

2.2 HYDRAULIC
The word hydraulics is based on the Greek word for water, and originally covered the study of
the physical behaviour of water at rest and in motion. Use has broadened its meaning to
include the behaviour of all liquids, although it is primarily concerned with the motion of
liquids. Hydraulics includes the manner in which liquids act in tanks and pipes, deals
with their properties, and explores ways to take advantage of these properties.

2.3 PNEUMATICS
The word pneumatics is a derivative of the Greek word pneumatic, which means air,
wind, or breath. It can be defined as that branch of engineering science that pertains to
gaseous pressure and flow. As used in this manual, pneumatics is the portion of fluid power in
which compressed air, or other gas, is used to transmit and control power to
actuating mechanisms. This chapter discusses the origin of pneumatics. It discusses the
characteristics of gases and compares them with those of liquids. It also explains factors
which affect the properties of gases, identifies and explains the gas laws, and identifies
gases commonly used in pneumatics and their pressure ranges
Uses of Hydraulic

The hydraulic press, invented by English man John Braham, was one of the first workable pieces of machinery developed that used hydraulics in its operation. It consisted of a

plunger pump piped to a large cylinder and a ram.

This press found wide use in England because it provided a more effective and
economical means of applying large forces in industrial uses. Today, hydraulic power is
used to operate many different tools and mechanisms. In a garage, a mechanic raises

the end of an auto-mobile with a hydraulic jack.

Dentists and barbers use hydraulic power, through a few strokes of a control lever, to lift

and position their chairs to a convenient working height.

Hydraulic doorstops keep heavy doors from slamming. Hydraulic brakes have been
standard equipment on auto-mobiles since the 1930s.

5 | Page

Most automobiles are equipped with automatic transmissions that are hydraulically

operated. Power steering is another application of hydraulic power.

Construction workers depend upon hydraulic power for the operation

of various

components of their equipment. For example, the blade of a bulldozer is normally

operated by hydraulic power.

During the period preceding World War II ,the Navy began to apply hydraulics to
naval mechanisms extensively. Since then, naval applications have increased to the
point where many ingenious hydraulic devices are used in the solution of problems of

gunnery, aeronautics, and navigation.

Aboard ship, hydraulic power is used to operate such equipment as anchor windlasses,
cranes, steering gear, remote control devices, and power drives for elevating and training
guns and rocket launchers. Elevators on aircraft carriers use hydraulic power to transfer
aircraft from the hangar deck to the flight deck and vice versa

2.4 FORCES IN LIQUIDS

The study of liquids is divided into two main parts: liquids at rest (hydrostatics) and liquids in
motion

(hydraulics).The

effects

of

liquids

at

rest

can

often be expressed

by simple formulas. The effects of liquids in motion are more difficult to express due to
frictional

and

other

factors whose actions cannot be expressed by simple mathematics.

Liquids have a definite volume but take the shape of their containing vessel.
additional characteristics

we

must

explore

prior

to

There are two

proceeding. Liquids are almost

incompressible. For example, if a pressure of 100 pounds per square inch (psi) is applied to
a given volume of water that is at atmospheric pressure, the volume will decrease by only
0.03 percent. It would take a force of approximately 32 tons to reduce its volume by 10
percent; however, when this force is removed, the water immediately returns to its original
volume. Other liquids behave in about the same manner as water. Another characteristic of a
liquid is the tendency to keep its free surface level. If the surface is not level, liquids
will flow in the direction which will tend to make the surface level.
In studying fluids at rest, we are concerned with the transmission of force and the
factors which affect the forces in liquids. Additionally, pressure in and on liquids and
factors affecting pressure are of great importance.
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The terms force and pressure are used extensively in the study of fluid power. It is
essential that we distinguish between the terms. Force means a total push or pull. It
is the push or pull exerted against the total area of a particular surface and is expressed
in pounds or grams. Pressure means the amount of push or pull (force) applied to each unit area
of the surface and is expressed in pounds per square inch (lb/in2) or grams per square
centimetre (gm/cm2). Pressure maybe exerted in one direction, in several directions, or in
all directions.
Computing Force, Pressure, and Area:A formula is used in computing force, pressure, and area in fluid power systems. In this
formula,
[F=P*A] . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . equation (1)
P refers to pressure,
F indicates force, and
A represents area.
Force equals pressure times area.
Pressure equals force divided by area. By rearranging the formula this statement may be
condensed into.
P=F/A Since area equals force divided by pressure, the formula is written
A=F/P

This figure illustrates a memory device for recalling the

different variations of this formula. Any letter in the triangle
may be expressed as the product or quotient of the other two,
depending on its position within the triangle. For example, to
find area, consider the letter A as being set off to itself,
followed by an equal sign. Now look at the other two letters.
The letter F is above the letter P; therefore,
A=F/P

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NOTE: Sometimes the area may not be expressed in square units. If the surface is rectangular,
you can determine its area by multiplying its length (say, in inches) by its width
(also in inches). The majority of areas you will consider in these calculations are circular in
shape. Either the radius or the diameter may be given, but
you must know the radius in inches to find the area. The radius is one-half the diameter. To
determine the area, use the formula for finding the area of a circle. This is written A =where A is
the area, A= r2; is 3.1416 (3.14 or 3 1/7 for most calculations), and r2 indicates the radius
squared.

2.5 TRANSMISSION OF FORCES THROUGH LIQUIDS

When the end of a solid bar is struck, the main force of the blow is carried straight through the
bar to the other end (fig. 2-4, view A). This happens because the bar is rigid. The direction of
the blow almost entirely determines the direction of the transmitted force.

Figure 2.2 Effects of atmospheric pressure

Figure 2.3Transmission of force: (A) solid; (B) fluid

The more rigid the bar, the less force is lost inside the bar or transmitted outward at right
angles to the direction of the blow. When a force is applied to the end of a column of
confined liquid (fig. 2-4, view B), it is transmitted straight through to the other end and
also equally and undiminished in every direction throughout the columnforward, backward,
and sidewaysso that the containing vessel is literally filled with pressure. An example of this
distribution of force is illustrated in figure 2-5. The flat hose takes on a circular cross
8 | Page

section when it is filled with water under pressure.

is equal in every direction.

The outward push of the water

Figure 2.4Distribution of force

CHAPTER 3
WORKING OF HYDRAULIC ARM
3.1 Pascals Law
The foundation of modern hydraulics was established when Pascal discovered that pressure in a
fluid acts equally in all directions. This pressure acts at right angles to

the

containing

surfaces. If some type of pressure gauge, with an exposed face, is placed beneath the
surface of a liquid (fig. 2-6) at a specific depth and pointed in different directions, the
pressure will read the same. Thus, we can say that pressure in a liquid is independent of
direction. Pressure due to the weight of a liquid, at any level, depends on the depth of the fluid
from the surface. If the exposed face of the pressure gauges, figure 2-6, are moved closer to the
surface of the liquid, the indicated pressure will be less. When the depth is doubled,
the indicated pressure is doubled. Thus the pressure in a liquid is directly proportional to the
depth. Consider a container with vertical sides (fig. 2-7) that is 1 foot long and 1 foot wide.
Let it be filled with water 1 foot deep, providing 1cubic foot of water. We learned
earlier in this chapter that 1 cubic foot of water weighs 62.4pounds. Using this
9 | Page

information and equation, P = F/A, we can calculate the pressure on the bottom of the
container.

Since there are 144 square inches in 1 square foot

This can be stated as follows: the weight of a column of water 1 foot high, having a
cross-sectional area of 1 square inch, is 0.433 pound. If the depth of the column is
tripled, the weight of the column will be 3 x 0.433, or 1.299pounds, and the pressure at the
bottom will be1.299 lb/in2 (psi), since pressure equals the force divided by the area. Thus,
the pressure at any depth in a liquid is equal to the weight of the column of liquid at
that depth divided by the cross-sectional area of the column at that depth. The volume
of a liquid that produces the pressure is referred to as the fluid head of the liquid. The pressure of
a liquid due to its fluid head is also dependent on the density of the liquid. If we let A equal
any cross-sectional area of a liquid column and h equal the depth of the column, the
volume becomes Ah. Using equation2-4, D = W/V, the weight of the liquid above area A
is equal to AhD.
D=W/V;D=W/Ah; W=AhD

10 | P a g e

Figure 3.1Pressure of a liquid is

Figure 3.2Water pressure in a 1-cubic-foot container

Independent of direction.

Since pressure is equal to the force per unit area, set A equal to 1. Then the formula pressure
becomes
P = h D . . . . . . . . . . Equation (2).
It is essential that h and D be expressed in similar units. That is, if D is expressed in pounds
per cubic foot, the value of h must be expressed in feet. If the desired pressure is to be
expressed in pounds per square inch, the pressure formula, equation 2-5, becomes

. . . . . . . . . . . Equation (3).
Pascal was also the first to prove by experiment that the shape and volume of a
container in no way alters pressure. Thus in figure2-8, if the pressure due to the weight of the
liquid at a point on horizontal line H is 8 psi, the pressure is 8 psi everywhere at level
H

in

the system. Equation 2-5 also shows that the pressure is independent of the

shape and volume of a container.

11 | P a g e

Fig 3.3-Pressure and Force in Fluid Power Systems

Recall that, according to Pascals law, any force applied to a confined fluid is transmitted
in all directions throughout the fluid regardless of the shape of the container. Consider the effect
of this in the system shown in figure 2-9. If there is a resistance on the output piston and the
input piston is pushed downward, a pressure is created through the fluid, which acts equally
at right angles to surfaces in all parts of the container. If force 1 is 100 pounds and the area
of the input piston is 10 square inches, then the pressure in the fluid is 10 psi

Figure 3.4Force transmitted through fluid

NOTE: Fluid pressure cannot be created without resistance to flow. In this case,
resistance is provided by the equipment to which the output piston is attached. The
12 | P a g e

force of resistance acts against the top of the output piston. The pressure created in the
system by the input piston pushes on the underside of the output piston with a force of
10 pounds on each square inch. In this case, the fluid column has a uniform cross section, so
the area of the output piston is the same as the area of the input piston, or 10 square
inches. Therefore, the upward force on the output piston is 100 pounds (10 psi x 10 sq.
in.), the same as the force applied to the input piston. All that was accomplished in this system
was to transmit the 100-pound force around the bend. However, this principle underlies practically all mechanical applications of fluid power. At this point you should note that
since Pascals law is independent of the shape of the container, it is not necessary that
the tube connecting the two pistons have the same cross-sectional area of the pistons. A
connection of any size, shape, or length will do, as long as an unobstructed passage is
provided. Therefore, the system shown in figure 2-10, with a relatively small, bent
pipe connecting two cylinders, will act exactly the same as the system.
If fluidity (the physical property of a substance that enables it to flow) and incompressibility
were the only properties required, any liquid not too thick might be used in a hydraulic
system. However, a satisfactory liquid for a particular system must possess a number of other
properties. The most important properties and some characteristics are discussed in the following
paragraphs.

3.2 VISCOSITY
Viscosity is one of the most important properties of hydraulic fluids. It is a measure of a fluids
resistance to flow. A liquid, such as gasoline, which flows easily has a low viscosity; and a
liquid, such as tar, which flows slowly has a high viscosity. The viscosity of a liquid is
affected by changes in temperature and pressure. As the temperature of a liquid increases, its
viscosity decreases. That is, a liquid flows more easily when it is hot than when it is
cold. The viscosity of a liquid increases as the pressure on the liquid increases. A satisfactory
liquid for a hydraulic system must be thick enough to give a good seal at pumps,
motors,

valves,

maintaining
pressure,

and

pressure.

so
Any

on.

These components depend on close fits for creating and

internal leakage through these clearances results in loss of

instantaneous

control,

and

pump

efficiency .Leakage losses are greater with thinner liquids (low viscosity). A liquid that is too
13 | P a g e

thin will also allow rapid wearing of moving parts, or of parts that operate under heavy loads.
On the other hand, if the liquid is too thick (viscosity too high),the internal friction of the
liquid will cause an increase in the liquids flow resistance through clearances of closely
fitted parts, lines, and internal passages. This results in pressure drops throughout the system,
sluggish operation of the equipment, and an increase in power consumption.
Viscosity is normally determined by measuring the time required for a fixed volume of a
fluid(at a given temperature) to flow through a calibrated orifice or capillary tube. The
instruments used to measure the viscosity of a liquid are known as viscometers or
viscometers. Several types of viscos meters are in use today. The Say bolt viscometer, shown
in figure 3-1,measures the time required, in seconds, for 60milliliters of the tested fluid
at 100F to pass through a standard orifice. The time measured is used to express the fluids
viscosity, in Say bolt universal seconds or Say bolt furl seconds. The

glass capillary

viscometers, shown in figure 3-2, are examples of the second type of viscometer used. These
viscometers are used measure kinematic viscosity. Like the Say bolt viscometer, the glass
capillary measures the time in seconds required for the tested fluid to flow through the capillary.
This time is multiplied by the temperature constant of the viscometer in use to provide the
viscosity, expressed in centistokes. The following formulas may be used to convert
centistokes (c St units) to approximate Say bolt universal seconds (SUS units).

For SUS values between

32 and 100

For SUS values

than 100:

Figure 3.5Say bolt viscometer

14 | P a g e

greater

The viscosity index (V.I.) of oil is a number that indicates the effect of temperature changes in
the viscosity of the oil. A low V.I. signifies relatively large change of viscosity with changes of
temperature. In other words, the oil becomes extremely thin at high temperatures and extremely
hick at low temperatures. On the other hand, a high V.I. signifies relatively little change in
viscosity over a wide temperature range. Ideal oil for most purposes is one that maintains
a constant viscosity throughout temperature changes. The importance of the V.I. can be shown
easily by considering automotive lubricants. An oil having a high V.I. resists excessive
thickening when the engine is cold and, consequently, promotes rapid starting and prompt
circulation; it resists excessive thinning when the motor is hot and thus provides full lubrication
and prevents excessive oil consumption. Another example of the importance of the V.I.is the
need for a high V.I. hydraulic oil for military aircraft, since hydraulic control systems may be
exposed to temperatures ranging from below65F at high altitudes to over 100F on
the ground. For the proper operation of the hydraulic control system, the hydraulic fluid must
have a sufficiently high V.I. to perform its functions at the extremes of the expected
temperature range. Liquids with a high viscosity have a greater resistance to heat than low
viscosity liquids which have been derived from the same source. The average hydraulic
liquid has a relatively low viscosity. Fortunately, there is a wide choice of liquids
available

for use in the viscosity range required

of hydraulic

liquids. The V.I.

of an oil may be determined if its viscosity at any two temperatures is known. Tables,
based on a large number of tests, are issued by the American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM). These tables permit calculation of the V.I. from known viscosities.

3.3 LUBRICATING POWER

If motion takes place between surfaces in contact, friction tends to oppose the motion.
When pressure forces the liquid of a hydraulic system between the surfaces of moving parts, the
liquid spreads out into a thin film which enables the parts to move more freely. Different liquids,
including oils, vary greatly not only in their lubricating ability but also in film strength.
Film strength is the capability of a liquid to resist being wiped or squeezed out from between the
surfaces when spread out in an extremely thin layer. A liquid will no longer lubricate if the film
breaks down, since the motion of part against part wipes the metal clean of liquid. Lubricating
power varies with temperature changes; therefore, the climatic and working conditions
15 | P a g e

must enter into the determination of the lubricating qualities of a liquid. Unlike viscosity,
which is a physical property, the lubricating power and film strength of a liquid is directly
related to its chemical nature.
Chemical stability is another property which is exceedingly important in the selection of a
hydraulic liquid. It is defined as the liquids ability to resist oxidation and deterioration for
long periods. All liquids tend to undergo unfavourable changes under severe operating
conditions. This is the case, for example, when a system operates for a considerable period
of

time

at

high temperatures. Excessive temperatures, especially extremely high

temperatures, have a great effect on the life of a liquid. The temperature of the liquid in the
reservoir of an operating hydraulic system does not always indicate the operating conditions
throughout the system. Localized hot spots occur on bearings, gear teeth, or at other points where
the liquid under pressure is forced through small orifices. Continuous passage of the liquid
through these points may produce local temperatures high enough to carbonize the liquid
or turn it into sludge, yet the liquid in the reservoir may not indicate an excessively high
temperature. Liquids may break down if exposed to air, water, salt, or other impurities, especially
if

they

are

in

constant

motion

or

subjected

to

such as zinc, lead, brass, and copper, have undesirable chemical

heat.
reactions

Some

metals,

with

certain

liquids. These chemical reactions result in the formation of sludge, gums, carbon, or other
deposits which clog openings, cause valves and pistons to stick or leak, and give poor
lubrication to moving parts.
An ideal hydraulic liquid should be free from acids which cause corrosion of the metals in the
system. Most liquids cannot be expected to remain completely noncorrosive under severe
operating conditions. The degree of acidity of a liquid, when new, may be satisfactory; but after
use, the liquid may tend to become corrosive as it begins to deteriorate.
Certain corrosion and rust-preventive additives are added to hydraulic liquids. Some of these
additives are effective only for a limited period. Therefore, the best procedure is to use the liquid
specified for the system for the time specified by the system manufacturer and to protect the
liquid and the system as much as possible from contamination by foreign matter, from
abnormal temperatures, and from misuse.

16 | P a g e

Flashpoint is the temperature at which a liquid gives off vapour in sufficient quantity to ignite
momentarily or flash when a flame is applied. A high flashpoint is desirable for hydraulic liquids
because it provides good resistance to combustion and a low degree of evaporation at
normal temperatures. Required flashpoint minimums vary from 300F for the lightest oils to
510F for the heaviest oils.
Fire point is the temperature at which a substance gives off vapour in sufficient quantity
to ignite and continue to burn when exposed to a spark or flame. Like flashpoint, a high fire
point is required of desirable hydraulic liquids
Toxicity is defined as the quality, state, or degree of being toxic or poisonous. Some liquids
contain chemicals that are a serious toxic hazard. These toxic or poisonous chemicals may enter
the body through inhalation, by absorption through the skin, or through the eyes or the mouth.
The result is sickness and, in some cases, death. Manufacturers of hydraulic liquids strive to
produce suitable liquids that contain no toxic chemicals and, as a result, most hydraulic liquids
are free of harmful chemicals. Some fire-resistant liquids are toxic, and suitable protection
and care in handling must be provided. DENSITY AND COMPRESSIBILITY
A fluid with a specific gravity of less than 1.0is desired when weight is critical, although with
proper system design, a fluid with a specific gravity greater than one can be tolerated. Where
avoidance of detection by military units is desired, a fluid which sinks rather than rises to the
surface of the water is desirable. Fluids having a specific gravity greater than 1.0 are desired,
as leaking fluid will sink, allowing the vessel with the leak to remain undetected. Recall from
chapter 2 that under extreme pressure a fluid may be compressed up to 7 percent of its
original volume. Highly compressible fluids produce sluggish system operation. This does not
present a serious problem in small, low-speed operations, but it must be considered in the
operating instructions.
Cleanliness in hydraulic systems has received considerable attention recently. Some hydraulic
systems, such as aerospace hydraulic systems, are extremely sensitive

to

contamination.

Fluid cleanliness is of primary importance because contaminants can cause component

malfunction, prevent proper valve seating, cause wear in components, and may increase the
response time of servo valves. Fluid contaminants are discussed later. The inside of a hydraulic
17 | P a g e

system can only be kept as clean as the fluid added to it. Initial fluid cleanliness can be
achieved by observing stringent cleanliness requirements ( or by filtering all fluid added to
the system.

3.4 TYPES OF HYDRAULIC FLUIDS

There have been many liquids tested for use in hydraulic systems. Currently, liquids being used
include mineral oil, water, phosphate ester, water-based ethylene glycol compounds, and silicone
fluids.

The

three

most

common

Hydraulic
Fluids

Synthetic
fire
resistant

Petrolium
Based

water
based fireresistant

Types of hydraulic liquids are petroleum-based, synthetic fire-resistant, and water-based fireresistant.
The most common hydraulic fluids used in shipboard systems are the petroleum-based oils.
These fluids contain additives to protect the fluid from oxidation (antioxidant), to protect
system metals from corrosion (anticorrosion), to reduce tendency of the fluid to foam (foam
suppressant),and to improve viscosity. Petroleum-based fluids are used in surface ships
electro hydraulic steering and deck machinery systems, submarines hydraulic systems,
and aircraft automatic

pilots,

shock absorbers, brakes, control mechanisms, and other

hydraulic systems using seal materials compatible with petroleum-based fluids.

Petroleum-based oils contain most of the desired properties of a hydraulic liquid. However, they
are flammable under normal conditions and can become explosive when subjected to high
18 | P a g e

pressures and a source of flame or high temperatures. Non-flammable synthetic liquids have
been developed for use in hydraulic systems where fire hazards exist.
The most widely used water-based hydraulic fluids may be classified as water-glycol mixtures
and water-synthetic base mixtures. The water-glycol mixture contains additives to protect it
from oxidation, corrosion, and biological growth and to enhance its load-carrying capacity.
There-fore, frequent checks to maintain the correct ratio of water are important. The
water-based

fluid

used

in

catapult retracting

engines,

jet

blast

deflectors,

and

weapons elevators and handling systems conforms to MIL-H22072 .The safety precautions
outlined for phosphate ester fluid and the disposal of phosphate ester fluid also apply to
water-based fluid conforming to MIL-H-22072.

3.5 MULTIPLICATION OF FORCES

Consider the situation in figure 2-11, where the input piston is much smaller than the
output piston. Assume that the area of the input piston is 2square inches. With a resistant force
on the output piston a downward force of 20 pounds acting on the input piston creates a pressure
of 20/2 or 10 psi in the fluid. Although this force is much smaller than the force applied in
figures 2-9 and 2-10, the pressure is the same. This is because the force is applied to a smaller
area.

Figure 3.6Transmitting force through a small pipe

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This pressure of 10 psi acts on all parts of the fluid container, including the bottom of the output
piston. The upward force on the output piston is 200 pounds (10 pounds of pressure on
each square inch). In this case, the original force has been multiplied tenfold while using the
same pressure in the fluid as before. In any system with these dimensions, the ratio of output
force to input force is always ten to one, regardless of the applied force. For example, if the
applied force of the input piston is 50 pounds, the pressure in the system will be 25 psi. This
will support a resistant force of 500 pounds on the output piston.

Figure 3.7Multiplication of forces

3.6 How The Electromagnetic Crane Works:

An electromagnet is a type of magnet wherein the magnetic field is produced by electric current,
and the field disappears whenever the current is turned off. Electromagnets are being utilized in
everyday items, just like loudspeakers and doorbells. An electromagnetic crane has a large
electromagnet which can be turned on and off.
The electromagnet contains an iron core with a wire around it, and this wire is the medium by
which the current travels. The magnetic strength of an electromagnet relies on the number of
turns of the wire around the electromagnets core, the current through the wire and the size of the
iron core. Increasing these elements will result in an electromagnet which is significantly larger
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and stronger as compared to a natural magnet (which explains the enormous size of the cranes
magnet). Current in the coil causes a magneto motive force which causes magnetic flux to flow
from the centre of the magnet through air to the outer ring of the magnet. If a magnetic material,
i.e., iron, is placed near the flux path, a force is produced on it which wants to minimize the
reluctance of the magnetic path. Iron has less reluctance than air, and a short magnetic path has
less reluctance than a longer path. (Reluctance is like resistance in an electric current path but
applies to a magnetic path the less the reluctance, the more the flux, for a given magneto
motive force.)

.
Figure 3.8 Hydraulic crane

Figure 3.9- Electromagnetic Coil

CHAPTER 4
CONSTRUCTION & OPERATION OF HYDRAULIC ARM

4.1 CONSTRUCTION
Lets make a simple hydraulic arm! I designed this simple arm that's powered using syringes as
hydraulics.
We've also made a video so make sure to check that out!
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What we usedPlatform- we used a round table coaster

Rotating base- we used a CARD BOARD
Electro magnet, battery and switch - we got mine from the local electronics store
STEP 1: For the platform we used a circular table coaster as it was easy to punch pins/ nails in to.
The rotating base of the arm is made from a card board which we drilled a hole in the centre. We
used a pin and a paler bead (paler bead used as a spacer) to secure the base to the platform
allowing it to rotate.

STEP 2: I used two large plywood sticks. For the larger sticks I drilled two holes at the end that
were 1 inch apart. The holes need to be big enough for a nail to fit through. I also chopped of the
bottom of the lager sticks. Or the small sticks I drilled two holes at the end that were 1 and a half
inches apart and another hole at the other side.

STEP 3: I pieced together the first half of the arm as shown using nails and prepared the
hydraulics. I used small 1ml syringes as the hydraulics. I attached I paler bead to the top of each
hydraulic and a cable tidy to the tubing.
The slots in the paler bead and the cable tidy will allow the hydraulic to move freely. The first
hydraulic I glued the cable tidy near the top end of the tube and for the second hydraulic I flipped
it over and glued it near the bottom. I then slotted the hydraulics over the nails. I then pieced
together the other sticks on the other half of the arm.

STEP 4: I simply attached the arm to the rotating base using hot glue. I used a square aftershave
lid to give the arm some height to allow the hydraulic tubing to fit behind the arm. For the lifting
device I thought it would be cool to add an electro magnet so I purchased one from the local
electronics store. You can always make a dye electromagnet by coiling some wire around a metal
screw. I threaded the magnet to the end of the arm and tucked the wires towards the back.
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STEP 5: I glued an additional wire tidy to the edge of the tin. I prepared another syringe like the
others and nailed it to the platform using another paler bead as a spacer. I then coupled the
hydraulic to the base using a nail.

STEP 6: I used three lengths of 3mm tubing to connect the arm to the controller syringes. Filling
up the tube with water can be quite tricky. I pulled out the handle of the controller syringe and
sucked up water in to the tube and then held my finger over the syringe so the water would stay
in the line. I then attached the tube to the arm and then placed the handle back in to the other
syringe.
Once all the hydraulics were connected I wired up a battery and small switch to the magnet. I
also added rubber bands to the arm as shown to allow a better moment of the arm.

STEP 7: Use the syringes to control the arm and toggle the electro magnet on and off.

During the design of equipment that requires fluid power, many factors are considered in
selecting the type of system to be usedhydraulic, pneumatic, or a combination of the two.
Some of the factors are required speed and accuracy of operation, surrounding atmospheric
conditions, economic conditions, availability of replacement fluid, required pressure level,
operating temperature range, contamination possibilities, cost of transmission lines, limitations
of the equipment, lubricity, safety to the operators, and expected service life of the
equipment. After the type of system has been selected, many of these same factors must
be considered in selecting the fluid for the system. This chapter is devoted to hydraulic fluids.
Included in it are sections on the properties and characteristics desired of hydraulic fluids;
types of hydraulic fluids; hazards and safety precautions for working with, handling,

and

disposing of hydraulic liquids; types and control of contamination; and During the design
of equipment that requires fluid power, many factors are considered in selecting the type of

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system to be usedhydraulic, pneumatic, or a combination of the two. Some of the factors

are required speed and accuracy of operation, surrounding atmospheric conditions, economic
conditions, availability of replacement fluid, required pressure level, operating temperature
range, contamination possibilities, cost of transmission lines, limitations of the equipment,
lubricity, safety to the operators, and expected service life of the equipment. After the type
of system has been selected, many of these same factors must be considered in selecting
the fluid for the system. This chapter is devoted to hydraulic fluids. Included in it are sections
on the properties and characteristics desired of hydraulic fluids; types of hydraulic
fluids; hazards and safety precautions for working with, handling,

and

disposing

of

hydraulic liquids; types and control of contamination; and sampling.

A Hydraulic cylinder (also called a linear hydraulic motor) is a mechanical actuator that is used
to give a unidirectional force through a unidirectional stroke. It has many applications, notably
in engineering vehicles.
Hydraulic cylinders get their power from pressurized hydraulic fluid, which is typically oil. The
hydraulic cylinder consists of a cylinder barrel, in which a piston connected to a piston
rod moves back and forth. The barrel is closed on each end by the cylinder bottom (also called
the cap end) and by the cylinder head where the piston rod comes out of the cylinder. The piston
has sliding rings and seals. The piston divides the inside of the cylinder in two chambers, the
bottom chamber (cap end) and the piston rod side chamber (rod end). The hydraulic pressure acts
on the piston to do linear work and motion.
Flanges, turn-ons, and/or clevises are mounted to the cylinder body. The piston rod also has
mounting attachments to connect the cylinder to the object or machine component that it is
pushing.
A hydraulic cylinder is the actuator or "motor" side of this system. The "generator" side of the
hydraulic system is the hydraulic pump which brings in a fixed or regulated flow of oil to the
bottom side of the hydraulic cylinder, to move the piston rod upwards. The piston pushes the oil
in the other chamber back to the reservoir. If we assume that the oil pressure in the piston rod
chamber is approximately zero, the force F on the piston rod equals the pressure P in the cylinder
times the piston area A:

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The piston moves instead downwards if oil is pumped into the piston rod side chamber and
the oil from the piston area flows back to the reservoir without pressure. The fluid pressure in
the piston rod area chamber is (Pull Force) / (piston area - piston rod area):

Where P is the fluid pressure, Fp is the pulling force, AP is the piston face area and Ar is
the rod cross-section area.
A hydraulic cylinder consists of the following parts
Cylinder barrel
The cylinder barrel is mostly a seamless thick walled forged pipe that must be machined
internally. The cylinder barrel is ground and/or honed internally
Cylinder base or cap
In most hydraulic cylinders, the barrel and the bottom portion are welded together. This can
damage the inside of the barrel if done poorly. Therefore, some cylinder designs have a screwed
or flanged connection from the cylinder end cap to the barrel. (See "Tie rod cylinder", below) In
this type the barrel can be disassembled and repaired.
Cylinder head
The cylinder head is sometimes connected to the barrel with a sort of a simple lock (for simple
cylinders). In general, however, the connection is screwed or flanged. Flange connections are the
best, but also the most expensive. A flange has to be welded to the pipe before machining. The
advantage is that the connection is bolted and always simple to remove. For larger cylinder sizes,
the disconnection of a screw with a diameter of 300 to 600 mm is a huge problem as well as the
alignment during mounting.

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The piston is a short, cylindrical metal component that separates the two parts of the cylinder
barrel internally. The piston is usually machined with grooves to fit elastomeric or metal seals.
These seals are often O-rings, U-cups or cast iron rings. They prevent the pressurized hydraulic
oil from passing by the piston to the chamber on the opposite side. This difference in pressure
between the two sides of the piston causes the cylinder to extend and retract. Piston seals vary in
design and material according to the pressure and temperature requirements that the cylinder will
see in service. Generally speaking, elastomeric seals made from nitrile rubber or other materials
are best in lower temperature environments, while seals made of Viton are better for higher
temperatures. The best seals for high temperature are cast iron piston rings.
The piston rod is typically a hard chrome-plated piece of cold-rolled steel which attaches to the
piston and extends from the cylinder through the rod-end head. In double rod-end cylinders, the
actuator has a rod extending from both sides of the piston and out both ends of the barrel. The
piston rod connects the hydraulic actuator to the machine component doing the work. This
connection can be in the form of a machine thread or a mounting attachment, such as a rod-clevis
or rod-eye. These mounting attachments can be threaded or welded to the piston rod or, in some
cases, they are a machined part of the rod-end.
The cylinder head is fitted with seals to prevent the pressurized oil from leaking past the
interface between the rod and the head. This area is called the rod gland. It often has another seal
called a rod wiper which prevents contaminants from entering the cylinder when the extended
rod retracts back into the cylinder. The rod gland also has a rod wear ring. This wear ring acts as
a linear bearing to support the weight of the piston rod and guides it as it passes back and forth
through the rod gland. In some cases, especially in small hydraulic cylinders, the rod gland and
the rod wear ring are made from a single integral machined part.

Cylinder base connection

Seals

Cushions

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Figure 4.1 Hydraulic Cylinder

Single acting vs. double acting

Single acting cylinders are economical and the simplest design. Hydraulic fluid enters
through a port at one end of the cylinder, which then moves the piston to extend the rod. An
external force returns the piston to its normal position and forces the hydraulic fluid back
through the supply tubing to the fluid reservoir.

Double acting cylinders have a port at each end, supplied with hydraulic fluid for both the
retraction and extension of the piston. They are used where an external force is not available
to retract the piston or where high force is required in both directions of travel.

A hydraulic cylinder should be used for pushing and pulling only. No bending moments or side
loads should be transmitted to the piston rod or the cylinder to prevent rapid failure of the rod
seals. For this reason, the ideal connection of a hydraulic cylinder is a single clevis with a
spherical ball bearing. This allows the hydraulic actuator to move and allow for any
misalignment between the actuator and the load it is pushing.
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In our project we have used Syringes working as hydraulic cylinders.

Figure 4.2 Syringe

Figure 4.3 Control panel of syringe

FLUID LINES AND FITTINGS

The control and application of fluid power would be impossible without suitable means of
transferring the fluid between the reservoir, the power source, and the points of application. Fluid
lines are used to transfer the fluid, and fittings are used to connect the lines to the power
source and the points of application.
TYPES

OF

LINES

Three types of lines is used in this system are pipe (rigid), tubing (semi rigid) and
hose (flexible).
There are number of factors are considered while selecting the line for particular system. These
factors include the type of fluid. Required system pressure and the location of the system.
For example, heavy pipe might be used for a large stationary fluid power system, but
comparatively light weight tubing must be used in aircraft and missile systems because
weight and space are critical factors. Flexible hose is required in installations where units
must be free to move relative
The material, ID, and wall thickness are the three primary considerations in the selection
of lines for a particular fluid power system. The ID of a line is important, since it
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determines how much fluid can pass through the line in a given time period (rate of
flow)without loss of power due to excessive friction and heat. The velocity of a given
flow is less through a large opening than through a small opening. If the ID of the line is
too small for the amount of flow, excessive turbulence and friction heat cause unnecessary power
loss and overheated fluid.
Sizing of Pipes and Tubing
Pipes are available in three different weights: standard (STD), or Schedule 40; extra
strong(XS), or Schedule 80; and double extra strong(XXS).

The schedule

numbers

range from 10to 160 and cover 10 distinct sets of wall thickness. (See table 5-1.)
Schedule 160 wall thickness is slightly thinner than the double extra strong. As mentioned
earlier, the size of pipes is determined by the nominal (approximate) ID. For example, the ID for
a 1/4-inch Schedule 40 pipe is 0.364 inch, and the ID for a 1/2-inch Schedule40 pipe is 0.622
inch. It is important to note that the IDs of all pipes of the same nominal size are not equal. This
is because the OD remains constant and the wall thickness increases as the schedule
number increases. For example, a nominal size 1-inchSchedule 40 pipe has a 1.049 ID. The
same size Schedule 80 pipe has a 0.957 ID, while Schedule.

Table 4-1.Wall Thickness Schedule Designations for Pipe

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160 pipe has a 0.815 ID. In each case the OD is1.315 (table 5-1) and the wall thicknesses are,
0.179(1.3159.957)
2

and

0.250(1.3150.815)
2

respectively.

The pipe and tubing used in fluid power systems are commonly made from steel, copper, brass,
aluminium, and stainless steel. Each of these metals has its own distinct advantages or
disadvantages in certain applications. Steel pipe and tubing are relatively in expensive and are
used in many hydraulic and pneumatic systems. Steel is used because of its strength,
suitability for bending and flanging, and adaptability to high pressures and temperatures .Its
chief disadvantage is its comparatively low resistance to corrosion. Copper pipe and tubing
are sometimes used for fluid power lines. Copper has high resistance to corrosion and is easily
drawn or bent. However ,it is unsatisfactory for high temperatures and has a tendency to
harden and break due to stress and vibration. Aluminium has many of the characteristics and
qualities required for fluid power lines. It has high resistance to corrosion and is easily drawn or
bent. In addition, it has the outstanding characteristic of light weight. Since weight elimination
is a vital factor in the design of aircraft, aluminium alloy tubing is used in the majority
of aircraft fluid power systems.
Therefore

in

maintenance

and repair of fluid power system lines, the basic design

requirements must be kept in mind. Two primary requirements are as follows:

1. The lines must have the correct ID to provide the required volume and velocity of flow
with the least amount of turbulence during all demands on the system.
2. The lines must be made of the proper material and have the wall thickness to provide
sufficient strength to both contain the fluid at the required pressure and withstand the surges
of pressure that may develop in the system.
In our project we have used three
sections of clear 1/8 I.D. Vinyl tubing
of different lengths.
75 cm (~29.5)
75 cm (~29.5)
110 cm (~43.5)
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Figure 4.3Control Panel of Syringes

4.2 APPLICATIONS
Specific applications are:
T h e m a c h i n e w i l l b e o f g r e a t u s e t o perform repetitive tasks of
p i c k i n g a n d placing of small parts (up to 500 gems) in an industrial production line.
31 | P a g e

 Its use can be extended and exploited b y f e w m o d i f i c a t i o n s t o d o d i f f i c u l t

a n d hazardous tasks for nuclear applications.
As a basic tool for automation.
I t c a n b e u s e d t o d o s m a l l a s s e m b l y work effectively due to its great
a d d e d accuracy for placement of parts.

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CHAPTER 5
CONCLUSION AND SCOPE OF WORK

5.1 CONCLUSION:
Our design uses extremely simple ideas and mechanisms to achieve a complex set of actions and
is intended to imitate the actions of the operators. However, these hydraulic arms are expensive
for small scale industries. If the major problem of high initial cost is addressed, a robotic
hydraulic arm can be introduced in any industry to bring in automation. The mechanical links
and parts that have been fabricated are extremely simple.
That Hydraulic Arm will

Reach the greatest distance to deliver a given object.

Pick up the heaviest possible object.
Deliver the most objects in a given amount of time.
Function in an assembly line.
Have a system to weigh the object it picks up.
Battle against another arm for an object.
Rotate as well as reach and grab.
Dig and recover objects.

5.2 SCOPE OF WORK

Hydraulic pumps supply fluid to the components in the system. Pressure in the system
develops in reaction to the load. Hence, a pump rated for 5,000 psi is capable of
maintaining flow against a load of 5,000 psi. Pumps have a power density about ten times
greater than an electric motor (by volume). They are powered by an electric motor or an
engine, connected through gears, belts, or a flexible elastomeric coupling to reduce
vibration.
Hydraulic machines are machinery and tools that use liquid fluid power to do simple
work. Heavy equipment is a common example. In this type of machine, hydraulic fluid is
transmitted throughout the machine to various hydraulic motors and hydraulic cylinders
and which becomes pressurised according to the resistance present.
If a hydraulic rotary pump with the displacement 10 cc/rev is connected to a hydraulic
rotary motor with 100 cc/rev, the shaft torque required to drive the pump is 10 times less
33 | P a g e

than the torque available at the motor shaft, but the shaft speed (rev/min) for the motor is
10 times less than the pump shaft speed. This combination is actually the same type of
force multiplication as the cylinder just that the linear force in this case is a rotary force,
defined as torque.\

REFERENCES:
http://sciencekit.com/teacher-geek-hydraulics-pneumatics/c/1091955/
http://enginemechanics.tpub.com/14105/
http://www.howstuffworks.com/transport/engines-equipment/hydraulic.htm
A text book of Fluid Mechanics by R.K. Bansal.

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