Seismic Methods: Refraction

(see also http://www.mines.edu/fs_home/tboyd/GP311/MODULES/SEIS/main.html)n

Fundamentals of Seismic
Waves
Q. What is a seismic wave?

Fundamentals of Seismic
Waves
Q. What is a seismic wave?
A.

Transfer of energy by way of

particle motion.

Different types of seismic waves are

characterized by their particle motion.

Seismic Waves

Three different types of

seismic waves

P
Body
S

Compressional (p) wave

Shear (s) wave

Surface (Love and Raleigh) wave

Love
Only p and s waves (collectively referred to
as body waves) are of interest
in seismic refraction.

Surface
Rayleigh

Compressional (p) Wave

Shear (s) Wave

Identical to sound wave particle

Particle motion is perpendicular

motion is parallel to propagation

to propagation direction.

direction.

Animation courtesy Larry Braile, Purdue University

Animation courtesy Larry Braile, Purdue University

Velocity of Seismic Waves

Seismic Wave Speeds

Depends on density elastic moduli

Material

P wave Velocity (m/s)

S wave Velocity (m/s)

Air

332

Water

1400-1500

Petroleum

1300-1400

Steel

6100

3500

Concrete

3600

2000

Granite

5500-5900

2800-3000

Basalt

6400

3200

Sandstone

1400-4300

700-2800

Limestone

5900-6100

2800-3000

Sand (Unsaturated)

200-1000

80-400

Sand (Saturated)

800-2200

320-880

Clay

1000-2500

400-1000

Glacial Till (Saturated)

1500-2500

600-1000

Velocity of Seismic Waves

Bulk modulus = resistance to
compression = incompressibility

Vp

4
3

Vs

where K = bulk modulus, = shear

modulus, and = density.

Q. What is the rigidity of

water?

Shear modulus = resistance to

shear = rigidity
The less compressible a material is, the
greater its p-wave velocity, i.e., sound
travels about four times faster in water
than in air. The more resistant a material
is to shear, the greater its shear wave
velocity.

Q. What is the rigidity of

water?

Q. How well does water carry shear

waves?

A. Water has no rigidity. Its shear

strength is zero.

Q. How well does water

carry shear waves?
A. It doesnt.

Fluids do not carry shear waves. This

knowledge, combined with earthquake
observations, is what lead to the
discovery that the earths outer core is
a liquid rather than a solid shear
wave shadow.

p-wave velocity vs. s-wave

velocity
p-wave velocity must always be
greater than s-wave velocity. Why?

K
2

Vp

Vs 2

Velocity density paradox

Q. We know that in practice, velocity
tends to be directly proportional to
density. Yet density is in the
denominator. How is that possible?

4
3

4
3

K and are always positive numbers, so Vp

is always greater than Vs.

Velocity density paradox

Q. We know that in practice, velocity
tends to be directly proportional to
density. Yet density is in the
denominator. How is that possible?
A. Elastic moduli tend to increase with density also, and at a faster
rate.

Velocity density paradox

Note: Elastic moduli are
important parameters for
understanding rock
properties and how they
will behave under various
conditions. They help
engineers assess
suitability for founding
dams, bridges, and other
critical structures such as
hospitals and schools.
Measuring p- and s-wave
velocities can help
determine these
properties indirectly and
non-destructively.

Q. How do we use seismic

waves to understand the
subsurface?

Q. How do we use seismic

waves to understand the
subsurface?
A. Must first understand wave
behavior in layered media.

Q. What happens when a seismic

wave encounters a velocity
discontinuity?

Q. What happens when a seismic

wave encounters a velocity
discontinuity?

A. Some of the energy is

reflected, some is refracted.
We are only interested in refracted energy!!

Q. What happens when a seismic

wave encounters a velocity
discontinuity?

Five important concepts

Q. What is a seismic
wavefront?

Seismic Wavefront
Ray
Huygens Principle
Snells Law
Reciprocity

Q. What is a seismic
wavefront?
A. Surface of constant phase, like
ripples on a pond, but in three
dimensions.

Q. What is a seismic
wavefront?

Seismic wavefront

The speed at which a wavefront

travels is the seismic velocity of
the material, and depends on the
materials elastic properties. In a
homogenious medium, a
wavefront is spherical, and its
shape is distorted by changes in
the seismic velocity.

Q. What is a ray?

Q. What is a ray?

Ray

A. Also referred to as a wavefront

normal a ray is an arrow
perpendicular to the wave front,
indicating the direction of travel at
that point on the wavefront. There
are an infinite number of rays on a
wave front.

Huygens' Principle
Every point on a wave front can be
thought of as a new point source for
waves generated in the direction the
wave is traveling or being propagated.

Q. What causes
refraction?

Q. What causes
refraction?
A. Different portions of the
wave front reach the velocity
boundary earlier than other
portions, speeding up or
slowing down on contact,
causing distortion of wave
front.

Understanding and
Quantifying How Waves
Refract is Essential

10

Snells Law

Snells Law

(1)

If V2>V1, then as i increases, r

increases faster

Snells Law

Snells Law

sin i V 1

sin r V 2

r approaches 90o as i increases

Critical Refraction
At Critical Angle of incidence ic, angle of
refraction r = 90o
sin(ic) V 1

sin 90 V 2
sin( ic)

V1
V2

(2)

V1
V2

(3)

ic sin 1

11

Snells Law
Critical Refraction
At Critical Angle of incidence ic, angle of
refraction r = 90o

Snells Law
Critical Refraction
Seismic refraction makes use of
critically refracted, first-arrival
energy only. The rest of the wave
form is ignored.

Snells Law
Critical Refraction
At Critical Angle of incidence ic, angle of
refraction r = 90o

Principal of
Reciprocity
The travel time of seismic energy between
two points is independent of the direction
traveled, i.e., interchanging the source and
the geophone will not affect the seismic
travel time between the two.

12

Using Seismic Refraction to

Map the Subsurface

T 1 x /V 1
T2

ac cd df

V1 V 2 V1

ac df

Critical Refraction Plays a Key

Role

h
cos(ic)

bc de h tan(ic)
cd x bc de x 2h tan(ic)

T2

2h
x 2h tan(ic)

V 1 cos(ic )
V2

T2

2h
2h tan(ic) x

V 1 cos(ic )
V2
V2

1
sin(ic) x
T 2 2h

V 1 cos(ic ) V 2 cos(ic) V 2

V2
V 1 sin(ic) x

T 2 2h

V 1V 2 cos(ic ) V 1V 2 cos(ic) V 2
V 2 V 1 sin(ic) x
T 2 2h

V 1V 2 cos(ic) V 2
V2

sin(ic)

T 2 2hV 1 V 1
V 1V 2 cos(ic ) V 2

sin ic

V1
V2

(Snells Law)

sin(ic )

sin(ic )
x
T 2 2hV 1
V 1V 2 cos(ic) V 2

x
1 sin 2 (ic)

T 2 2hV 1
V 1V 2 sin(ic) cos(ic) V 2

x
cos 2 (ic)
T 2 2hV 1

V 1V 2 sin(ic) cos(ic) V 2
cos(ic) x

T 2 2h
V 2 sin(ic) V 2

From Snells Law,

V 1 V 2 sin(ic)

T2

2h cos(ic) x

V1
V2

(4)

13

Using Seismic Refraction to

Map the Subsurface

Using Seismic Refraction to

Map the Subsurface

Using Seismic Refraction to

Map the Subsurface

Using Seismic Refraction to

Map the Subsurface

14

Using Seismic Refraction to

Map the Subsurface

Using Seismic Refraction to

Map the Subsurface

Using Seismic Refraction to

Map the Subsurface

Using Seismic Refraction to

Map the Subsurface

15

Using Seismic Refraction to

Map the Subsurface

Using Seismic Refraction to

Map the Subsurface

Using Seismic Refraction to

Map the Subsurface

Using Seismic Refraction to

Map the Subsurface

16

Using Seismic Refraction to

Map the Subsurface

Using Seismic Refraction to

Map the Subsurface

Using Seismic Refraction to

Map the Subsurface

Using Seismic Refraction to

Map the Subsurface

17

Using Seismic Refraction to

Map the Subsurface

Using Seismic Refraction to

Map the Subsurface

Using Seismic Refraction to

Map the Subsurface

Using Seismic Refraction to

Map the Subsurface

Depth

Xc V 2 V 1
2 V 2 V1

(5)

Depth

18

Summary of Important
Equations

Using Seismic Refraction to

Map the Subsurface

sin i V 1

sin r V 2
Xc V 2 V 1

Depth
2 V 2 V1
For layer parallel to
surface

Depth

Ti V 1
2 cos(sin 1

V1
)
V2

For refractor
parallel to surface

(1) Snells Law

T2

(6)
sin(ic)

ic sin 1

V1
V2
V1
V2

2h cos(ic) x

V1
V2

(4)

Xc V 2 V 1
2 V 2 V1

(5)

(2)
h

(3)

h1

TiV 1
1 V 1
2 cos sin

V2

(6)

Ti 2V 1
2 cos(sin 1

V1
)
V2

19

h2

cos(sin 1 V 1 / V 3)
Ti 3 Ti 2
V 2

cos(sin 1 V 1 / V 2)
h1
2 cos(sin 1 V 2 / V 3)

Crossover Distance vs.

Depth

cos(sin 1 V 1 / V 4) 2h 2 cos(sin 1 2 / V 4)
Ti 4 Ti 2 cos(sin 1 V 1 / V 2)
V 3
V2

h1 h 2
h3
2 cos(sin 1 V 3 / V 4)

Depth/Xc vs. Velocity

Contrast

20

Important Rule of Thumb

The Length of the Geophone
Spread Should be 4-5 times
the depth of interest.

Dipping Layer
Defined as Velocity Boundary
that is not Parallel to Ground Surface
You should always do a minimum
of one shot at either end the
spread. A single shot at one end
does not tell you anything about
dip, and if the layer(s) is dipping,
your depth and velocity calculated
from a single shot will be wrong.

Dipping Layer

Dipping Layer

If layer is dipping (relative to ground

surface), opposing travel time curves
will be asymmetrical.
Updip shot apparent velocity > true velocity
Downdip shot apparent velocity < true velocity

21

Dipping Layer
V 1md sin(ic )
V 1mu sin(ic )

Dipping Layer
From Snells Law,

V2

V1
sin(ic)

Du

V 1Tiu
2 cos(ic )
cos

ic sin 1 V 1md
ic sin 1 V 1mu

1
ic (sin 1 V 1md sin 1 V 1mu )
2

1
2

(sin 1 V 1md sin 1 V 1mu )

Dipping Layer

V 1Tid
2 cos(ic )
Dd
cos

What if V2 < V1?

The true velocity V2 can also be calculated

by multiplying the harmonic mean of the updip and down-dip velocities by the cosine of
the dip.

2V 2UV 2 D
V2
cos
V 2U V 2 D

22

What if V2 < V1?

Snells Law

sin i V 1

sin r V 2

What if V2 < V1?

If V1>V2, then as i increases, r
increases, but not as fast.

What if V2 < V1?

Snells Law

sin i V 1

sin r V 2

If V2<V1, the energy

refracts toward the normal.
None of the refracted energy
makes it back to the surface.
This is called a velocity inversion.

23

Seismic Refraction requires

that velocities increase
with depth.
A slower layer beneath a
faster layer will not be
detected by seismic refraction.
The presence of a velocity inversion can
lead to errors in depth calculations.

24

25

Delay Time Method

Delay Time Method

x

Allows Calculation of Depth

Beneath Each Geophone
V1

Requires refracted arrival at each

geophone from opposite directions

V2

Requires offset shots

Data redundancy is important

Delay Time Method

Delay Time Method

V1

V1

V2

V2

TAB

hA
AB hA tan(ic) hB tan(ic)
hB

V 1 cos(ic) V 2
V2
V2
V 1 cos(ic)

TAB

hA
AB hA tan(ic) hB tan(ic)
hB

V 1 cos(ic) V 2
V2
V2
V 1 cos(ic)

TAP

hA
AP hA tan(ic) hP tan(ic)
hP

V 1 cos(ic) V 2
V2
V2
V 1 cos(ic)

26

Delay Time Method

Delay Time Method

V1

V1

V2

V2

hA
AB hA tan(ic) hB tan(ic)
hB
TAB

V 1 cos(ic) V 2
V2
V2
V 1 cos(ic)

Definition:

hA
AP hA tan(ic) hP tan(ic)
hP
TAP

V 1 cos(ic) V 2
V2
V2
V 1 cos(ic)

t 0 TAP TBP TAB

(7)

hB
BP hB tan(ic) hP tan(ic)
hP
TBP

V 1 cos(ic) V 2
V2
V2
V 1 cos(ic)

t 0 TAP TBP TAB

hA
BP hB tan(ic) hP tan(ic)
hP
AP hA tan(ic) hP tan(ic)
hP hB

t0

V2
V2
V 1 cos(ic)
V2
V2
V 1 cos(ic) V 1 cos(ic) V 2
V 1 cos(ic) V 2

hA
AB hA tan(ic) hB tan(ic)
hB

V2
V2
V 1 cos(ic)
V 1 cos(ic) V 2

But from figure above, AB AP BP. Substituting, we get

t0

AP BP AB
2hp
2hP tan(ic)

V2
V 1 cos(ic)
V2

t0

AP BP AP BP
2hp
2hP tan(ic)

V2
V 1 cos(ic)
V2
or

2hp
2hP tan(ic)
t0

V 1 cos(ic)
V2

27

sin(ic)
sin ic

V 1V 2 cos(ic )
V 1V 2 cos(ic )

1
sin(ic)

V 2 cos(ic)
V 1 cos(ic )

t 0 2hp

t 0 2hpV 1

V2
V 1 sin(ic)

t 0 2h

V 1V 2 cos(ic) V 1V 2 cos(ic)

t 0 2hpV

t 0 2hpV 1

V2
sin(ic)
V1

V 1V 2 cos(ic) V 1V 2 cos(i )

1
sin 2 (ic)

V 1V 2 sin(ic) cos(ic) V 1V 2 sin(ic) cos(ic)

t 0 2hpV 1

Substituting from Snells Law, sin ic V 1

cos 2 (ic)

V 1V 2 sin(ic) cos(ic)

V2

t 0 2hp

sin(ic)
sin ic

V 1V 2 cos(ic )
V 1V 2 cos(ic )

t 0 2hp

t 0 2hpV 1

Multiplying top and bottom by sin(i c)

cos(ic)

V 2 sin(ic)
cos(ic)

V 2 sin(ic)

Substituting from Snells Law,

V1

sin ic
V2

We get

t0

2hp cos(ic)
V1

(8)

Delay time at point P DTP

to 2hp cos(ic) hp cos(ic)

2
2V 1
V1

(9)

28

Reduced Traveltimes

Reduced Traveltimes

Definition:
TAP = Reduced Traveltime at point P for a source at A

From the above figure, TAP is also equal to TAP minus

the Delay Time. From equation 9, we then get

TAP=TAP
Reduced traveltimes are useful for determining V 2. A
plot of T vs. x will be roughly linear, mostly unaffected
by changes in layer thickness, and the slope will be
1/V2.

Reduced Traveltimes

T ' AP TAP DTP TAP

to
2

Reduced Traveltimes

Finally, rearranging yields

T ' AP

TAB TAP TBP

2
2

(11)

The above equation allows a graphical determination of the T

curve. TAB is called the reciprocal time.

Earlier, we defined to as

t 0 TAP TBP TAB

(7)

Substituting, we get

T ' AP TAP

to
TAP TBP TAB
TAP
2
2

(10)

29

Reduced Traveltimes
T ' AP

TAB TAP TBP

2
2

The first term is represented by the dotted line below:

Reduced Traveltimes
T ' AP

TAB TAP TBP

2
2

Important: The second term only applies to refracted arrivals. It

does not apply outside the zone of overlap, shown in yellow
below.

Reduced Traveltimes
T ' AP

TAB TAP TBP

2
2

The numerator of the second term is just the difference in the

traveltimes from points A to P and B to P.

Reduced Traveltimes
T ' AP

TAB TAP TBP

2
2

The T (reduced traveltime) curve can now be determined graphically

by adding (TAP-TBP)/2 (second term from equation 9) to the TAB/2 line
(first term from equation 9). The slope of the T curve is 1/V 2.

30

We can now calculate the delay time at point P. From Equation 10,
we see that

T ' AP TAP

to
2

TAP

(10)

2hp cos(ic) x

V1
V2

(13)

Combining equations 12 and 13, we get

According to equation 8

to hp cos(ic)

2
V1

So

Its fair to say that

T ' AP TAP

t0
hp cos(ic)
TAP
2
V1

(8)
T ' AP TAP

(12)

Now, referring back to equation 4

Or

2h cos(ic) x
T2

V1
V2

(4)

Referring back to equation 9, we see that

DTp

hp cos(ic) 2hp cos(ic) x hp cos(ic)

V1
V1
V2
V1

hp cos(ic)
V1

T ' AP

hp cos(ic) x

V1
V2

(14)

We know that the incident angle i is critical when r is 90o .

From Snells Law,

(9)

sin i V 1

sin r V 2

Substituting into equation 14, we get

T ' AP

sin ic V 1

sin 90 V 2

hp cos(ic) x
x

DTp
V1
V2
V2

Or

DTp T ' AP

x
V2

(15)

DTPV 1
cos(ic)

V1
V2

V1
ic sin 1
V 2

Solving equation 9 for h p, we get

hP

sin ic

(16)

31

Substituting back into equation 16,

hp

DTpV 1
cos(ic)

(16)

In summary, to determine the

depth to the refractor h at any
given point p:

we get

hp

DTpV 1

V 1
cos sin 1
V 2

(17)

1.Measure V1 directly from the

traveltime plot.

2.Measure the difference in traveltime

to point P from opposing shots (in
zone of overlap only).

32

3.Measure the reciprocal time TAB.

4. Per equation 11, T ' AP

TAB TAP TBP

2
2

divide the reciprocal time TAB by 2.

TAB TAP TBP

,
5. Per equation 11, T ' AP 2
2
add the difference time at each
point P to TAB/2 to get the reduced
traveltime at P, TAP.

6. Fit a line to the reduced

traveltimes, compute V2 from slope.

33

7. Using equation 15,

DTp T ' AP

8. Using equation 17,

x
V2

(15)

Calculate the Delay Time DT at

P1, P2, P3.PN

hp

DTpV 1

V 1
cos sin 1
V 2

(16)

Calculate the Depth h at P1, P2,

P3.PN

Thats all there is to it!

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36

More Data is Better Than Less

More Data is Better Than Less

37

More Data is Better Than Less

More Data is Better Than Less

More Data is Better Than Less

More Data is Better Than Less

38

More Data is Better Than Less

More Data is Better Than Less

More Data is Better Than Less

More Data is Better Than Less

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