MNL-133-97 ch8 8

CHAPTER 8
PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DESIGN THEORY AND PROCEDURE
NOTATION
8.0
AASHTO SPECIFICATION REFERENCES
8.1
PRINCIPLES AND ADVANTAGES OF PRESTRESSING

8.1.1 History
8.1.2 High Strength Steel
8.1.3 Prestressing Versus Conventional Reinforcing
8.1.4 Concrete to Steel Bond
8.2
FLEXURE
8.2.1 Allowable Stress Design (ASD)
8.2.1.1 Theory
8.2.1.1.1 Stage 1 Loading
8.2.1.1.5.1 Tensile Stresses - Normal Strength Concrete
8.2.1.1.5.2 Tensile Stresses - High Strength Concrete
8.2.1.1.5.3 Tensile Stresses - LRFD Specifications
8.2.1.2 Allowable Concrete Stresses
8.2.1.2.1 Standard Specifications
8.2.1.2.2 LRFD Specifications
8.2.1.3 Design Procedure
8.2.1.4 Composite Section Properties
8.2.1.4.1 Theory
8.2.1.4.2 Procedure
8.2.1.5 Harped Strand Considerations
8.2.1.6 Debonded Strand Considerations
8.2.1.7 Minimum Strand Cover and Spacing
8.2.1.8 Design Example
8.2.1.8.1 Design Requirement 1
8.2.1.8.3.1 Strand Debonding
8.2.1.8.3.2 Harped Strands
8.2.1.8.3.3 Other Methods to Control Stresses
8.2.1.9 Fatigue
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8.2.2 Flexural Strength Design
8.2.2.1 Theory
8.2.2.2 Standard Specifications
8.2.2.2.1 Ultimate Moment Capacity
8.2.2.2.1.1 Required Parameters
8.2.2.2.1.2 Rectangular Section
8.2.2.2.1.3 Flanged Section
8.2.2.2.2 Maximum Reinforcement Limit
8.2.2.2.3 Minimum Reinforcement Limit
8.2.2.3 LRFD Specifications
8.2.2.3.1 Nominal Flexural Resistance
8.2.2.3.1.1 Required Parameters
8.2.2.3.1.2 Rectangular Sections
8.2.2.3.1.3 Flanged Sections
8.2.2.3.2 Maximum Reinforcement Limit
8.2.2.3.3 Minimum Reinforcement Limit
8.2.2.4 Flexural Strength Design Example
8.2.2.4.1.1 Standard Specifications
8.2.2.4.1.2 LRFD Specifications
8.2.2.5 Strain Compatibility Approach
8.2.2.6 Design Example - Strain Compatibility
8.2.2.6.1 Part l - Flexural Capacity
8.2.2.6.2 Part 2 - Comparative Results
8.2.3 Design of Negative Moment Regions for Members Made Continuous for Live
Loads
8.2.3.1 Strength Design
8.2.3.2 Reinforcement Limits - Standard Specifications
8.2.3.3 Reinforcement Limits - LRFD Specifications
8.2.3.4 Serviceability
8.2.3.5 Fatigue in Deck Reinforcement
8.3
STRAND TRANSFER AND DEVELOPMENT LENGTHS

8.3.1 Strand Transfer Length
8.3.1.1 Impact on Design
8.3.1.2 Specifications
8.3.1.3 Factors Affecting Transfer Length
8.3.1.4 Research Results
8 3.1.5 Recommendations
8.3.1.6 End Zone Reinforcement
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8.3.2 Strand Development Length
8.3.2.1 Impact on Design
8.3.2.4 Factors Affecting Development Length
8.3.2.5 Bond Studies
8.3.2.6 Recommendations
8.4
SHEAR
8.4.1 Standard Specifications
8.4.1.1 Flexure-Shear Strength, Vci
8.4.1.2 Web-Shear Strength, Vcw
8.4.1.3 Web Reinforcement Contribution, Vs
8.4.1.3.1 Minimum Spacing Requirements
8.4.1.3.2 Minimum Shear Reinforcement
8.4.1.4 Application of Standard Specifications to Continuous Spans
8.4.2 1979 Interim Revisions
8.4.3 LRFD Specifications
8.4.3.1 Shear Design Provisions
8.4.3.1.1 Nominal Shear Resistance
8.4.3.1.2 Concrete Contribution, Vc
8.4.3.1.3 Web Reinforcement Contribution, Vs
8.4.3.1.4 Values of and
8.4.3.2 Design Procedure
8.4.3.3 Longitudinal Reinforcement Requirement
8.4.4 Comparison of Shear Design Methods
8.5
HORIZONTAL INTERFACE SHEAR

8.5.1 Theory
8.5.2 Standard Specifications
8.5.3 LRFD Specifications
8.5.4 Comparison of Design Specifications
8.6
LOSS OF PRESTRESS
8.6.1 Introduction
8.6.2 Definition
8.6.3 Significance of Losses on Design
8.6.4 Effects of Estimation of Losses
8.6.4.1 Effects at Transfer
8.6.4.2 Effect on Production Costs
8.6.4.3 Effect on Camber
8.6.4.4 Effect of Underestimating Losses
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.6.5 Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage and Relaxation Material Properties
8.6.5.1 Prediction of Creep Coefficient of Concrete
8.6.5.1.1 Creep Modification Factors
8.6.5.1.2 Modification Factors for Strength
8.6.5.1.3 Example
8.6.5.2 Prediction of Shrinkage Coefficient of Concrete
8.6.5.2.1 Shrinkage Modification Factors
8.6.5.2.2 Modification Factors for Strength
8.6.5.2.3 Example
8.6.5.3 Prediction of Relaxation of the Prestressing Steel
8.6.6 Methods for Estimating Losses
8.6.7 Elastic Shortening Loss
8.6.7.1 Computation of Elastic Shortening Loss
8.6.7.2 Elastic Shortening Example
8.6.8 Losses from the Standard Specifications
8.6.8.1 Shrinkage Loss
8.6.8.2 Elastic Shortening Loss
8.6.8.3 Creep Loss
8.6.8.4 Steel Relaxation Loss
8.6.8.5 Lump Sum Losses
8.6.9 Standard Specifications Example
8.6.10 Losses from the LRFD Specifications
8.6.10.1 Elastic Shortening Loss
8.6.10.2 Shrinkage and Creep Losses
8.6.10.3 Steel Relaxation Loss
8.6.10.4 Washington State Study
8.6.11 LRFD Specifications Example
8.6.12 Losses by the Tadros Method
8.6.12.1 Tadros Method Example
8.7
CAMBER AND DEFLECTION

8.7.1 Multiplier Method
8.7.2 Improved Multiplier Method
8.7.3 Examples
8.7.3.1 Multiplier Method Example
8.7.3.2 Improved Multiplier Method Example
8.7.4 Camber and Deflection Estimates Using Numerical Integration
8.7.4.1 Numerical Integration Example
8.8
DECK SLAB DESIGN

8.8.1 Introduction
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.8.2 Design of Bridge Decks Using Precast Panels
8.8.2.1 Determining Prestress Force
8.8.2.2 Service Load Stresses and Flexural Strength
8.8.2.3.1 Minimum Thickness
8.8.2.3.2 Live Load
8.8.2.3.3 Reinforcement Requirements
8.8.2.3.4 Shear Design
8.8.2.3.5 Crack Control
8.8.2.4.1 LRFD Specifications Refined Analysis
8.8.2.4.2 LRFD Specifications Strip Method
8.8.2.4.2.1 Minimum Thickness
8.8.2.4.2.2 Minimum Concrete Cover
8.8.2.4.2.3 Live Load
8.8.2.4.2.4 Location of Critical Sections
8.8.2.4.2.5 Design Criteria
8.8.2.4.2.6 Reinforcement Requirements
8.8.2.4.2.7 Shear Design
8.8.2.4.2.8 Crack Control
8.8.3 Other Precast Bridge Deck Systems
8.8.3.1 Continuous Precast Concrete SIP Panel System, NUDECK
8.8.3.1.1 Description of NUDECK
8.8.3.2 Full-Depth Precast Concrete Panels
8.8.4 LRFD Specifications Empirical Design Method
8.9
TRANSVERSE DESIGN OF ADJACENT BOX BEAM BRIDGES

8.9.1 Background
8.9.1.1 Current Practice
8.9.1.2 Ontario Bridge Design Code Procedure
8.9.2 Empirical Design
8.9.2.1 Tie System
8.9.2.2 Production
8.9.2.3 Installation
8.9.3 Suggested Design Procedure
8.9.3.1 Transverse Diaphragms
8.9.3.2 Longitudinal Joints Between Beams
8.9.3.3 Tendons
8.9.3.4 Modeling and Loads for Analysis
8.9.3.5 Post-Tensioning Design Chart
8.9.3.6 Design Method
8.9.3.7 Design Example
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
8.9.4 Lateral Post-Tensioning Detailing for Skewed Bridges
8.10
8.11
8.12
LATERAL STABILITY OF SLENDER MEMBERS

8.10.1 Introduction
8.10.1.1 Hanging Beams
8.10.1.2 Beams Supported from Beneath
8.10.2 Suggested Factors of Safety
8.10.2.1 Conditions Affecting FSc
8.10.2.2 Effects of Creep and Impact
8.10.2.3 Effects of Overhangs
8.10.2.4 Increasing the Factor of Safety
8.10.3 Measuring Roll Stiffness of Vehicles
8.10.4 Bearing Pads
8.10.5 Wind Loads
8.10.6 Temporary King-Post Bracing
8.10.7 Lateral Stability Examples
8.10.7.1 Hanging Beam Example
8.10.7.2 Supported Beam Example
BENDING MOMENTS AND SHEAR FORCES DUE TO
VEHICULAR LIVE LOADS
8.11.1 HS20 Truck Loading
8.11.2 Lane Loading, 0.640 kip/ft
8.11.3 Fatigue Truck Loading
STRUT-AND-TIE MODELING OF DISTURBED REGIONS
8.12.1 Introduction
8.12.2 Strut-and-Tie Models
8.12.2.1 Truss Geometry Layout
8.12.2.2 Nodal Zone and Member Dimensions
8.12.2.3 Strengths of Members
8.12.3 LRFD Specifications Provisions for Strut-and-Tie Models
8.12.3.1 Compression Struts
8.12.3.1.1 Unreinforced Concrete Struts
8.12.3.1.2 Reinforced Concrete Struts
8.12.3.2 Tension Ties
8.12.3.2.1 Tie Anchorage
8.12.3.3 Proportioning Node Regions
8.12.3.4 Crack Control Reinforcement
8.12.4 Steps for Developing Strut-and-Tie Models
8.12.4.1 Design Criteria
8.12.4.2 Summary of Steps
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8.12.5 Pier Cap Example
8.12.5.1 Flow of Forces and Truss Geometry
8.12.5.2 Forces in Assumed Truss
8.12.5.3 Bearing Stresses
8.12.5.4 Reinforcement for Tension Tie DE
8.12.5.5 Strut Capacities
8.12.5.6 Nodal Zone at Pier
8.12.5.7 Minimum Reinforcement for Crack Control
8.13
DETAILED METHODS OF TIME-DEPENDENT ANALYSIS

8.13.1 Introduction
8.13.1.1 Properties of Concrete
8.13.1.1.1 Stress-Strain-Time Relationship
8.13.1.2 Effective Modulus
8.13.1.3 Age-Adjusted Effective Modulus
8.13.1.4 Properties of Prestressing Steel
8.13.1.5 Reduced Relaxation under Variable Strain
8.13.2 Analysis of Composite Cross-Sections
8.13.2.1 Initial Strains
8.13.2.2 Methods for Time-Dependent Cross-Section Analysis
8.13.2.2.1 Steps for Analysis
8.13.2.2.2 Example Calculations
8.13.3 Analysis of Composite Simple-Span Members
8.13.3.1 Relaxation of Strands Prior to Transfer
8.13.3.2 Transfer of Prestress Force
8.13.3.2.1 Example Calculation (at Transfer)
8.13.3.3 Creep, Shrinkage and Relaxation after Transfer
8.13.3.3.1 Example Calculation (after Transfer)
8.13.3.4 Placement of Cast-in-Place Deck
8.13.3.5 Creep, Shrinkage and Relaxation
8.13.3.6 Application of Superimposed Dead Load
8.13.3.7 Long-Term Behavior
8.13.4 Continuous Bridges
8.13.4.1 Effectiveness of Continuity
8.13.4.2 Applying Time-Dependent Effects
8.13.4.3 Methods of Analysis
8.13.4.3.1 General Method
8.13.4.3.2 Approximate Method
8.13.4.3.2.1 Restraint Moment Due to Creep
8.13.4.3.2.2 Restraint Moment Due to Differential Shrinkage
8.14
REFERENCES
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CHAPTER 8
NOTATION
A
A
Ac
Ac
Acv
Acs
Ag
Ak
Ao
Aps
As
As
Asf
Asr
Ass
Ast
A*s
As
Av
Av
Avf
Avh
Av-min
a
a
a
b
b
b
b
b
bb
bv
bv
bv
bw
Ca
= area of cross-section of the precast beam

[STD], [LRFD]
= distance to pickup points from each end of the beam
= area of concrete on the flexural tension side of the member

[LRFD]
= area of beam cross-section
= area of concrete section resisting shear transfer

[LRFD]
= cross-sectional area of a concrete strut
[LRFD]
= gross area of section
[LRFD]
= area of cross-section of element k
= area enclosed by centerlines of the elements of the beam

[LRFD]
= area of pretensioning steel
[LRFD]
= area of non-pretensioning tension reinforcement
[STD], [LRFD]
= total area of vertical reinforcement located within a distance
(h/5) from the end of the beam
[LRFD]
= area of steel required to develop the ultimate compressive
strength of the overhanging portions of the flange
[STD]
= area of steel required to develop the compressive strength of the
web of a flanged section
[STD]
= area of reinforcement in strut
[LRFD]
= area of longitudinal mild steel reinforcement in tie
[LRFD]
= area of pretensioning steel
[STD]
= area of compression reinforcement
[LRFD]
= area of web reinforcement
[STD]
= area of transverse reinforcement within a distance s
[LRFD]
= area of shear-friction reinforcement
[LRFD]
= area of web reinforcement required for horizontal shear
= minimum area of web reinforcement
= depth of the compression block

[STD]
= depth of the equivalent rectangular stress block
[LRFD]
= length of overhang
= effective flange width
= width of beam
[STD]
= width of top flange of beam
= width of the compression face of a member

[LRFD]
= width of web of a flanged member
[STD]
= width of bottom flange of beam
= width of cross-section at the contact surface being investigated

for horizontal shear
[STD]
= effective web width
[LRFD]
= width of interface
[LRFD]
= web width
[LRFD]
= creep coefficient for deflection at time of erection due to loads
applied at release
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CHAPTER 8
NOTATION
CRc
CRs
C(t,t0)
C(t,tj)
Cb(t,t3)
Cd(t,t3)
Cu
Cu
c
c
D
D
DC
DW
d
db
de
dext
di
dp
ds
dv
d
E
Ec
Ecb(t3)
Ecd(t3)
Ec(tj)
Ec(t0)
Ec(t,t0)
Eci
Ep
ES
Es
Es
= loss of pretension due to creep of concrete

[STD]
= loss of pretension due to relaxation of pretensioning steel
[STD]
= creep coefficient of the concrete member at a certain age
= creep coefficient at time tj (j = 0,1,2,)
= creep at time t for beam concrete loaded at time t3
= creep at time t for deck concrete loaded at time t3
= ultimate creep coefficient for concrete at time of release of

prestressing
= ultimate creep coefficient for concrete at time of application of

superimposed dead loads
= distance from the extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis

[LRFD]
= cohesion factor
[LRFD]
= dead load
[STD]
= nominal diameter of the strand
[STD]
= dead load of structural components and non-structural
attachments
[LRFD]
= load of wearing surfaces and utilities
[LRFD]
= distance from extreme compression fiber to centroid of the
pretensioning force
[STD]
= nominal strand diameter
[STD], [LRFD]
= effective depth from the extreme compression fiber to the
centroid of the tensile force in the tension reinforcement
[LRFD]
= depth of the extreme steel layer from extreme compression fiber
= depth of steel layer from extreme compression fiber
= distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the

pretensioning tendons
[LRFD]
= distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of
nonprestressed tensile reinforcement
[LRFD]
= effective shear depth
[LRFD]
= distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of
nonprestressed compression reinforcement
[LRFD]
= modulus of elasticity
= modulus of elasticity of concrete

[STD], [LRFD]
= age-adjusted modulus of elasticity for beam concrete at time t3
= age-adjusted modulus of elasticity for deck concrete at time t3
= modulus of elasticity at time tj (j = 0,1,2,)
= initial modulus of elasticity
= modulus of elasticity at a certain time
= modulus of elasticity of the beam concrete at transfer
= modulus of elasticity of pretensioning tendons

[LRFD]
= loss of pretension due to elastic shortening
[STD]
= modulus of elasticity of pretensioning reinforcement
[STD]
= modulus of elasticity of reinforcing bars
[LRFD]
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CHAPTER 8
NOTATION
E*c
E*cb
E*cd
E*c(t,t0)
E*ck
e
ec
eg
ei
em
ep
FSc
FSf
Fb
Fcj
Fpi
f
fb
f c
f c
fcds
fcir
f ci
f ci
fcgp
fcu
ff
fmin
fpbt
fpc
= age-adjusted, effective modulus of elasticity of concrete for a

gradually applied load at the time of transfer of prestressing
= age-adjusted, effective modulus of elasticity of the beam
= age-adjusted, effective modulus of elasticity of the deck
= effective modulus of elasticity at certain time
= age-adjusted, effective modulus of element k
= eccentricity of prestressing strands
= eccentricity of the strand at midspan
= distance between the centers of gravity of the beam and the slab
= initial lateral eccentricity of the center of gravity with respect to
the roll axis
= average accentricity at midspan
= eccentricity of the prestressing strands with respect to the
centroid of the section
= factor of safety against cracking
= factor of safety against failure
= allowable tensile stress in the precompressed tension zone at
service loads
= force in concrete for the j th component
= total force in strands before release
= stress
= concrete stress at the bottom fiber of the beam
= specified concrete strength at 28 days
= specified compressive strength at 28 days
= concrete stress at the center of gravity of the pretensioning steel
due to all dead loads except the dead load present at the time the
pretensioning force is applied
= average concrete stress at the center of gravity of the
pretensioning steel due to pretensioning force and dead load
of beam immediately after transfer
= concrete strength at transfer
= specified compressive strength of concrete at time of initial
loading or pretensioning (transfer)
= concrete stress at the center of gravity of pretensioning tendons,
due to pretensioning force at transfer and the self-weight of the
member at the section of maximum positive moment
= the limiting concrete compressive stress for designing
by strut-and-tie model
= stress range
= algebraic minimum stress level
= stress in prestressing steel immediately prior to transfer
= compressive stress in concrete (after allowance for all pretensioning
losses) at centroid of cross-section resisting externally applied loads
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
[STD]
[STD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
[STD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
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NOTATION
fpc
fpe
fpe
fpi
fpj
fpo
fps
fpu
fpy
fr
fs
f s
fse
fsi
f *su
f(tj)
fr(t,t0)
f(t0)
fy
fy
fy
f y
fyh
H
h
h
h
hcg
hd
hf
hr
I
= compressive stress in concrete after all prestress losses have occurred

either at the centroid of the cross-section resisting live load or at
the junction of the web and flange when the centroid lies in the
flange. In a composite section, fpc is the resultant compressive
stress at the centroid of the composite section, or at the junction
of the web and flange when the centroid lies within the flange,
due to both prestress and to the bending moments resisted by the
precast member acting alone.
[LRFD]
= compressive stress in concrete due to effective pretension
forces only (after allowance for all pretension losses) at
extreme fiber of section where tensile stress is caused by
externally applied loads
[STD]
= effective stress in the pretensioning steel after losses
[LRFD]
= initial stress immediately before transfer
= stress in the pretensioning steel at jacking

[LRFD]
= stress in the pretensioning steel when the stress in the
surrounding concrete is zero
[LRFD]
= average stress in pretensioning steel at the time for which the
nominal resistance of member is required
[LRFD]
= specified tensile strength of pretensioning steel
[LRFD]
= yield strength of pretensioning steel
[LRFD]
= modulus of rupture of concrete
[STD], [LRFD]
= allowable stress in steel under service loads
= ultimate stress of pretensioning reinforcement

[STD]
= effective final pretension stress
= effective initial pretension stress
= average stress in pretensioning steel at ultimate load

[STD]
= stress at time tj
= relaxation stress at a certain time
= tensile stress at the beginning of the interval
= yield strength of reinforcing bars

[STD]
= specified minimum yield strength of reinforcing bars
[LRFD]
= yield stress of pretensioning reinforcement
[STD]
= specified minimum yield strength of compression reinforcement
[LRFD]
= specified yield strength of transverse reinforcement
[LRFD]
= average annual ambient mean relative humidity
[LRFD]
= length of a single segment
= overall depth of precast beam

[STD]
= overall depth of a member
[LRFD]
= height of center of gravity of beam above road
= deck thickness
= compression flange depth

[LRFD]
= height of roll center above road
= moment of inertia about the centroid of the non-composite

precast beam, major axis moment of inertia of beam
[STD], [LRFD]
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NOTATION
I
Ik
IM
Ieff
Ig
K
Kr
K
k
kc
kcp
kla
kh
ks
ksh
kst
L
L
L
L
L
LL
Lr
Lx
l
ld
lt
Mc
Mcr
Mcr(t)
M*cr
Md/nc
Mel
Mg
Mg
Mgmsp
Mk
= impact fraction
= moment of inertia of element k
= dynamic load allowance
= effective cracked section lateral (minor axis) moment of inertia
= gross lateral (minor axis) moment of inertia
= factor used for calculating time-dependent losses
= factor used for calculating relaxation loss in strand that occurs prior
to transfer
= sum of rotational spring constants of supports
= factor used in calculation of average stress in pretensioning steel
for strength limit state; factor related to type of strand
[LRFD]
= product of applicable correction factors for creep = kla kh ks
= correction factor for curing period
= correction factor for loading age
= correction factor for relative humidity
= correction factor for size of member
= product of applicable correction factors for shrinkage = kcp kh ks
= correction factor for concrete strength
= live load
= length in feet of the span under consideration for positive
moment and the average of two adjacent loaded spans for
negative moment
= overall beam length or design span
= span length measured parallel to longitudinal beams
= span length
= vehicular live load
= intrinsic relaxation of the strand
= distance from end of prestressing strand to center of the panel
= overall length of beam
= development length
= transfer length
= moment in concrete beam section
= cracking moment
= restraint moment due to creep at time t
= cracking moment
= moment due to non-composite dead loads
= fictious elastic restraint moment at the supports
= unfactored bending moment due to beam self-weight
= self-weight bending moment of beam at harp point
= self-weight bending moment at midspan
= element moment
[STD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
[STD]
[STD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
[STD]
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CHAPTER 8
NOTATION
Mlat
MLL
Mmax
Mn
Mn
Mn/dc
Mr
Msh
Msr(t)
Msw
Mu
Mx
M0
M0k
m
N
Nk
Nc
Ns
Nu
N0k
N0
n
nk
ns
PPR
Pc
Pn
Pr
Pse
Psi
Q
R
RH
Rn
Ru
r
r
S
S
= lateral bending moment at cracking
= unfactored bending moment due to lane load per beam
= maximum factored moment at section due to externally applied loads

[STD]
= nominal moment strength of a section
[STD]
= nominal flexural resistance
[LRFD]
= non-composite dead load moment at the section
= factored flexural resistance of a section in bending

[LRFD]
= shrinkage moment
= restraint moment due to differential shrinkage at time t
= moment at section of interest due to self-weight of the member

plus any permanent loads acting on the member at time of release
= factored bending moment at section

[STD], [LRFD]
= bending moment at a distance x from the support
= theoretical total moment in sections
= theoretical moment in section of element k
= stress ratio
= number of segments between nodes (must be even number)
= element normal force
= internal element force in concrete
= internal element force in steel
= applied factored axial force taken as positive if tensile

[LRFD]
= theoretical normal force in section of element k, positive when tensile
= theoretical total normal force in sections
= modular ratio between slab and beam materials

[STD], [LRFD]
= modular ratio of element k
= modular ratio of steel element
= partial prestress ratio

[LRFD]
= permanent net compression force
[LRFD]
= nominal axial resistance of strut or tie
[LRFD]
= factored axial resistance of strut or tie
[LRFD]
= effective pretension force after allowing for all losses
= effective pretension force after allowing for the initial losses
= first moment of inertia of the area above the fiber being considered
= radius of curvature
= relative humidity
[STD]
= strength design factor
= flexural resistance factor
= radius of gyration of the gross cross-section
= radius of stability
= width of precast beam
[STD]
= spacing of beams
[STD], [LRFD]
JUL 03
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8/14/03, 10:58 AM
CHAPTER 8
NOTATION
S
S
Sb
Sbc
SH
SN
S(t,t0)
St
Su
s
s
s
t
t
t
tf
t0
ts
ts
Vc
Vc
Vci
Vcw
Vd
Vi
Vn
Vnh
Vp
Vp
Vs
Vs
Vu
= slab span
[LRFD]
= span between the inside faces of the beam webs
[LRFD]
= section modulus for the extreme bottom fiber of the
non-composite precast beam
= composite section modulus for extreme bottom fiber of the

precast beam
= loss of pretension due to concrete shrinkage

[STD]
= the value of the integral
= shrinkage coefficient at a certain age
= section modulus for the extreme top fiber of the non-composite

precast beam
= ultimate free shrinkage strain in the concrete adjusted for

member size and relative humidity
= longitudinal spacing of the web reinforcement

[STD]
= length of a side element
[LRFD]
= spacing of rows of ties
[LRFD]
= time, days; age of concrete at the time of determination of creep
effects, days; age of concrete at time of determination of shrinkage
effects, days; time after loading, days
= thickness of web
= thickness of an element of the beam
= thickness of flange
= age of concrete when curing ends; age of concrete when load is

initially applied, days
= cast-in-place concrete slab thickness
= depth of concrete slab

[LRFD]
= nominal shear strength provided by concrete
[STD]
= nominal shear resistance provided by tensile stresses in the
concrete
[LRFD]
= nominal shear strength provided by concrete when diagonal
cracking results from combined shear and moment
[STD]
= nominal shear strength provided by concrete when diagonal
cracking results from excessive principal tensile stress in web
[STD]
= shear force at section due to unfactored dead load
[STD]
= factored shear force at section due to externally applied loads
occurring simultaneously with Mmax
[STD]
= nominal shear resistance of the section considered
[LRFD]
= nominal horizontal shear strength
[STD]
= vertical component of effective pretension force at section
[STD]
= component of the effective pretensioning force, in the
direction of the applied shear, positive if resisting the applied shear
[LRFD]
= nominal shear strength provided by web reinforcement
[STD]
= shear resistance provided by shear reinforcement
[LRFD]
= factored shear force at the section
[STD], [LRFD]
JUL 03
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8/14/03, 10:58 AM
CHAPTER 8
NOTATION
Vuh
vu
W
w
w
w
wc
x
y
yb
ybc
ybs
yk
yr
ys
yt
ytc
z
zmax
z o
z o
1
1
c
= factored horizontal shear force per unit length of the beam

[LRFD]
= average factored shear stress
[LRFD]
= total weight of beam
= a uniformly distributed load

[LRFD]
= width of clear roadway
[LRFD]
= weight per unit length of beam
= unit weight of concrete

[STD], [LRFD]
= distance from the support to the section under question
= height of center of gravity of beam above roll axis

(beam supported from below)
= distance from centroid to the extreme bottom fiber of the

non-composite beam
= distance from centroid to the bottom of beam of the composite section
= distance from the center of gravity of strands to the bottom

fiber of the beam
= distance of the centroid of element k from edge
= height of roll axis above center of gravity of beam (hanging beam)
= height above soffit of centroid of prestressing force
= distance from centroid to the extreme top fiber of the

non-composite beam
= distance from centroid to the top of deck of the composite section
= lateral deflection of center of gravity of beam
= distance from centerline of vehicle to center of dual tires
= theoretical lateral deflection of center of gravity of beam with the

full dead weight applied laterally
= theoretical lateral deflection of center of gravity of beam with the

full dead weight applied laterally, computed using Ieff for tilt angle
under consideration
= super-elevation angle or tilt angle of support in radians
= factor used in calculating elastic shortening loss
= coefficient defined by (Eq. 8.6.2.5.1-3) to account for interaction

between steel and concrete in pretensioning loss calculations
= angle between compressive strut and adjoining tension tie

[LRFD]
= factor indicating ability of diagonally cracked concrete to
transmit tension (a value indicating concrete contribution)
[LRFD]
= factor for concrete strength
[STD]
= ratio of the depth of the equivalent uniformly stressed compression
zone assumed in the strength limit state to the depth of the actual
compression zone
[LRFD]
= time-dependent multiplier
= deflection
= camber measured with respect to the beam-ends
JUL 03
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8/14/03, 10:58 AM
CHAPTER 8
NOTATION
fcdp
= change in concrete stress at center of gravity of pretensioning

steel due to dead loads except the dead load acting at the time
the pretensioning force is applied
fpCR
= loss in pretensioning steel stress due to creep
fpES
= loss in pretensioning steel stress due to elastic shortening
fpR
= loss in pretensioning steel stress due to relaxation of steel
fpR1
= loss in pretensioning steel stress due to relaxation of steel at
transfer
fpR2
= loss in pretensioning steel stress due to relaxation of steel after
transfer
fpSR
= loss in pretensioning steel stress due to shrinkage
fpT
= total loss in pretensioning steel stress
fs
= total loss of prestress
= strain
c
= strain in concrete beam
cr
= the time dependent creep strain
f
= the immediate strain due to the applied stress f
fc
= elastic strain in concrete
fk
= element strain
fs
= elastic strain in steel
k
= strain in element k
p
= strain in prestressing steel
s
= strain in mild steel
s
= tensile strain in cracked concrete in direction of tensile tie
sh
= free shrinkage strain
shb(t,t2) = shrinkage strain of the beam from time t2 to time t
shb(t3,t2) = shrinkage strain of the beam from time t2 to time t3
shd(t,t3) = shrinkage strain of the deck from time t3 to time t
shu
= ultimate free shrinkage strain in the concrete, adjusted for member
size and relative humidity
si
= strain in tendons corresponding to initial effective pretension
stress
x
= longitudinal strain in the web reinforcement on the flexural
tension side of the member
0c
= initial strain in concrete
1
= principal tensile strain in cracked concrete due to factored loads
*
= factor for type of pretensioning reinforcement
= strength reduction factor
= resistance factor
= curvature
c
= curvature at midspan
cr
= curvature due to creep
fk
= element curvature
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
[STD]
[LRFD]
JUL 03
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8/14/03, 10:58 AM
CHAPTER 8
NOTATION
k
0
L
R
i
max
max
b
*
(t,t0)
= curvature of element k
= curvature at support
= parameter used to determine friction coefficient
= Poissons ratio for beams
= coefficient of friction
= angle of inclination of diagonal compressive stresses
= roll angle of major axis of beam with respect to vertical
= left end rotation of beam due to simple span loads
= right end rotation of beam due to simple span loads
= initial roll angle of a rigid beam
= tilt angle at which cracking begins, based on tension at the top corner
equal to the modulus of rupture
= tilt angle at maximum factor of safety against failure
= reinforcement ratio producing balanced strain condition
= ratio of pretensioning reinforcement
= a factor that reflects the fact that the actual relaxation is less than
the intrinsic relaxation
= aging coefficient
= aging coefficient at certain time
[LRFD]
[STD]
[LRFD]
[LRFD]
[STD]
[STD]
JUL 03
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8/14/03, 10:58 AM
CHAPTER 8
8.8 Deck Slab Design/8.8.2 Design of Bridge Decks Using Precast Panels
8.8
DECK SLAB DESIGN
8.8.1
Introduction
This section considers concrete slabs that act compositely with precast beams and
where the slab span and main reinforcement are transverse to traffic. Cast-in-place
(CIP) concrete is sometimes used as a topping on longitudinal, full-deck members
such as adjacent box beams, double tees and deck bulb-tees. However, this type of
deck slab generally does not require flexural design and is not covered in this section.
The majority of deck slabs in new bridge construction use CIP concrete with or without precast stay-in-place (SIP) deck panels. The CIP topping provides flexibility to
adjust for roadway profile and for differences in beam elevations. The use of precast
SIP panels is gaining popularity due to their cost-effectiveness and improvement in
jobsite construction safety.
This section focuses on the design of CIP decks using precast SIP panels according
to both the Standard Specifications and LRFD Specifications. In addition, a subsection
summarizes the Empirical Design Method of full-depth CIP slabs. This method
is becoming more popular due to the relatively small amount of reinforcement it
requires. However, at this time, the LRFD Specifications do not permit this method
for design of precast SIP deck panel systems. Also in this section, two new precast
concrete deck systems will be introduced. The first system is an improved SIP panel
that allows for better construction speed and structural performance than for the
conventional SIP panel system. The second is a full-depth precast, prestressed concrete panel that is best suited for rapid replacement of high-traffic bridge decks.
8.8.2
Design of Bridge Decks
Using Precast Panels
A precast SIP deck panel system typically consists of thin precast, concentrically prestressed, concrete panels which span between supporting beams, and a CIP concrete
topping which acts compositely with the SIP panels to form the fully composite
deck. Precast concrete panels as thin as 2.5 in. have successfully been used. Because
most panels are thin, strict quality control practices are recommended to avoid panel
cracking or camber (PCI Committee Report, 1988). The prestress force should be
released as gradually as possible. The strands should be maintained concentric with
the concrete cross-section. Research by Kumar (1996), has shown that prestressed
SIP deck panels with a 0.05 to 0.075-in. amplitude, broom-finished surface do not
require horizontal shear connectors to achieve full composite action with the CIP
topping providing the nominal horizontal shear stress is less than 116 psi.
Positive moment sections between the supporting beams are designed as prestressed
concrete composite sections with the prestressing strands as the main reinforcement.
Negative moment sections over beam lines are designed as conventionally reinforced
sections with the reinforcing bars in the topping slab as the main reinforcement as
shown in Figure 8.8.2-1.
Fig. 8.8.2-1
Cross-Section of CIP Deck
with Precast SIP Panel
Top
Reinforcement
CIP Concrete Topping
Precast SIP Deck Panel
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8/14/03, 0:15 PM
CHAPTER 8
8.8.2.1 Determining Prestress Force/

8.8.2.2 Service Load Stresses and Flexural Strength
8.8.2.1
Determining
Prestress Force
The first step in design is to estimate the required amount of prestress force. This
estimate is governed by the allowable tensile stress in the precast SIP panel due to
service loads at the maximum positive moment section. The weight of the precast SIP
deck panel and the CIP topping act on the non-composite section, i.e. the precast
SIP deck panel alone. The superimposed dead loads (wearing surface, barriers, etc.)
and live loads act on the precast SIP panel-CIP topping composite section. After the
required prestress force is determined, the unfactored load stresses and the ultimate
flexural capacity at various construction stages are checked.
8.8.2.2
Service Load Stresses and
Flexural Strength
Service load stresses should be checked in the panel and in the completed deck at a number of stages. The first stage is at the time of prestress transfer or release. The strands are
normally concentric within the precast SIP deck panel. Therefore, prestress introduces
uniformly distributed compressive stresses. However, accidental misplacement of the
strands may be conservatively assumed to produce 0.25 in. prestress eccentricity.
The second loading stage occurs at the time of topping placement. Loads at this stage act
only on the SIP panel. Service load stresses and ultimate capacity of the precast SIP panel
should be checked due to the weight of the precast panel and the CIP topping in addition to a construction load, estimated as 50 psf unless a more accurate figure is available.
The construction load represents people, material and equipment used to place, finish
and cure the topping but it does not include concentrated loads representing finishing
machine reactions. Special brackets directly supported on beam seats are used to resist
finishing machine loads. Other loads at this stage act only on the SIP panel.
The third loading stage occurs after the CIP topping cures and the superimposed loads
are introduced. At this stage, the stresses are calculated using a transformed section
analysis similar to that done in composite I-beam analysis. The ultimate strength of the
composite section at the maximum positive moment section, is checked against factored dead and live loads. One of the most important issues in determining the flexural
strength of the positive moment section is the strand development length. Since the
strands are terminated at panel ends over beam lines, the maximum positive moment
sections may be closer to the end of the panel than the development length of the
strands. Thus, only partial strand development can be expected. In this situation, the
stress in the pretensioning steel at factored load, f *su, should be limited to:
L
2
f *su = x + f se
D 3
[STD Art. 9.17.4.2]
where
f *su = average stress in pretensioning steel at ultimate load
Lx = distance from end to center of the panel, in.
D = nominal diameter of the strand, in.
fse = effective final pretension stress (after losses), ksi
Non-prestressing reinforcement provided in the CIP topping, is determined on the basis
of flexural strength. The critical sections over interior beams are designed for superimposed dead and live loads. In addition, the region near the exterior beams should be
designed for crash loading combined with dead and live loads. Design Examples 9.7
and 9.8 in Chapter 9, give complete details of the design of overhangs for this type of
loading. In negative moment zones, proper distribution of the flexural reinforcement is
required to control top fiber cracking.
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CHAPTER 8
8.8.2.3 Standard Specifications/8.8.2.3.3 Reinforcement Requirements

8.8.2.3
Standard Specifications
8.8.2.3.1
Minimum Thickness
Table 8.9.2 in the Standard Specifications gives the minimum recommended total
deck thickness that can be used without deflection calculations. Thinner slabs may
be used if the deflection due to service live load plus impact is limited to 1/800 of
the span for spans between supporting beams and 1/300 of the cantilever arm for
cantilevers (STD Art. 8.9.3).
Some agencies specify that 1/2 to 3/4 in. of the slab thickness be considered as an
integral layer of wearing surface. In this case, the full thickness should be used for
calculation of loads and the reduced thickness for determining section properties.
The Standard Specifications do not give any recommendations concerning the thickness of SIP panels. Although thinner panels have been successfully used, common
practice indicates that 3.0 in. and 3.5 in., with 3/8 in. and 1/2 in. diameter strands
respectively, are acceptable minimum thicknesses.
8.8.2.3.2
Live Load
STD Article 3.7 specifies the standard truck load that should be used as a live load
to compute the bending moments at any section. There are four standard classes of
highway loading: H15, H20, HS15 and HS20. Most state agencies use the HS20
standard truck, although some states use the non-standard HS25 truck, which is
125% of the HS20 standard truck. The bending moment due to
S + 2
truck loading at various locations =
[STD Eqs. 3.15 and 3.16]
P
32
where
S = effective span length, ft
P = load on rear wheel of truck = 16,000 lb for H20 and HS20
The effective span length for continuous span slabs, as specified in STD Article
3.24.1.2, depends on the slenderness of the top flange of the support. For slender top
flanges, where the ratio of top flange width to minimum thickness of the flange is
greater than 4.0, S is taken as the distance between edges of top flange plus one-half
of the width of beam top flange. If the ratio of top flange width to minimum thickness is less than 4.0, S is taken as the distance between edges of the top flange.
A continuity factor of 0.8 is applied to the live load bending moment for slabs that are
made continuous over three or more supports. The live load moments are increased to
allow for impact effects, as given in STD Article 3.8.2, which always results in an impact
fraction of 0.3. Each section of the deck should be designed so that the factored moment
due to applied loads is less than or equal to the capacity of the section.
8.8.2.3.3
Reinforcement Requirements
At negative moment locations, minimum reinforcement should be provided so that

the design moment capacity is not less than 1.2 times the cracking moment (STD
Art. 8.17.1). Alternatively, according to STD Article 8.17.1.2, the minimum reinforcement requirement may be satisfied by providing at least one-third more reinforcement than required by analysis.
JUL 03
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CHAPTER 8
8.8.2.3.3 Reinforcement Requirements/8.8.2.4.1 LRFD Specifications Refined Analysis
At positive sections, a minimum reinforcement of 0.11 in.2/ft in the SIP panel is

specified (STD Art. 9.24.2). Also, STD Article 9.18.2.4 states that a minimum
amount of longitudinal reinforcement of 0.25 in.2/ft should be provided in the CIP
section for lateral distribution of concentrated loads and for crack control.
STD Article 8.22 specifies a minimum concrete clear cover of 2.0 in. to the top reinforcement for deck slabs in mild climates and 2.5 in. for deck slabs exposed to deicing
salts. For bottom reinforcement, the minimum specified clear cover is 1.0 in.
8.8.2.3.4
Shear Design
Article 3.24.4 in the Standard Specifications states that slabs designed for bending
moment in accordance with STD Article 3.24.3 need not be checked for shear or
bond. If elected by the designer, one-way and two-way shear capacities can be checked
as given in STD Articles 8.16.6.2.1 and 8.16.6.6.2 respectively. Two-way shear is calculated assuming that the tire contact area is rectangular where the dimensions of the
contact area depend on the wheel load of the specified truck (STD Art. 3.30).
8.8.2.3.5
Crack Control
The negative moment areas over the beams, designed as conventionally reinforced
concrete, are expected to crack under service load conditions. Thus, crack control
criteria given in STD Article 8.16.8.4 must be satisfied. In areas where deicing salts
are used, a number of state agencies specify that slab reinforcement must be epoxycoated. The Standard Specifications allow the use of epoxy-coated reinforcement.
However, STD Article 8.25.2.3 requires that the basic development length should
be increased by a factor of 1.15 or 1.5 depending on the concrete cover and the clear
spacing between epoxy-coated bars.
8.8.2.4
LRFD Specifications
An entire section in the LRFD Specifications, Section 9, is devoted to deck systems.

Three levels of analysis are permitted in the LRFD Specifications:
(1) refined analysis
(2) approximate analysis, generally known as the Strip Method
(3) the Empirical Method
As noted earlier, the specifications do not permit the empirical method to be used in
the design of SIP panel deck systems.
8.8.2.4.1
LRFD Specifications
Refined Analysis
LRFD Articles 4.4 and 4.6.3.2 allow the use of refined methods of analysis. These
methods should satisfy the requirements of equilibrium and compatibility and utilize stress-strain relationships for the proposed materials. Refined analysis methods
include, but are not limited to:
(1) grillage analogy method
(2) finite strip method
(3) finite element method
However, some conditions should be considered which accurately model the behavior of the deck slabs as observed in actual bridges. These conditions are:
(1) flexural and torsional deformation of the deck in skewed bridges
(2) in-plane shear deformation, which affects the effective width of composite
bridge decks
JUL 03
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CHAPTER 8
8.8.2.4.1 LRFD Specifications Refined Analysis/8.8.2.4.2.3 Live Load
(3) locations of flexural discontinuity through which shear is transmitted, should

be modeled as hinges
(4) wheel loads should be modeled as patch loads over the tire contact area, given
by the specifications, extended by half of the deck depth on all four sides
A structurally continuous railing, barrier or median, acting compositely with the
supporting components, can be considered to be structurally active at service and
fatigue limit states.
8.8.2.4.2
LRFD Specifications
Strip Method
In this method, the deck slab is divided into strips perpendicular to the supporting
beams. To calculate the bending moments and shear forces, the strips are treated as
a continuous member and the supporting beams are assumed to be infinitely rigid.
The width of the strip is determined so that the effects of flexure in the secondary
direction and of torsion are accounted for to obtain flexural force effects approximating those that would be provided by refined methods of analysis. However, the strip
method model was developed based on non-skewed bridges, thus, more accurate
analysis may be warranted for end zones of skewed bridges.
8.8.2.4.2.1
Minimum Thickness
LRFD Article 9.7.1.1 states that the depth of the concrete deck, excluding any provision for grinding, grooving and sacrificial surface, should not be less than 7.0 in.
LRFD Article 2.5.2.4 states that concrete decks without an initial overlay should
have an additional thickness of 1/2 in. to allow for correction of the deck profile by
grinding and to compensate for thickness loss due to abrasion. For concrete deck
overhangs which support a deck-mounted post system or concrete parapets or barriers, a minimum depth of 8.0 in. is required (LRFD Art. 13.7.3.1.2). LRFD Article
9.7.4.3.1 states that the thickness of the precast SIP deck panel should neither exceed
55% of the total slab depth nor be less than 3.5-in. thick. However, as noted earlier,
SIP panels 3.0 in. thick or even as thin as 2.5 in. have been used in recent years with
satisfactory performance.
8.8.2.4.2.2
Minimum Concrete Cover
LRFD Article 5.12.3 provides minimum concrete cover requirements similar to those
given in the Standard Specifications. The minimum cover values are stated for concrete
mixes with water-cement ratios from 0.40 to 0.50. For concrete mixes with different
water-cement ratios, a modification factor is provided. When epoxy-coated bars are
used, the LRFD Specifications allow the minimum cover requirement for uncoated bars
in interior exposure to be used. However, special provisions for development length and
lap splices for coated reinforcement must be satisfied as given in LRFD Article 5.11.
8.8.2.4.2.3
Live Load
The standard live load used in the LRFD Specifications is the HL-93, which consists
of the combination of a design truck or tandem, and a design lane load (LRFD Art.
3.6.1.2). However, LRFD Article 3.6.1.3.3 states that for deck slabs where the strips
are in the transverse direction of the bridge and their span does not exceed 15 feet,
only the wheels of the 32.0-kip axle of the design truck, spaced at 6.0 ft, need be
considered. If the transverse strip span exceeds 15 feet, both the 32-kip axle and the
design lane load should be used. One or more design lanes may be assumed to be
loaded simultaneously. Within each design lane, the truck axle can be positioned so
that the center of a wheel is not closer than 2.0 ft to the edge of the lane nor closer
than 1.0 ft to the face of the curb or rail. The location of the design lanes can be
shifted laterally relative to the longitudinal axis of the deck, to produce the maximum
force effects. LRFD Article 4.6.2.1.3 gives the width of the strip in inches as:
JUL 03
8/14/03, 0:16 PM
CHAPTER 8
8.8.2.4.2.3 Live Load/8.8.2.4.2.5 Design Criteria
Width = 26.0 + 6.6S (for positive moment calculations)

Width = 48.0 + 3.0S (for negative moment calculations)
where S = span of the slab between beam centerlines, ft
For overhangs, the negative moment strip width is:
Width = 45.0 + 10.0X
where X = distance from the wheel load to point of support, ft
These equations are based on three-dimensional finite element analyses of a large
number of one- and two-span bridges covering the practical range of number of
beams, beam stiffness, beam spacing, span length, and slab thickness. Because a
three-dimensional analysis was used to develop the strip width equations, the effects
of flexure in the secondary direction and torsion are already accounted for. The
maximum positive and negative bending moments calculated using the strip method
are considered to apply to all regions along the bridge length. Dynamic allowance
of 33% and a multiple presence factor as specified in LRFD Articles 3.6.2 and
3.6.1.1.2 should be included in design. Table A4.1-1 in Appendix A4 of the LRFD
Specifications gives the maximum design bending moment values for different beam
arrangements, where the multiple presence factors and the dynamic load allowance
are included in the tabulated values. Appendix A4 is applicable only to bridge decks
supported on at least three parallel beams and having a width measured between the
centerlines of the exterior beams not less than 14 ft.
8.8.2.4.2.4
Location of Critical Sections
For precast I-beam bridges, the location of the design section for negative moments
and shear forces may be taken as one-third of the flange width, but not more than
15 in. from the support centerline (LRFD Art. 4.6.2.1.6).
8.8.2.4.2.5
Design Criteria
LRFD Article 9.7.4.1 states that prestressed concrete stay-in-place panels should to
be elastic under construction loads. Construction loads include the weight of the SIP
panel, weight of the CIP topping, and an additional 0.050 ksf. Flexural stresses due
to unfactored construction loads should not exceed 75% of the steel yield strength or
65% of the 28-day compressive strength for concrete in compression, or the modulus of rupture for concrete in tension. Also, LRFD Article 9.7.4.1 states that elastic
deflection caused by the weights of the panel, the plastic concrete and reinforcement
should not exceed:
(a) Span length/180 with an upper limit of 0.25 in. for span length of 10 ft or
less
(b) Span length/240 with an upper limit of 0.75 in. for span length greater than
10 ft.
At service loads, the stresses in the composite section have to checked under Service I
Limit State for prestressed concrete in compression. For Service III Limit State, which
is used to check tensile stresses in the precast SIP panel, the full live load moment
should be used, i.e. the 0.8 factor associated with live load should be replaced by
1.0. This is because the 0.8 factor was developed for application only to longitudinal
prestressed concrete beams.
Finally, Strength I Limit State is used to check the ultimate flexural capacity of the
composite section. Check stress in prestressing steel according to the available development length, ld, as follows:
JUL 03
8/14/03, 0:16 PM
CHAPTER 8
8.8.2.4.2.5 Design Criteria/8.8.2.4.2.8 Crack Control
2
ld = K f ps f pe d b
3
or, fps =
[LRFD Eq. 5.11.4.2-1]
ld
2
+ f pe
Kd b 3
where
db = nominal strand diameter
fpe = effective stress in prestressing steel after losses
ld = available development length at midspan of the SIP panel
K = 1.6 for precast, prestressed slabs
8.8.2.4.2.6
Reinforcement Requirements
The provisions for minimum reinforcement in the LRFD Specifications are the same
as those in the Standard Specifications. The maximum amount of reinforcement,
according to LRFD Article 5.7.3.3, should be such that:
c
[LRFD Eq. 5.7.3.3.1-1]
0.42
de
where
c = distance from the extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis, in.
de = effective depth from the extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the
force in the tension reinforcement, in.
The LRFD Specifications do not give guidance for the required amount of distribution reinforcement for the concrete SIP panel system that provides for the lateral
distribution of concentrated live loads. However, LRFD Article 9.7.3.2 specifies the
minimum amount of reinforcement in the longitudinal direction, for slabs which
have four layers of reinforcement, as 220 / S 67% of the primary reinforcement,
where S = span between the inside faces of the beam webs, ft.
Applying this provision yields a higher amount of longitudinal reinforcement than
that required by the Empirical Design method or the Standard Specifications (see
Example 9.8 in Chapter 9).
8.8.2.4.2.7
Shear Design
Two-way shear should be checked assuming that the contact area of the tire is rectangular. LRFD Article 3.6.1.2.5 gives the dimensions of the contact area for a tire pressure of 0.125 ksi. The two-way shear capacity is given in LRFD Article 5.13.3.6.3.
One-way shear should be checked as specified in LRFD Article 5.13.3.6.2.
8.8.2.4.2.8
Crack Control
For crack control in the negative moment areas, provisions of LRFD Article 5.7.3.4
should be applied. Because positive moment regions for precast SIP deck panel
systems are prestressed, they are designed to be uncracked under service load conditions.
In order to control possible cracking due to shrinkage and temperature changes, a
minimum amount of reinforcement, in each direction, should be provided:
As 0.11 Ag/fy
(LRFD Eq. 5.10.8.2-1)

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CHAPTER 8
8.8.2.4.2.8 Crack Control/8.8.3.1.1 Description of NUDECK
where
Ag = gross area of section, in.2
fy = specified minimum yield strength of reinforcing bars, ksi
This reinforcement should be equally distributed on both faces and should not be
spaced farther apart than three times the slab thickness or 18.0 in. It is reasonable
to waive this requirement in precast, prestressed concrete panels in the direction of
prestress.
8.8.3
Other Precast Bridge
Deck Systems
Rapid replacement of bridge decks is becoming increasingly important in high traffic

areas due to public intolerance to extended bridge closures. This section covers two
new bridge deck systems developed at the University of Nebraska for rapid replacement of bridge decks (Tadros, 1998). The first system is a continuous precast concrete
stay-in-place panel system, called NUDECK (Badie, 1998). It is intended for applications similar to the conventional SIP panel previously discussed. The second system
is a full-depth precast concrete panel system intended for very rapid construction
(Takashi, 1998). The following sections briefly introduce these two new systems.
8.8.3.1
Continuous Precast Concrete
SIP Panel System, NUDECK
Although conventional SIP precast panels have proven cost-effective and have been
widely used in Florida, Missouri, Tennessee, Texas and several other states, they do
have drawbacks. These include:
(1) the need for forming overhangs with wood forming
(2) the possible appearance of reflective cracking over joints between SIP panels
(3) the lack of development of the pretensioning strands in the SIP panel caused
by strand discontinuity at beam lines and relatively small beam spacing.
The continuous stay-in-place (CSIP) system NUDECK has the following advantages:
(1) the CSIP panel covers the entire width of the bridge eliminating the necessity
of forming the overhang
(2) the CSIP panel is continuous longitudinally and transversely which results in
minimized reflective cracks, full development of the pretensioning reinforcement, and better live load distribution
Cost studies conducted by contractors and consulting engineers (Tadros, 1998), estimated that the NUDECK system would be cost-competitive with CIP systems. The slight
increase in panel cost would be offset by the reduction in field costs due to installation of
fewer pieces and elimination of overhang forming. However, the novelty of the system,
panel forming challenges and panel weight are potential disadvantages of this system.
8.8.3.1.1
Description of NUDECK
Figure 8.8.3.1.1-1 shows a cross-section of a bridge and a plan view of the precast
panel. The system consists of a 4.5-in.-thick precast panel and a 3.5 to 4.5-in.-thick
CIP reinforced topping. The length of the panel in the direction of traffic can vary
from 8 to 12 ft depending on the transportation and lifting equipment available in
the field. At each beam position there is a full-length gap to accommodate shear connectors. The width of the gap, G, depends on the shear connector detail used in the
precast beam. As an example, for a beam spacing of 12 ft and overhang of 4 ft subjected to HS-25 truck loading, an 8-ft-wide panel would require (12) 1/2-in.-diamJUL 03
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CHAPTER 8
Figure 8.8.3.1.1-1
The NUDECK System
Cast-in-place topping
(varies from 3 1/2 to 4 1/2 in.)
4 1/2-in.-thick precast prestressed

continuous panel
(a) Cross Section of the NUDECK System
3-ft-long spiral
(2) 1/2 in. dia. strands

@ 1'- 4"
8'-0"
1'- 4"
#7 bars
#4 bar @ 2'-0"
(b) Plan View of the NUDECK Panel
eter strands and a 28-day concrete compressive strength of 8,000 psi. The strands are
located in two layers and uniformly spaced at 16 in. A minimum clear concrete cover
of 1 in. is used for both the top and bottom layers of strands.
In order to maintain the gap over the beam, and to transmit the pretensioning force
from one section to another across the gap, 24 short pieces of No. 7 reinforcing bars are
used in two layers. These bars transmit the prestress compression force across the gap. To
maintain continuity in the longitudinal direction between the adjacent precast panels,
shear keys and reinforced pockets are provided as shown in Figures 8.8.3.1.1-2 and
8.8.3.1.1-3. The panel is reinforced longitudinally with No. 4 bars spaced at 2 ft at the
location of the pockets. To provide for full tension development of the No. 4 bars, they
are spliced using an innovative confinement technique as shown in Figure 8.8.3.1.14. A pocket, only 5-in. deep, is needed to fully develop the No. 4 bar. The panels are
erected using shims and leveling bolts. The longitudinal gaps are then filled with fineaggregate concrete. When the concrete attains a strength of 4,000 psi, the finishing
machine can then be installed and the CIP topping cast in one continuous operation.
Full-scale laboratory testing (Yehia, 1998) has shown this system has almost two-times
the load capacity of an equivalent conventional SIP panel system.
JUL 03
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CHAPTER 8
Figure 8.8.3.1.1-2
Cross-Section of the
NUDECK Panel
8'- 0"
8" 1'- 4" (Typ.)
4 1/2"
Detail C
Section A-A
Figure 8.8.3.1.1-3
Details of Reinforced Pockets
4 1/2"
1/2-in.-dia.
strand @ 1'-4"
on center
1"
3 1/8"
3/4"
5/8"
2 1/2"
Detail C
Clear cover
1"
1/4" roughened surface

(using formliners)
1/4"
#7 bar
3/4"
#4 bar
3" O.D. Spiral
D
5"
Blockout
1/4"
3/4"
4 3/4"
2 1/4"
Clear cover
Spiral and #4 splice bar,

see below
#4 bar @
1/2-in.-dia.
2'-0"
strand @ 1'-4" on center
Section D-D
Figure 8.8.3.1.1-4
Panel-to-Panel Connection
(At 2'-0" Centers)
4 1/2"
1" 2 1/2" 1"
3 1/8"
3/4"
5/8"
Section B-B
Spiral, 3" O.D., 1" pitch,

0.25" dia. wire, 145 ksi
#4 splice bar
#4 bar
D
Sim.
#4 bar
4 1/2"
D
Sim.
Backer-rod seal
JUL 03
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CHAPTER 8
8.8.3.2 Full-Depth Precast Concrete Panels
Figure 8.8.3.2-1
Overview of Full-Depth
Panel System
Precast pretensioned
concrete panels
Post-tensioning tendons
Leveling bolt
(removed
after grout cures)
Non-shrink
grout
Non-shrink
grout
Welded threaded stud
with plate washer and nut
8.8.3.2
Full-Depth Precast
Concrete Panels
An overview of this system is shown in Figure 8.8.3.2-1. It consists mainly of precast, transversely pretensioned concrete panels, welded threaded studs, grout-filled
shear keys, leveling bolts, and longitudinal post-tensioning tendons.
The overall geometry is determined by the arrangement of pretensioning strands
for positive moments and to provide an adequate compressive zone for negative
moments. One layer of welded wire reinforcement is provided in the upper portion of the slab. Pretensioning strands are arranged in two layers and eccentricity is
minimized because the panel is subjected to both negative and positive moments.
Two important functions of the transverse joints between panels are to transfer live
loads and to prevent water leakage. For these two requirements, a shear key with a
rapid-set, non-shrink grout is used. Longitudinal post-tensioning is applied after the
transverse shear keys are grouted but before the deck is made composite with the
underlying beams.
The full-depth precast pretensioned system has the following benefits:
It has an equivalent slab thickness of 5.9 in., which makes it significantly lighter
than other systems
The system is prestressed both directions, resulting in superior performance
compared to conventionally-reinforced decks
The system does not need a CIP topping, which reduces the time of construction
The panel includes 1/2 in. extra cover to be used for grinding the deck to a
smooth surface
The panels can be rapidly produced and constructed, or removed
The grouted, post-tensioned transverse joints between panels prevent cracking
and possible leakage throughout the service life of the deck
Deflection under service load is small in comparison to non-prestressed systems
JUL 03
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CHAPTER 8
8.8.3.2 Full-Depth Precast Concrete Panels/

Full-scale fatigue and ultimate strength testing has demonstrated superior performance of this system. No cracks or joint leakage were observed after two million
cycles of loading. The strength of the system was governed by punching shear of the
slab at about 5 times the maximum wheel load of an HS25 truck.
The disadvantages of this system include the following:
The deck surface is required to be ground in order to attain a smooth riding
surface
Longitudinal post-tensioning significantly increases the number of construction
steps required
Panel weight requires availability of cranes
8.8.4
LRFD Specifications
Empirical Design Method
The empirical procedure of the LRFD Specifications [LRFD Art. 9.7.2] is attractive in
that it provides less reinforcement than analytical methods, including finite element
and strip analysis. Less steel should result in less deck deterioration due to reinforcement corrosion. The method is based on full-scale testing, conducted primarily in
Ontario, Canada. The empirical design method may be used only if certain specified
conditions are met. If the specified amount of reinforcement is provided, the deck
is considered to satisfy all design requirements without need for design calculations.
The conditions are:
the supporting components are steel and/or concrete beams
the deck is fully cast-in-place and water-cured
the deck is of uniform depth, except for haunches at beam flanges and other
local thickening
the ratio of effective length, between inside faces of beam webs, to the design
depth does not exceed 18.0 and is not less than 6.0
core depth of the slab, between the extreme faces of top and bottom reinforcement, is not less than 4.0 in.
the effective length, between the inside faces of the beam webs, does not exceed
13.5 ft
the minimum depth of the slab is not less than 7.0 in. excluding a sacrificial
wearing surface where applicable
there is an overhang beyond the centerline of the outside beam of at least 5
times the depth of the slab. This condition is satisfied if the overhang is at least
3 times the depth of the slab, and a structurally continuous concrete barrier is
made composite with the overhang
the specified 28-day strength of the deck concrete is not less than 4.0 ksi
the deck is made composite with the supporting structural components
the reinforcement required consists of four layers
minimum amount of reinforcement is 0.27 in.2/ft for each bottom layer and
0.18 in.2/ft for each top layer
maximum spacing of bars is 18 in.
The provisions of the empirical design method are not applied to overhangs. The
overhang should be designed for all of the following cases:
wheel loads for decks with discontinuous railings and barriers using the equivalent
strip method
JUL 03
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CHAPTER 8
equivalent line loads for decks with continuous barriers (LRFD Art. 3.6.1.3.4)
collision loads using a failure mechanism
Note that negative overhang moments require reinforcement that must be extended
into the adjacent span.
JUL 03
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CHAPTER 8

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL

AASHTO SPECIFICATION REFERENCES

PRINCIPLES AND ADVANTAGES OF PRESTRESSING

7017 Bridge Man Ch 8 TOC

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL

STRAND TRANSFER AND DEVELOPMENT LENGTHS

7017 Bridge Man Ch 8 TOC

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL

HORIZONTAL INTERFACE SHEAR

7017 Bridge Man Ch 8 TOC

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL

CAMBER AND DEFLECTION

DECK SLAB DESIGN

7017 Bridge Man Ch 8 TOC

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL

TRANSVERSE DESIGN OF ADJACENT BOX BEAM BRIDGES

7017 Bridge Man Ch 8 TOC

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL

LATERAL STABILITY OF SLENDER MEMBERS

7017 Bridge Man Ch 8 TOC

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL

DETAILED METHODS OF TIME-DEPENDENT ANALYSIS

7017 Bridge Man Ch 8 TOC

7017 Bridge Man Ch 8 TOC

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL

= area of cross-section of the precast beam

= area of concrete on the flexural tension side of the member

= area of concrete section resisting shear transfer

= area enclosed by centerlines of the elements of the beam

= minimum area of web reinforcement

= depth of the compression block

= effective flange width

= width of the compression face of a member

= width of cross-section at the contact surface being investigated

7017 Bridge Man Ch 8 TOC

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL

= loss of pretension due to creep of concrete

= creep coefficient at time tj (j = 0,1,2,)

= creep at time t for beam concrete loaded at time t3

= creep at time t for deck concrete loaded at time t3

= ultimate creep coefficient for concrete at time of release of

= ultimate creep coefficient for concrete at time of application of

= distance from the extreme compression fiber to the neutral axis

= depth of steel layer from extreme compression fiber

= distance from extreme compression fiber to the centroid of the

= modulus of elasticity of concrete

= age-adjusted modulus of elasticity for deck concrete at time t3

= modulus of elasticity at time tj (j = 0,1,2,)

= initial modulus of elasticity

= modulus of elasticity at a certain time

= modulus of elasticity of the beam concrete at transfer

= modulus of elasticity of pretensioning tendons

7017 Bridge Man Ch 8 TOC

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL

= age-adjusted, effective modulus of elasticity of concrete for a

7017 Bridge Man Ch 8 TOC

PCI BRIDGE DESIGN MANUAL