Communication Arts 2

Lecture Notes
of
College of Arts and Sciences
Nueva Vizcaya State University
Bayombong Campus

Republic of the Philippines

NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
COLLEGE OF ARTS AND SCIENCES
Department of Languages
Writing in the Disciplines
Second Semester, SY 2015-2016
COURSE OUTLINE
Orientation
Week 1
VMGO of the University
Week 1

Academic Reading

Week 2 - 3

Academic Writing

Week 3 - 4

Paragraphs and Topic Sentences

Week 4

The Principles of Unity

Week 5

The Principles of Coherence

Week 5

The Principles of Emphasis

Week 6

Planning your Paragraph

Week 6

FIRST TERM EXAMINATIONS

Week 7 8

Writing an Essay

Week 8 - 9

Writing a Reaction Paper

Week 9 - 18

Writing a Research Paper

Week 12

SECOND TERM EXAMINATIONS

Week 18

FINAL EXAMINATIONS

LESSON I
ACADEMIC READING

Think of reading as a treasure hunt: an active search rather than an attempt to soak up and

absorb everything you come across.

Peter Levin Write Great Essays! (2004. p2)
At the University you will be expected to do a good deal of reading. You will have
extensive reading lists which can seem quite intimidating. This is why it is important to develop
an effective reading strategy. A key element of such a strategy is to develop an active reading
approach.
1. Active reading
When reading for academic purposes it is useful to ask yourself the following questions:

Why am I reading this?

Do I need to read it all?

Where should I start?

Which parts will be most useful?

How can this text help me?

These questions should help you to start to engage with the material from the outset and become a
more focused reader.

2. Different ways of reading

The way we read depends on the material we are reading and our purpose for reading it. Some of
the different approaches to reading include:

2.1 Skimming reading to form a general impression of the text. You do not try to read every
word or in too much depth or detail. You can skim the introduction and conclusion to a book, or
the opening and closing paragraph to a chapter or article. You can quickly skim through the
content page, index or chapter sub-headings. The main purpose when skimming is to get the gist.

2.2 Scanning looking for a particular piece of information. When you scan you ignore all the
other information and focus on finding what you want. We scan when using a telephone directory.
When we scan for information we usually know what we are looking for.

2.3 Critical reading close and detailed reading of a text. When you read critically you need to
continually analyse, question and evaluate what you are reading. Some useful questions include
asking yourself:

What is the main argument?

What evidence does the author use to support and develop this argument?

Is the evidence valid? (Is it up to date/relevant/biased?)

Is the authors argument similar or different to others you have read?

How does the authors argument develop this particular area of study?

Do you agree with the author? (Why? Why not?)

How can you use this information? (E.G. in an essay/report/presentation)

3. SQ3R
A useful reading strategy to use is known as SQ3R. This stands for Survey, Question, Read,
Recall, Review.

3.1 Survey Quickly skim through the text. This should give you a general idea of what the text
is about and help you to decide whether it is of any use to you.

3.2 Question Can this text help me? Does it give me any useful information that I can use?
Which part of the assignment can it help me with? Asking questions will help you to stay focused
on your subject.

If after the first two steps you feel the text is of no use to you move on to another text. If the text
is useful to you continue using SQ3R.

3.3 Read Make a more careful and detailed reading of the text. Still try to remain focused on
your reason for reading this text. Read through the text and make notes of any key/significant
points. Use the critical reading questions listed above.

3.4 Recall Put the text and your notes to one side and try to recall the information you have read.
Make a note of any points you are still uncertain about.

3.5 Review Re-read the text to check your understanding and seek clarification of the points you
were uncertain about.

SQ3R may seem to make reading a time consuming process. However, with practice this will
improve. The most important point about a reading strategy like SQ3R is that it will help you to
become a more active reader. It allows you to engage with a text in a way that is meaningful and
beneficial to you.

Activity:
Read the following text and answer the questions that follow:
PORPHYRIAS LOVER
By Robert Browning
So, she was come through wind and rain.
Be sure I looked up at her eyes
Happy and proud; at last I knew
Porphyria worshipped me; surprise
Made my heart swell, and still it grew
While I debated what to do.
That moment she was mine, mine, fair,
Perfectly pure and good: I found
A thing to do, and all her hair
In one long yellow string I wound
Three times her little throat around,
And strangled her. No pain felt she;
I am quite sure she felt no pain.
As a shut bud that holds a bee,
I warily oped her lids: again
Laughed the blue eyes without a stain.
And I untightened next the tress
About her neck; her cheek once more
Blushed bright beneath my burning kiss:
I propped her head up as before,
Only, this time my shoulder bore
Her head, which droops upon it still:
The smiling rosy little head,
So glad it has its utmost will,
That all it scorned at once is fled,
And I, its love, am gained instead!
Porphyria's love: she guessed not how
Her darling one wish would be heard.
And thus we sit together now,
And all night long we have not stirred,
And yet God has not said a word!
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Illustrate the setting of the story.

Describe the mood and tone of the story.
Describe the mental and emotional state of the speaker.
What could be the possible relationship between the speaker and Porphyria? Identify
the lines that made you make that idea.
5. What could possibly make the speaker do what he did?
6. Why did the speaker kiss Porphyria? Identify lines that prove your point.
7. What did the speaker feel after doing the deed? Identify lines that prove your point.
1.
2.
3.
4.

LESSON II
ACADEMIC WRITING

Activity:
A. The class will be divided into groups and each group will be asked to answer the following:
1. What is the text about?What kind of text is it?Who is the writer?
2. What do the four texts have in common? In what way are they similar? How do they differ?
3. Which text gives the least information? The most information?

B. Make a news article about the incident. Choose a reporter to read the news.
Text 1
Death occurred from the effect of asphyxia, cerebral anemia and shock. The victims hair was used
for the constricting ligature. Local marks of the ligature were rapidly discernible; there was some
abrasion and a slight ecchymosis in the skin. But I found no obvious lesions in the blood vessels
of the neck.
Cyanosis of the head was very slight, and there were no pronounced hemorrhages in the galea of
the scalp. I should judge that very great compression were effected almost immediately, with
compression of the arteries as well as of the veins, and that the superior laryngeal nerve was
traumatized with the effect of throwing the victim into profound shock.
The lungs revealed cyanosis, congestion, over-aeration, and subpleural petechial hemorrhages.

Text 2
State of California
Orange County
TWENTY FIRST JUDICIAL DISTRICT COURT

THE GRAND JURORS of the State of California duly impaneled and sworn, in and for
Orange County in the name and by the authority of the said State upon their oath, find and present:
THAT ONE John Doe, late of Orange County, on the 23rd day of January in the year of
Our Lord One thousand nine hundred and twenty four with force and arms, In Orange County,
afford, and within jurisdiction of the twenty first Judicial District Court of California, did
unlawfully, feloniously, with malice aforethought kill and slay one Porphyria Blank by
strangulation.
Contrary to the form and statutes of the State of California, in cases made and provided
and against the peace and dignity of the same.

District Attorney for the 21st

Judicial District of California

Text 3
The dead girl, beautiful and peaceful in death, her scarlet lips slightly parted as though
whispering caress to her lover, her blue eyes gentle and unquestioning as a baby, lay in the
murderers arms like a child who has been rocked to sleep. Her golden hair falling in profusion
about her shoulders all but concealed the cruel welt of red about her throat. The murderer, clutching

his precious burder to him, like a mother holding an infant, appeared dazed. As the police came
in, he rose to meet them, still carrying his precious burden in his arms. The officer almost had to
force him to reliquish her. He could not answer questions could merely clutch her closer to his
breast all that remained of the girl he loved better than life, and mutter, I love her, I love her,
like a man in a dream. A few hours later when I saw him in the sordid surroundings of the 10th
Precint Station House, so different from the cozy cottage which had been abode of a tragic love,
he was till dry-eyed, though his face wore a ghastly pallor.
But when I tried to question him, I became aware of the terrific strain under which he
suffered and he showed all the signs of a man on the verge of hysteria. When I tried to draw from
him the motive of the pitiful tragedy, he could only reply, his pale boyish face a mask: I killed
her; but God never said a word, a word.
At last he managed pitifully to say, I killed her so that she would be mine alone for
always!
And this is the irony of fate! Separated as they were by wealth, social position, and all that
it implies, it was only in death that they could be united.
Who are we to pass judgement on such a love?

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Library or Internet Activity:

Using the table below, define the given academic genres, their use/s and the one who makes use
of them.
Activity sheet: ACADEMIC GENRES
Names: (Write your names alphabetically)
1. ____________________________________________
2. ____________________________________________
3. ____________________________________________
4. ____________________________________________
5. ____________________________________________
6. ____________________________________________
7. ____________________________________________
Academic Genre

Definition

Use/s

Course/Section:
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
_______________________
User

Essay

Response papers

Journals

Position papers

Reviews

Laboratory reports

Research reports

Field observations

Proposal papers

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LESSON III
PARAGRAPHS AND TOPIC SENTENCES

Well-written sentences are not enough to make your writing clear and understandable.
Sentences must be further organized into meaningful units of thought.
After sentences, the most basic unit of thought in writing is the paragraph. The indention
of the first sentence of a paragraph tells the reader that a new unit of thought follows.
Understanding Topic Sentences and Support
A paragraph develops one main idea, which is usually stated in a sentence called the topic
sentence. Every other sentence, every fact, example, example, and detail, should support
the topic sentence.
TOPIC SENTENCES
A good topic sentence captures the general idea of the paragraph better than any other
sentence.
The topic sentence states the main idea of the paragraph.
The topic sentence is usually found at the beginning of a paragraph, where it gives a
preview of and direction to the sentences that come after it, as in the following example.
Notice that all of the other sentences in the paragraph support the main idea with facts.
Example:
Controlling the entry of foreign pests is the job of the United States Department of
Agricultures Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service, nicknamed APHIS. Some 700
APHIS inspectors work around the clock at 100 ports of entry. In a years time, they inspect
some sixty four million pieces of baggage carried by air travelers from foreign countries.
They also meet 62,000 shipd and inspect roughly five million pieces of seagoing baggage.
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On the Mexican border, they check more than forty-five million automobiles annually and
about 100,000 railroad cars. They also screen some sixty million pieces of mail and
examine about four million cargo shipments.

Sometimes, however, the topic sentence comes at the end of the paragraph, where it draws
a conclusion or functions as a summary. In the following paragraph, the topic sentence,
which is at the end, states the conclusion of the preceding ideas and adds a finishing touch.
Example:
Smoke curled from under the eaves and rose from the roof. Frames shooting from the
window arched upward toward the sky. Some of the floors and interior walls thundered
downward, spraying sparks and glowing cinders through lower doors and windows. The
building could not be saved.

SUPPORT
Supporting information is specific information that helps a reader understand the topic
sentence. Whenever you write a paragraph, you must always be sure that there is enough
supporting information to develop the topic sentence completely.
There are several different kinds of supporting information from which you can choose
examples, details, facts, reasons, and incidents.
Frequently a paragraph will use a combination of these different kinds of supporting
information.
Examples. Because topic sentences usually are rather general statements, they need to be
supported with specific examples. An example is a specific instance of a general idea or

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principle. In some cases, a topic sentence will need only two or three examples; others may
need four or more examples to be developed thoroughly.
In the following paragraph, examples are used to develop the topic sentence. Notice that
each of the examples helps to explain the main idea. Also notice that the last sentence acts
as a summary for the paragraph.
The German shepherd, a breed of dog that originated in northern Europe, performs many
services for people. Once used mainly for herding sheep, German shepherds today help
police in tracking and capturing criminals. In addition, these dogs often function as guards
in stores, factories, and private houses. As seeing-eye dogs, German shepherds have earned
respect for their keen, careful guiding of the blind. Intelligent and versatile, German
shepherds remain a popular, useful breed of dog.

Details. In paragraphs that describe a place, person, or action, much of the supporting
information will probably be made up of details. Details are pieces of information that help
a reader visualize and understand what the writer is describing. In storytelling and
descriptive writing, especially, details place the readers in the scene.
In the following paragraph, details are used to help the reader see what the character sees.
Curious to know what this Cutter Gap looked like, I slid out of the bed and hobbled stiffly
over to one of the windows. Nothing had prepared me for what met my eyes. Mountain
ranges were folded one behind the other, in the foreground snow-covered; behind that,
patches of emerald green showing through; on beyond, deeper green. Then the blues began.
On the smoky blue of the far summits fluffy white clouds rested like wisps of cotton. I
counted the mountain ranges, eleven of them rising up and up toward the vault of sky. The

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Great Smokies... now I understood. That peculiar smoky-blue color and the adjective
great so right for these towering height.

Reasons. When a topic sentence presents an opinion that another person might challenge
or question, it will generally be supported with reasons. If the writer fails to support a
controversial statement with evidence or reasons, a reader may disregard the opinion.
The topic sentence of the following paragraph expresses the writers preference for
swimming in the lake. The supporting information offers three reasons to help the reader
understand and perhaps convince the reader to accept the writers point of view. Notice
that the final sentence wraps up the writers reasons.
I prefer swimming in a mountain lake to swimming in a pool. The crisp mountain air around
a lake invigorates and pleases me. I like a lakes underwater life, such as minnows and
trout, and I enjoy observing the plant life around me. Most important, a lake usually has no
chemicals, such as chlorine, that can smell bad and burn my eyes. Lake water is clean,
natural, and more refreshing for swimming.

Activity:
Form five-seven members per group and using a topic from the following list, write a topic
sentence. Then make a list of three-five (3-5) of supporting information.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Buying clothes
Computer games
New technologies
Famous television shows
Best hobbies

15

LESSON IV
THE PRINCIPLES OF UNITY

Unity means consistency or oneness. Unity is achieved if all the elements of a sentence
are consistent, united or one. Unity is achieved if all the elements of a sentence are consistent.

Consistency of Tense
1. The verb in the adverbial clause generally agrees with the tense of the verb in the main
clause.
Incorrect: Undot ran to the door to open it when he sees us coming.
Correct: Undot ran to the door to open it when he saw us coming.
2. The verb in an adjective clause need not agree in tense with the verb in the main clause in
as much as the actions are not necessarily related in time of occurrence.
Incorrect: Puyang, who is my classmate in English 2 last summer, is planning to go to the
United States.
Correct: Puyang, who was my classmate in English 2 last summer, is planning to go to
the United States.
3. The verb in a noun clause is generally in the past tense if the verb in the main clause is in
the past tense. The verb remains in the present tenses if the idea expressed in the noun
clause is a universal truth or a relatively permanent condition.
Example: Jose Rizal is our National Hero.

16

4. In general, the tense form that will indicate the time of the action one wishes to express
must be used.
Example: Because Valen finished reviewing her lessons, she can watch her favorite
show.
Consistency of Voice
Consistency of voice may be maintained by using the same voice throughout the
sentence.
Example:

Active
The President of the Philippines vetoed the bill.
Passive
The bill was vetoed by the President of the Philippines.

Consistency of Subject
Subject refers to the part of a sentence that is spoken of. Consistency of subject may be
maintained by avoiding necessary shifts of subjects in a sentence.
1. Make the subject of the first verb the subject of the second
2. Recast the sentence to provide subjects that are parallel in idea
Inconsistent: Susan was born in Hawaii, but the Philippines is the place where she grew
up.
Consistent: Susan was born in Hawaii, but she grew up in the Philippines.
Inconsistent: The hikers hurried on and soon the campsite was in view.
Consistent: The hikers hurried on and soon they saw the campsite.
Consistency of number and person
Be sure that the pronoun agrees in person and number with its antecedent.

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Inconsistent: Everybody rehearsed their part in the play.

Consistent: Everybody rehearsed his or her part in the play.
Consistency of Tone
Tone means style or manner of expression. Tone may be formal, informal,
conversational, humorous, witty, ironical, or sad. Choose the tone appropriate to your purpose
and maintain it throughout the sentence. If the tone is formal, do not include colloquialisms or
slang expression.
Example: The ladys circle held a shindig in honor of the President.
Consistency of Ideas
Maintain consistency of ideas by:
1. Excluding loosely related or irrelevant ideas from the sentence;
2. Avoiding run-on sentences, or too many details which tend to clutter or jumble the
sentence; and
3. Using the proper connective to relate the ideas expressed in the sentence.
Example: Joanne, the first summa cum laude of this university and at the same time a
lover of nature, received a cash award.
Consistency of Language
Use the same language throughout the sentence. Avoid the use of foreign terms or
phrases which have not been incorporated into the language. If no word can effectively express
the meaning of the foreign term, use the foreign term but enclose it in quotation marks or
underline it to show italics.
Example: Jomar is sacristan mayor.

18

Activity:
Before each item, write the kind of inconsistency shown in each of the sentences. Then,
rewrite the following sentence to establish sentence unity.
--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Name: ___________________________________ Date: ___________________________
__________________________1. One has developed their sense of humor if he can laugh at
their mistakes.

__________________________2. If Bokyo had been more careful in driving, he will not have
met an accident.

__________________________3. Everyone in the class knows how to dance the carinosa.

__________________________4. You should review your lessons because the teacher will give
us a test tomorrow.

__________________________5. Dishonest politicians allotted much allowance for themselves

and much money spent for the candidacy.

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LESSON IV
THE PRINCIPLES OF COHERENCE

Coherence is the quality of sticking together. The sentence elements are so arranged as to
show their relationships. Clarity in the sentence depends largely on proper word order.
ORDER OF SENTENCE PARTS
Order of Adjectives
Opinion-size-shape-condition-age-color-pattern-origin-material-purpose-noun
E.g.
Ugly small thin dirty old red striped Italian cotton sleeping bag
Beautiful long white French silk wedding dress
Large broken ancient Greek clay flower vase
A. Position of Modifiers in the Sentence
1. One-word modifiers of nouns are placed before the nouns
e.g. The young witness took his oath.
2. Phrase and clause modifiers of nouns are placed immediately after the word they modify.
e.g. Children, yawning and rubbing their eyes, returned his stare.
3. Phrase modifiers may be placed at the beginning of the sentence provided that the
noun/pronoun that follows as the subject is the word modified.
e.g. Viewed from outside, the house seemed spacious.
4. Modifiers of verbs may be placed after the verb or after the object complement, if any.
e. g.

I still love you.

He is extremely careful.

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5. Adverbs of time, manner, and place are placed before the subject if the verb or objects has
other modifiers.
e.g. Yesterday, I saw the girl who was chose Miss Universe.
6. Two phrases or clauses which are parallel in form and modify the same word must both be
placed either before or after the word they modify.
e.g. Having gone to Europe and having seen how other countries enjoyed freedom, Jose Rizal
dreamed of a free Philippines.
7. Only, enough, just may be used as adjectives/adverbs. When used as adjectives, they are
placed before the nouns they modify.
e.g. Only Jane attended the meeting.
8. When only is used as an adverb it may be placed after the word it modifies.
e.g. He came only to inform you of his proposed project.
9. When enough is used as an adverb, it is placed after the word it modifies, followed by an
infinitive.
e.g. Clarissa was brave enough to tell the truth.
B. Dangling Constructions
Dangling constructions are present in sentences where modifiers are placed wrongly near
words they do not modify or when modifiers are placed without words to describe. In such cases,
the sentences are said to dangle, hang or swing.
Dangling Verbals
Participial Phrase:

Dangling:

The ladys gown glitters, looking at a distance.

Improved:

The ladys gown glitters as I look at it from a

distance.

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Infinitive Phrase:

Dangling:

To succeed in class, constant review was made.

Improved:

To succeed in class, my classmate reviewed

constantly.

Gerund Phrase:

Dangling:

For winning the race, a gold medal award was given

to Mikee.

Improved:

For winning the race, Mikee was given a gold

medal award.

C. Word Order in Direct and Indirect Discourse

1. Direct discourse expressed as a statement should be introduced by the pronoun that in
indirect discourse.
DD: My little boy proudly declared, The whole is equal to the sum of its parts.
ID: My little boy proudly declared that the whole equal to the sum of its parts.
2. A question answerable by yes or no should be introduced if or whether in indirect
discourse.
DD: The teacher asked ,Have you read the works of Dylan Thomas?
ID: The asked me if I had read the works of Dylan Thomas.
3. A question not answerable by yes or no should be introduced in indirect discourse by
whatever word.
DD: I asked, Why are you smiling Yumina?
ID. I asked Yumina why she was crying.
4. A command or request must be changed into an infinitive into an indirect discourse.
DD: My sister asked, Please close the door.
ID: My sister asked me to close the door.

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COORDINATION AND PARALLELISM

1. Express parallel elements in the same grammatical form.
e.g.

Incorrect:

Roger loves to to swim and hiking.

Correct:

Roger loves swimming and hiking.

2. This parallelism is acceptable when it avoids artificiality.

e.g.

Correct:

The soldier walked slowly and with a limp.

3. Sentence elements following correlative conjunctions should have parallel structure.

e.g.

Correct:

Justice is for both the rich and the poor.

Activity:
Write C if the statement is COHERENT and correct the sentence if it is not.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Name: _________________________________________ Score: ______________________
_________1. She forgot almost her date.
_________2. Melita prepared only the ingredients.
_________3. The lawyer intelligent asked questions.
_________4. I always have loved you.
_________5. After reviewing the paragraph, it was revised.
_________6. After giving the test, the students reviewed the items.
_________7. Raul is a man who is brilliant and integrity.
_________8. Little children want to be loved and noticed.
_________9. Mr. Gomez is strict and who is incorruptible.
_________10. The Gomezs are thrifty, honest and they are hardworking.

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LESSON V
THE PRINCIPLES OF EMPHASIS

Emphasis enables a writer to stress or underscore a part of a sentence that is considered

most important or more important than the other elements.
PROPER SUBORDINATION FOR EMPHASIS
Techniques of emphasis are simply techniques of subordination turned backwards to
subordinate an idea is to emphasize another. Make important ideas stand out by putting them in
independent clauses.
e.g. A child is required to finish the tasks assigned him, and he learns to be trustworthy.
Emphatic:
A child who is required to finish the tasks assigned him learns to be trustworthy.
When a child is required to finish the tasks assigned him, he learns to be trustworthy.
Required to finish the tasks assigned him, a child learns to be trustworthy.
THE PERIODIC SENTENCES FOR EMPHASIS
Sentences can be classified, according to the arrangement of their divisions of thought, as
loose, periodic, or balanced.
A loose sentence expresses its main idea first and leaves the modifiers and secondary elements for
last.
A periodic sentence turns this statement around. It starts with modifiers and secondary elements
and serves its main statement for the end. Though loose sentences are natural and effective, they
are subject to the ambiguity caused by misplaced modifiers. Although they often fail to show exact
logical relationships and, if over-used, become monotonous.
e.g.

Loose:

You may find a total stranger in your bedroom, sometimes as early as six
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in the morning.
You are a politicians wife, more likely than not, if you often find yourself
in this situation.
Periodic:

Sometimes, as early as six in the morning, you may find a total stranger in
your bedroom.
If you often find yourself in this situation, you are, more likely than not, a
politicians wife.

MODIFIERS FOR EMPHASIS

The accuracy, clarity and emphasis of sentences can be greatly enhanced by the judicious
addition of modifiers. However, modifiers piled one top of another are enemies of emphasis;
therefore, prune your sentences of excess modifiers. The following are different ways of achieving
emphasis by the use of modifiers:
1. Do not use excess modifiers.
e.g.

Weak:

The Filipino cheerfully, instantly and generously helps relatives in

need.

Emphatic:

The Filipino cheerfully helps relatives in need.

2. Do not omit modifiers that best convey the meaning intended.

e.g.

Weak:

Family centeredness could be a flaw.

Emphatic:

Extreme family centeredness could be a serious flaw.

3. Add modifiers to improve the accuracy, clarity and emphasis of sentences.

e.g.

Weak:

Many times, the Filipino considers that which will benefit his
family.

25

Emphatic:

Many times, the Filipino considers only that which will benefit his
family.

CONCISENESS FOR EMPHASIS

A sentence should be contructed as simply and as economically as the thought requires or
allows. Complicated and wordy sentences are frequently caused by unnecessary words or phrases.
The more concise expression, without sacrificing accuracy, is more emphatic.
e.g.

Weak:

As an employee, he is very efficient.

Emphatic:

He is a very efficient employee

Activity:
Rewrite the sentences in order to give it more emphasis.
------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------Name: _________________________________________ Course/Section: _______________
1. The family is the worlds oldest and toughest institution. It ensures the continuity of social
order and transmits cultural values.

2. The family has a great capacity to emphatize with others and is helpful and generous in
times of need.

3. He starts projects with full vigor and interest and then abandons them.

4. In order to cope with problems, they seek advice from older people.

5. Without any intention, they sometimes commit mistakes.

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LESSON VI
PLANNING YOUR PARAGRAPH

There are certain steps you can follow that can help you plan a paragraph.
A. PRE-WRITING
The first step in planning a paragraph is finding a topic that is the right size to be covered in a
paragraph. The second step involves deciding what you want to say about this topic. The final step
is the actual writing of a good topic sentence.

Generating ideas and Choosing a topic

You can find ideas for paragraph topics by examining your interests and experiences. You can
use methods such as interviewing yourself, free writing, journal writing, reading and saving,
clustering, cueing, and brainstorming to find ideas for topics.
Narrowing a topic
You will usually narrow a general topic down into a paragraph topic by thinking of all the
subcategories of the general topic.

Find a suitable paragraph topic by dividing a general topic into smaller topics.
Dividing a general topic into smaller topics
General topic
Smaller topics
Skateboards
Skateboard as a hobby
Dangers of skateboarding
Best models of skateboards
Riding skateboards

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Focusing on a main idea

After you have a suitable paragraph topic, you must focus on the main idea. To do this, think
about the people to whom you are writing (that is, your audience). You should also focus on your
purpose in writing.

Questions to leading to possible main topics

Paragraph topic: Skateboards as a hobby
Questions
Possible main ideas
Why might my audience be interested in the
Skateboards were a major trend last year.
topic?
What might my audience want to learn about A number of amusing things happened
my topic?
because of the trend.
What is the most important thing to tell them Skateboarding is fun but is a waste of time.
about the topic?
Writing your topic sentence
Once you have selected a main idea that suits both your audience and the purpose you have
in mind, you should be ready for your next planning step: writing the topic sentence.

State your main idea in a topic sentence that suits your audience and purpose.
Possible completed topic sentences
1. By far the biggest trend at our school most of last year was skateboarding
2. A skateboard trend swept our school last year
3. During the summer, skateboarding was very popular at our school but interest slackened
during the start of the semester
4. Many students at our school had skateboards last year.

28

Activity:
Complete the table by writing the following:
Criteria for scoring
Content
Grammar and Mechanics
Organization
Total

10
2
3
15 points

Generating a topic. Write a topic that truly

interests you.
Narrowing a topic. Divide the general topic into smaller topics
General topic
Smaller topics

Focusing on a main idea. Give possible main ideas to the given questions.
Questions
Possible main ideas
Why might my audience be interested in the
topic?
What might my audience want to learn about
my topic?
What is the most important thing to tell them
about the topic?
Writing your topic sentence. Develop your topic sentence from your main ideas.
Possible completed
topic sentence

29

Brainstorming for support

After you have written your topic sentence, the next step in writing a paragraph is gathering
enough supporting information to fully explain your main idea.
Brainstorm for examples, details, facts, reasons, or incidents that explain your ropic
sentence.
Questioning to find support for a topic sentence
Topic sentence: A skateboard trend swept our school last year
Why was it a trend?
____ everyone talked about it
____ students were left out if they didnt have a skateboard
____ six out of ten students had a skateboard
____ after six months people were bored with them
____ skateboards are easy to maintain
What happened when the trend swept the school?
____ skateboard competitions were held on the sidewalks
____ new skateboard clubs started
____ cheerleaders did routines on skateboard games
____ a few students skateboarded while listening to radios

Organizing your support

After you have written a topic sentence and listed supporting information, organize your
support for the reader.
Eliminate unrelated supporting information.
Questioning to find support for a topic sentence
Topic sentence: A skateboard trend swept our school last year
Why was it a trend?
____ everyone talked about it
____ students were left out if they didnt have a skateboard
____ six out of ten students had a skateboard
____ after six months people were bored with them
_X_ skateboards are easy to maintain
What happened when the trend swept the school?
____ skateboard competitions were held on the sidewalks
____ new skateboard clubs started
____ cheerleaders did routines on skateboard games
_X_ a few students skateboarded while listening to radios
30

Ordering and outlining your supporting information

You should next decide how to present the supporting information so that you will be clear
to your readers.
Choose the best order to support and outline your paragraph using that order.
The final step in planning a paragraph is preparing an outline. Begin by putting your topic
sentence at the top of the page. Then using the order you have chosen, set up your supporting
information in a modified outline. Add a concluding sentence to the outline if you think one would
be helpful.
Topic sentence
A skateboard trend swept our school last year
Supporting sentences
1. Skateboards suddenly appeared during the summer
2. Students felt left out if they didnt have a skateboard
3. Seven out of ten students purchased a skateboard during the summer
4. Cheerleaders used them in routines at games
5. Clubs formed during the semester
6. Competitions were organized
7. Everyone got tired of skateboards during the first semester
Concluding Sentence
Finally, like all true crazes, skateboard disappeared from school life almost as quickly as they had
disappeared.

31

Activity:
Select one of the general topics listed below. Then follow the steps in writing a topic sentence,
find support and to create a good outline.
Criteria for scoring
Content
Organization
Total
1.
2.
3.
4.

8
7
15 points

Your favorite food

A career that interests you
The funniest movie you ever saw
The first day of school

32

LESSON VII
WRITING AN ESSAY

An essay is composed of a group of related paragraphs that work together to present one
main point. Once you understand the basic structure of an essay, you can adapt the form to fit
different topics and assignments.
The Parts of an essay
An essay has three parts: (1) an introduction, which presents the main point of the essay;
(2) the body, which consists of two or more paragraphs that support or explain the essays main
point; and (3) a conclusion, which summarizes the main point and brings the essay to a close.
Opening remarks
(Thesis statement)
Supporting paragraph 1
Supporting paragraph 2
Supporting paragraph 3
Closing Remarks
(Reminder of the thesis statement)
The thesis statement: It is the idea explained and supported in the essay

The Introduction
The introduction is a vital part of an essay. It indicates the purpose of an essay, telling
whether the essay will be expository or persuasive. The most significant function of an
introduction, however, is to present the thesis statement.

33

The introduction indicates the essays purpose and presents the main point in a
thesis statement.
The International Whaling Commission (IWC) has recently outlawed factory
ships, but whaled remain in danger of extinction. Whales will survive only if the IWC
declares a worldwide moratorium on hunting whales and if pirate whalers are stopped.

In addition to presenting the main point, the thesis statement can also break down the
main point into smaller points, which are called subtopics.

Thesis statement
Children should not be
encouraged to believe in
Santa Claus because Santa
fosters commercialism and
selfishness.

Examination of thesis statements

Purpose
To persuade

Stated subtopics
1. Commercialism
2. Selfishness

The Body
Each paragraph in the body should support the thesis statement with examples, details,
facts, reasons, or incidents. The supporting information should be organized by means of
subtopics.
The body of an essay develops the thesis statement, treating one subtopic at a time.
Orders for subtopics in the body of an essay
Orders
Sample topics
Chronological (Subtopics arranged in a time
How to clean a fish tank
sequence)
Spatial (Subtopics arranged by location or
Some places to visit in Nueva Vizcaya
position)
Order of importance (Subtopics arranged
The need to tighten security at NVSU
from least important to most important or vice
versa)
Developmental (Subtopics of equal emphasis Three of the best sites for photography in
arranged logically)
Nueva Vizcaya
34

The Conclusion
The conclusion is usually a short, separate paragraph at the end of the essay. It generally
begins with a reminder of the thesis statement. The conclusion should leave the reader feeling
that the topic has been covered thoroughly.
The conclusion refers back to the thesis statement and brings the essay to a close.
Only by ending all hunting of whales can whales be preserved. If the killing of
whales continues unchecked, the noble animals described in Melvilles Moby Dick will
soon become as legendary as Moby Dick himself.

Activity:
Write an essay about the topic to be given by your teacher.
Criteria for scoring
Content
Focus
Conventions
Organization
Style
Total

10
5
5
5
5
30 points

35

LESSON VIII
WRITING A REACTION PAPER

Writing good response papers is more demanding than it might appear at first. It is not
simply a matter of reading the text, understanding it, and expressing an opinion about it. You must
allow yourself enough time to be clear about what each text says and how the texts all relate to one
another. In other words, response papers require you to synthesize the intellectual work of others
that is, bring it together into an integrated whole. In preparing to write response papers, therefore,
it is crucial that you allow yourself not just enough time to do the readings but enough to digest
what you have read and to put the results together into a unified account.
Questions to Ask Consider texts individually:
What is the main problem or issue that the author/film is addressing?
What is the author/filmss central claim, argument, or point?
What assumptions does the author/film make?
What evidence does the author/film present?
What are the strengths and weaknesses of the text/movie?
What are possible counterarguments to the text/films claims?
Why are the problem(s) and the argument(s) interesting or important? Consider
texts/scenes collectively:
How do they relate to one another? Do the you agree? Disagree? Address different aspects
of an issue? Formulate a problem in different ways?

36

Actions to Take
Explain the key terms, main arguments, and assumptions of each text. Do your best to
characterize each text/scenes arguments fairly and accurately.
Evaluate the evidence that each text/scene presents: point out strengths and weaknesses,
both internal to the text and in relation to the others. For example, if one text/scene makes an
argument based on an assumption that another text either confirms or refutes, then you can use the
latter text to evaluate the plausibility of the claim made by the former.
Explain how the texts/scenes relate to and speak to one another. Synthesize them if you
can, and if you cannot, explain what the barriers preventing such a synthesis are.
Consider both sides of issues at stake. If all the texts/scenes are on one side of an issue,
consider the other side. If the texts/scenes fall on both sides of an issue, consider where agreements
and disagreements lie and what each sides strengths and weaknesses are.
Include your own voice by weighing arguments, evaluating evidence, and raising critical
questions. If there seems to be something important that none of the authors addresses, point it out
and state what you think its significance is. Try to be as specific as possible.
Be careful to do all parts of the assignment. Accord each text the weight it deserves.
Dont forget to synthesize your account by showing how the texts relate to one another. The
authors are in a figurative, if not literal, conversation with one another, and you must be able to
recognize and explain what is going on in that conversation.
Keep an eye out for authors/films omissions, and raise counterarguments when you
detect authors/filmmakers arguments are weak.

37

Activity:
Write a reaction paper about the movie to be shown by your teacher.
Criteria for scoring
Content
Purpose
Use of Reference
Conventions
Total

10
8
7
5
30 points

38

LESSON IX
WRITING A RESEARCH PAPER

Research is key to progress. It is believed that there can be no progress without research.
Almost everything including technologies enjoyed today is a product of research. In government,
in education, in trade and commerce, and in all types and kinds of industries, research is vital and
essential to development.
The Meaning of Research
The word research is derived from the prefix re- which means repeat or redo, and the root
word search, which means to find or look for. From the etymology of the word, research literally
means to repeatedly look for something which had been in existence before.
Other Definitions of Research
It is a systematic, controlled, empirical, and critical investigation of hypothetical
propositions about the presumed relations among phenomena.
Research is simply the systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic or
problem. (Aquino, 1986)
Research is an attempt to gain solutions to problems. (Treece and Treece)
The Purposes of Research
1. To discover new facts about a phenomena;
2. To find answers to problems which are only partially solved by existing methods and
information;
3. To discover previously unrecognized substances and elements;
4. To provide basis for decision making in business, industry, education, government, and
other undertakings;
39

5. To satisfy the researchers curiosity;

6. To find answers to queries by means of scientific method;
7. To acquire a deeper and better understanding about a phenomenon;
8. To verify or expand existing knowledge;
9. To improve the educational practices for raising quality of school products;
10. To promote health and prolong life which is evident in nutritional, pharmaceutical, and
medical researches; and
11. To make work, communication, and travel faster, easier and more comfortable.
Characteristics of a Good Research
1. Systematic. It is systematic as there are interrelated steps or procedures a researcher has to
observe in solving a problem.
2. Objective. It is not based on guesswork. This is because empirical data have to be gathered
by the researcher before making any conclusion or proposing any solution to an identified
difficulty or problem.
3. Empirical. All the procedures employed and the data gathered are perceived in the same
manner by all observers. Generalizations are drawn by the researcher upon hard evidence
gathered from information collected from the real life experiences and observations.
4. Comprehensive. If a researcher is serious about understanding a phenomenon, he has to
examine and analyze all its aspects or angles before making a generalization or conclusion.
5. Critical. This means that procedures employed by the researcher must withstand critical
scrutiny by other researchers.
6. Rigorous. Procedures to be followed in solving a problem should be relevant, appropriate,
justified, and strictly observed.

40

7. Valid. Whenever a researcher formulates conclusions, these are based on actual findings.
8. Verifiable. Other researchers can check on the correctness of its results by replicating the
study based on the methods and procedures employed by the researcher.
Types of Research
1. Descriptive Research. This type of research endeavors to describe systematically, factually,
accurately and objectively a situation, problem or phenomenon. It is seeks to describe
what is.
2. Correlational/Associational Research. In this type of research, the investigator tries to
probe the significance of relationship between two or more factors or characteristics.
3. Explanatory Research. In this type of inquiry, the researcher seeks to clarify how and why
a relationship exists between two or more aspects of a situation or phenomenon.
4. Exploratory Research. This kind of study is undertaken when the investigator is after
probing or exploring areas where little is known about the research problem.
5. Experimental Research. In this type of research, the researcher probes into the cause of an
effect by exposing one or more experimental groups to one or more treatments or
conditions.
6. Historical Research. The researcher attempts to reconstruct the past objectively and
accurately or to explain an incident that happened in the past with the use of data taken
from the past.

41

Idea-generating Phase
Problem definition Phase
Procedure-design Phase

Data-collection Phase
Data-anaysis Phase
Interpretation Phase
Communication Phase
The Research Process
Parts of a Research Paper
1. Title page
2. Introduction
3. Methodology
4. Conclusions
5. References
Activity:

1.
2.
3.
4.
5.

Describe/define the following research terms and concepts:

Objective
Verifiable
Valid
Empirical
Comprehensive

42

Writing the Research Problem

The research problem shows that someone would like to research on or perhaps, that which
a person finds unsatisfactory or unsettling; a difficulty of some sort, or a state of affairs that needs
to be changed.
The choice of a problem is often, if not, always difficult. The difficulty of choosing a
problem is sometimes premeditated by lack of understanding of the nature of research and
systematic problem-solving activity.
Criteria for Choosing the Research Problem
1. External
a. Novelty and avoidance of unnecessary duplication
b. Importance in the field
c. Availability of data
d. Choice of method
e. Funding support or sponsorship
f. Facilities and equipment
g. Ethical considerations
2. Internal
a. Interest/experience of the researcher
b. Training
c. Cost
d. Time

43

Elements of a Research Problem

1. Purpose. This answers the question WHY? Why is there an investigation, inquiry of
study?
2. Subject Matter. This answers the question WHAT? What is to be investigated?
3. Place or locale. This answers the question WHERE? Where is the study to be conducted?
4. Period or time. This answers the question WHEN? When is the study to be carried out?
5. Population or universe. This answers the question WHO? Or FROM WHOM? Who are
the respondents? From whome are the data to be gathered?

Purpose

To determine the status of

Subject Matter

The teaching of Mathematics

Place or locale

National High schools in Metro Manila

Period or time

SY 2015-2016

Population/Universe

The respondents are implied to teachers or pupils or both

Title

The Teaching of Mathematics in National High schools in

Metro Manil during SY 2015-2016

Activity:
With your groupmates, think of a topic and supply the elements of a research problem.
Purpose:
Subject Matter:
Place or locale:
Period or time:
Population or universe:

44

Writing the Introduction

An introduction is the first paragraph of a written research paper, or the first thing you say
in an oral presentation, or the first thing people see, hear, or experience about your project.
It has two parts:
1. A general introduction to the topic you will be discussing
2. Your Thesis Statement
Without an introduction it is sometimes very difficult for your audience to figure out what
you are trying to say. There needs to be a thread of an idea that they will follow through your paper
or presentation. The introduction gives the reader the beginning of the piece of thread so they can
follow it.
Start with a couple of sentences that introduce your topic to your reader. You do not have
to give too much detailed information; save that for the body of your paper. Make these sentences
as interesting as you can. Through them, you can hook a reader and get them very interested in the
line of thinking you are going to develop in your project.
Then state your thesis, which may be done in one or more sentences. The length of your
introduction depends on the length and complexity of your project, but generally it should not
exceed one page unless it is a very long project or a book. The average length of an introduction
is one half a page.
The Scope and Limitation
The scope and limitations of the study set the boundaries of the investigation. This
discusses the variables included in the investigation and the justification why they were included.
Likewise, it cites the variables which were excluded from the study and the reason for their
exclusion.
45

The Significance of the Study

This explains and discusses any of the following:
1. The intended or target beneficiaries of the study
2. The specific benefit each of the intended clients/end-users may get out of the result of the
investigation
3. The contribution of the study to a body of knowledge
Introduction
The melamine controversy that erupted during the last quarter of year 2008 brought peoples attention
back to the debates between breastfeeding and the use of breast milk substitutes like commercial infant formula.
This wasnt the first time that infant formula had caused illnesses and even deaths to infants worldwide - hence
the continuous campaign of World Health Organization (WHO) and UNICEF along with other breastfeeding
advocates,

for

mothers

to

breastfeed

their

children

at

least

until

months

of

age.

Infant feeding practices refer generally to meet the nutritional and immunological needs of the baby. A study of
infant feeding practices was carried out on a sample of 100 mother and infant pairs. The results revealed that
only 20% of mothers in the study currently exclusively breastfeed their babies. It also shows that socio-economic
factors like mothers work status, marital status and educational attainment had direct bearing on these practices.
Employed mothers tend to cease from breastfeeding their babies and eventually stop and just resort to formula
feeding as they go back to work. The study also showed that mothers who are married and living with their
partners are more likely to breastfeed their infants than single mothers. Those with higher educational attainment
resort more to formula feeding and mixed feeding than those with lower educational attainment. Health care
professionals influence mothers the most when it comes to infant feeding decisions.

Sample Introduction

46

Writing the Methodology

Research design is the plan and structure of the investigation conceived so as to obtain
answers to research questions. The plan is the overall scheme of program of the research. It
includes an outline of what the investigator will do until the final analysis of the data.
This part is the core of your paper as it is a proof that you use the scientific method.
Through this section, your studys validity is judged. So, it is very important.
Your methodology answers two main questions:
1. How did you collect or generate the data?
2. How did you analyze the data?
While writing this section, be direct and precise. Write it in the past tense.
Include enough information so that:
1. Others could repeat the experiment and evaluate whether the results are reproducible.
2. The audience can judge whether the results and conclusions are valid.
The explanation of the collection and the analysis of your data is very important because;
1. readers need to know the reasons why you chose a particular method or procedure instead
of others.
2. readers need to know that the collection or the generation of the data is valid in the field
of study.
Discuss the anticipated problems in the process of the data collection and the steps you took to
prevent them.
Present the rationale for why you chose specific experimental procedures.
Provide sufficient information of the whole process so that others could replicate your study.

47

You can do this by:

1. Giving a completely accurate description of the data collection equipments and the techniques.
2. Explaining how you collected the data and analysed them.
Specifically;
a- Present the basic demographic profile of the sample population like age, gender, and the racial
composition of the sample. When animals are the subjects of a study, you list their species,
weight, strain, sex, and age.
b- Explain how you gathered the samples/ subjects by answering these questions:
1. Did you use any randomization techniques?
2. How did you prepare the samples?
c- Explain how you made the measurements by answering this question.
1. What calculations did you make?
d- Describe the materials and equipments that you used in the research.
e- Describe the statistical techniques that you used upon the data.
The order of the methods section should flow like this:
1. Describing the samples/ participants.
2. Describing the materials you used in the study
3. Explaining how you prepared the materials
4. Describing the research design
5. Explaining how you made measurements and what calculations you performed
6. Stating which statistical tests you did to analyze the data.

48

Sources of Data
Data are classified according to source as follows:
1. Primary Data. Primary data are those gathered from primary sources.
a. Individual person
b. Organized group or organizations such as associations, fraternities, schools,
communities, etc.
c. Established practices such as marriages, rites, etc.
2. Secondary Data. Secondary data are those gathered from secondary sources.
a. Books
b. Articles published in journals, magazines, newspaper, etc.
c. Unpublished theses and dissertations
d. Monographs and manuscripts
e. Any verbal or written data
Research Techniques in Generating Data
1. Questionnaire
a. Open-ended questionnaire one whose options of the items are not given or are not
arranged.
Ex. How do you assess K-12? ____________________________
b. Closed-ended questionnaire the options are given or enumerated and the
respondents simply check or encircle his answers.
Ex. How do you assess K-12?
a. Excellent

c. Poor

b. Very Good

d. Needs Improvement

49

2. Interview
a. Structured interview the questions are stated specifically in a fixed list (called an
interview guide) and the interviewer asks the questions verbatim in the order in which
they are listed.
b. Unstructured interview this is more flexible and open since the interviewer does not
need to follow the order in which they are listed.
3. Observation
a. Unstructured observation a non-selective method of observation which does not
impose a structure on the situation but instead attempts to provide an analysis of the
situation.
b. Structured observation in this method, the researcher knows the aspects of group
activity which is relevant to his purpose thus, he develops a specific plan for making
and recording observations before he begins collecting data.
Sampling Designs and Techniques
PROBABILITY SAMPLING
1. Random Sampling. Each person in the universe has an equal probability of being chosen
for the sample and every collection of persons of the same size has an equal probability
of becoming the actual sample.
Simple Random Sampling =sampling without replacement
2. Systematic Sampling. A sample constructed by selecting every nth element in the
sampling frame. Systematic sampling is more practical in that it is less work and thus
provides more information per dollar. It also may reduce error. (The more complex the
method, the greater opportunity for error.)

50

3. Stratified Random Sampling. Is obtained by separating the population elements into

overlapping groups, called strata, and then selecting a simple random sample from within
each stratum.
Example: Rank order: full professor, associate professor, etc.
After this is done a random or systematic sample is drawn within each group.
4. Cluster Sampling. A simple random sample'in which each sampling unit is a collection or
cluster, or elements. For example, an investigator wishing to study students might first
sample groups or clusters of students such as classes or dormitories, and then select the
fmal sample ofstudents from among clusters. Also called area sampling. Advantage:
saves time and money.
Disadvantage: error.
NON PROBABILITY SAMPLING
Usually can not claim that a sample is representative. Much less complicated, less expensive and
can be done at the spur ofthe moment. Can take advantage of whoever is available.
1. Convenience Sampling. The investigator chooses the closest live persons as respondents.
"Captive audience" sampling. (E.g., using a class ofintro to psych students).
2. Quota Sampling. Equivalent to a stratified sample with the added requirement that each
stratum is generally represented in the sample in the same proportion as in the entire
population. (Example: 60% democrats and 40% republicans - select a sample ofthe two
3. Dimensional Sampling. A multidimensional fonn ofquota sampling. One has to specifY
all dimensions (variables) or interest on the population and then to make sure that every
combination of these dimensions are represented by at least one case. This method is

51

designed for studies in which only a small sample is desired so that each case drawn can
be studied in more detain than is possible in a large-scale study ..
4. Purposive Sampling. The researcher uses his or her own judgment about which
respondents to choose, and picks those who best meets the purposes ofthe study.
5. Snowball Sampling. Has achieved increased use in recent years; particularly by
researchers conducting observational research and in community studies. Conducted in
stages. In the 1 st stage a few persons having the requisite characteristics are identified
and interviewed. These persons are used as informants to identifY others who qualify for
inclusion in the sample. The second stage involves interviewing these persons who in tum
lead to still more persons who can be interviewed in the 3rd stage, etc.
The term "snowball" stems from the analogy of a snowball, which begins small but
becomes bigger and bigger and rolls downhill. Also called "chain referral sampling."
particularly useful in deviant studies and subcultures (drug addicts, etc.).
STATISTICAL TOOLS
Finding the Mean
The mean of a set of values is the sum of the values divided by the number of values. It is also
called the average.
Example: Find the mean of 19, 13, 15, 25, and 18
19 + 13 + 15 + 25 + 18
5

= 90 = 18
5

When the mean is known and you must find a missing value, some simple rules of algebra must
be applied.
Example: Cory has received the following grades this term: 75, 87, 90, 88, 79. If he
wishes to earn an 85 average, what must he score on his final test?
Set up the problem like this: 75 + 87 + 90 + 88 + 79 + s = 85
6
52

To solve:
1. Add the known values.
419 + s = 85
6
2. Next, we want to try to isolate the unknown (s) on one side of the equation. To do this we
must use inverse operations to eliminate the numbers on the side of the equation with the
unknown (this means we do the opposite of what is being done).
Start with the 6. Since we are dividing the expression 419 + s by the 6, we must now multiply it
by 6. NOTE: Whatever you do to one side of the equation, you must do to the other side of the
equation as well. Therefore, I will multiply the 85 by 6 too.
6 x

419 + s = 85 x 6
6

I can cancel the 6s on the left side of the equation. This leaves you with the equation:
419 + s = 510
Now we must eliminate the 419 from the side of the equation with the unknown. Since we are
adding 419 to s, we will subtract it from both sides of the equation.
419 + s = 510 419
- 419
0
This leaves us with:

s = 91

Answer: The student will need to score a 91 on his last test to earn an average of 85 for the term.
Finding the Median
The median refers to the midpoint in a series of numbers.
To find the median, arrange the numbers in order from smallest to largest. If there is an odd
number of values, the middle value is the median. If there is an even number of values, the
average of the two middle values is the median.
Example #1: Find the median of 19, 29, 36, 15, and 20
In order: 15, 19, 20, 29, 36 since there are 5 values (odd number), 20 is the
median (middle number)
Example #2: Find the median of 67, 28, 92, 37, 81, 75
53

In order: 28, 37, 67, 75, 81, 92 since there are 6 values (even number), we
must average those two middle numbers to get the median value
Average: 67 + 75
2

142
2

= 71 is the median value

Finding the Mode

The mode of a set of values is the value that occurs most often. A set of values may have more
than one mode or no mode.
Example #1: Find the mode of 15, 21, 26, 25, 21, 23, 28, 21
The mode is 21 since it occurs three times and the other values occur only once.
Example #2: Find the mode of 12, 15, 18, 26, 15, 9, 12, 27
The modes are 12 and 15 since both occur twice.
Example #3: Find the mode of 4, 8, 15, 21, 23
There is no mode since all the values occur the same number of times.

Methodology
Type of Research
The type of research that will be used in this study is qualitative research and quantitative research. Qualitative
researchers aim to gather an in-depth understanding of human behavior and the reasons that govern such
behavior. The discipline investigates the why and how of decision making. Besides this, the researcher
will also examine the phenomenon through observations in numerical representations and through statistical
analysis. Along with questionnaires that will be given out to respondents for the statistical representation of the
findings in the study, interviews with the respondents and a few experts in this field will also be conducted.
Sampling Method
The research sampling method that will be used in this study is random sampling to obtain a more scientific
result that could be used to represent the entirety of the population. A list of all health care facilities (maternity
and lying-in clinics, public and private hospitals, health centers) was acquired from the Las Pias City Hall.
From 20 barangays, 3 will be picked through random sampling. The health care facilities and institutions in
these three barangays will then be the target sources of respondents of the researcher. The health care facilities

54

and institutions will be contacted to obtain a verbal consent to administer the questionnaire to mothers at their
places. A letter of consent will also be sent to them along with a sample copy of the questionnaire that will be
used, as well as the protocol of the researcher. A letter was also addressed to the City Health Officer to obtain
endorsement and consent to conduct a research in selected barangays and distribute questionnaires to the
mothers in the vicinity.
Data collection was conducted throughout the facilities and health centers operating hours from Mondays
through Sundays in order to include both working and non-working mothers.
Respondents
The respondents in this research will all be coming from one single location - Las Pias City, specifically the
randomly selected barangays of Pamplona I, CAA/BF International and Pamplona III. The researcher chose
Las Pias City because of the socio-economic conditions present in the area that is relevant to the study and
also as it fits the time frame and resources of the researcher. The randomly sampled respondents will be asked
by the researcher for consent and approval to answer the questionnaire until the desired number of respondents
which is 100 is reached. The opinion of experts will also be sought in this research to provide explanations
regarding the respondents infant feeding behaviors and practices.
Questionnaire
The questionnaire requires information about the socio-economic and demographic background of the mother.
It also has questions related to previous infant feeding practices and the birth of her youngest infant and also
regarding the babys general health and age.
Statements that are perceived to be factors that influence mothers infant feeding decisions were presented.
The description of the type of infant formula given by formula and mixed feeding mothers will also be asked in
the material.

Sample Methodology

55

Writing the Conclusion

In academic writing, a well-crafted conclusion can provide the final word on the value of
your analysis, research, or paper. Complete your conclusions with conviction!
Conclusions show readers the value of your completely developed argument or
thoroughly answered question. Consider the conclusion from the reader's perspective. At the end
of a paper, a reader wants to know how to benefit from the work you accomplished in your
paper. Here are ways to think about the purpose of a conclusion:
1. To connect the paper's findings to a larger context, such as the wider conversation about
an issue as it is presented in a course or in other published writing.
2. To suggest the implications of your findings or the importance of the topic.
3. To ask questions or suggest ideas for further research.
4. To revisit your main idea or research question with new insight.
Should you summarize?
Consider what readers can keep track of in their heads. If your paper is long or complex,
some summary of your key points will remind readers of the ground you've covered. If your
paper is short, your readers may not need a summary. In any paper, you'll want to push beyond
mere summary to suggest the implications or applications of your work.
How do you start drafting a conclusion?
Effective conclusions take the paper beyond summary and demonstrate a further
appreciation of the paper's argument and its significance: why it works, why it is meaningful, and
why it is valuable. To get started, you might ask yourself these questions:
1. How do the ideas in your paper connect to what you have discussed in class, or to what
scholars have written in their treatment of your topic?

56

2. What new ideas have you added to the conversation? What ideas do you critique?
3. What are the limitations of your data, methods, or results?
4. What are the consequences of the strongest idea that comes out of your paper?
5. How can you return to the question or situation you describe in your introduction?

Conclusion
Majority of the mothers formula feed their child and only a minority exclusively breastfeeds their children,
especially as per recommendation of the World Health Organization. While majority of the mothers in this
study showed a positive attitude towards breastfeeding, most of them decided only to formula feed due to the
reasons of insufficient milk supply and work.
Based on the results of the study, the educational attainment, work status, marital status, and seminars in the
barangay the respondents are part of, about breastfeeding, are the significant factors that affect the infant
feeding decision of mothers in Las Pias City.
Majority of the mothers that served as respondents in this study fall under the age range of 17-30 years old.
More than half of them were also college graduates while a significant number are undergraduates and have
only reached until high school. Most of the mothers are housewives and the others remaining have full-time
jobs, part-time jobs and self-employed. A few of them are still students. While majority of them were married,
a lot were still in a status of live-in and are single. More than half of the mothers did not have previous children
before the current one. Majority of the respondents also have an annual gross household income that does not
exceed P50,000.
Among the several information sources namely, media through televisions/radios and printed/published
materials, the social support system comprised of the mothers family, friends and other relatives and health
institutions, the mothers who give their babies infant formula are influenced the most by health care
institutions through health professionals and other health care personnel. They influence the mothers in
deciding to feed the baby with formula and in choosing, as well, which brand of formula is best for their
babies. Mothers trust their babys doctor because of their expertise in the said field hence this kind of relation

57

is achieved.
Mothers were overall not concerned about the possible side effects of breastfeeding as a few were only worried
as shown in the data presented.
It can be concluded that numerous internal as well as external factors influence a mother in making infant
feeding decisions, and a greater fraction of these is socio-economic in nature.

Sample Conclusion

58

Citing Sources in APA format

1. From an online periodical
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article.Title of
Online Periodical, volume number(issue number if available). Retrieved from
http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/
Bernstein, M. (2002). 10 tips on writing the living Web. A List Apart: For People
Who Make Websites, 149. Retrieved from
http://www.alistapart.com/articles/writeliving

2. From a database
Author, A. A., & Author, B. B. (Date of publication). Title of article.Title of
Journal, volume number, page range. Retrieved from
http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/
Smyth, A. M., Parker, A. L., & Pease, D. L. (2002). A study of enjoyment of
peas. Journal of Abnormal Eating, 8(3), 120-125. Retrieved from
http://www.articlehomepage.com/full/url/

3. From a newspaper article

Author, A. A. (Year, Month Day). Title of article. Title of Newspaper. Retrieved
from
http://www.someaddress.com/full/url/
Parker-Pope, T. (2008, May 6). Psychiatry handbook linked to drug industry. The New
York Times. Retrieved
from http://well.blogs.nytimes.com/2008/05/06/psychiatry-handbook-linked-todrug-industry/?_r=0

4. From electronic books

De Huff, E. W. (n.d.). Taytays tales: Traditional Pueblo

Indian tales. Retrieved

from http://digital.library.upenn.edu/women/dehuff/taytay/taytay.html
Davis, J. (n.d.). Familiar birdsongs of the Northwest.

Available from

http://www.powells.com/cgi-bin/biblio? inkey=1-9780931686108-0

59

5. From online encyclopedias and dictionaries

Feminism. (n.d.). In Encyclopdia Britannica online. Retrieved from
http://www.britannica.com/EBchecked/topic/724633/feminism

6. From online lecture notes or presentation slides

Hallam, A. Duality in consumer theory [PDF document]. Retrieved from Lecture Notes
Online Web site: http://www.econ.iastate.edu/classes/econ501/Hallam/
index.html

7. From a web log

J Dean. (2008, May 7). When the self emerges: Is that me in the mirror? [Web log
comment]. Retrieved from http://www.spring.org.uk/the1sttransport
Psychology Video Blog #3 [Video file]. Retrieved from
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=lqM90eQi5-M

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References:
Asuncion. Z. & Querol, M. (2009). Study and thinking skills. Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya: SMU
Publishing House.
Asuncion, Z. & Querol, M. (2009) Writing in the disciplines. Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya: SMU
Publishing House.
Bermudo, P. et.al. (2010) Research writing made simple. Manila: Mindshapers Co., Inc.
Duke University. (n.d.) Response/reaction paper. Retrieved: October 17, 2015 from
https://twp.duke.edu/uploads/assets/response%20paper.pdf
Grammar and Composition (2009) Jurong, Singapore: Pearson Education South Asia Pte Ltd.
King, R. (n.d.) Advance research methods. Retrieved: October 18, 2015 from
http://www.psyking.net/HTMLobj-3829/Types_of_Sampling.pdf
Purdue Online Writing Lab (n.d.) Reference list: Electronic sources. Retrieved: October 18, 2015
from https://owl.english.purdue.edu/owl/resource/560/10/
Research paper example (2008-2015) Retrieved: October 18, 2015 from
https://explorable.com/research-paper-example
Samuels, H. (2004) Writing an introduction. Retrieved: October 17, 2015 from
http://www.crlsresearchguide.org/17_Writing_Introduction.asp
White Hall, H. (2012)Making your last word count. Retrieved: October 17, 2015 from
http://writing.wisc.edu/Handbook/PDF
Yeditepe University. (2015) How to write the methodology of a research paper. Retrieved:
October 17, 2015 from https://yuwritingcenter.wikispaces.com

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(Title Page)
Republic of the Philippines
NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya

TITLE OF PAPER

A Research Paper
Presented to

MA. JULIE ANNE C. GAJES

Faculty, College of Arts of Sciences

In partial fulfillment to the Requirements in

Communication Arts 2
(English 2)

By:
NAMES OF RESEARCHERS

March 2015
62