Offshore Structures

OFFSHORE STRUCTURES
Analysis and Design
Dr.S.Nallayarasu
Associate Professor
Department of Ocean Engineering
Indian Institute of Technology Madras,
Chennai - 600036, India
Contents
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2
Types of Offshore Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10
1.3
Fixed Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
1.3.1
Steel template Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
1.3.2
Concrete Gravity Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
11
Compliant Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
1.4.1
Compliant Tower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
15
1.4.2
Guyed Tower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
1.4.3
Tension Leg Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
16
1.4.4
Articulated Tower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
17
Floating Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
1.5.1
Floating Production System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
18
1.5.2
Floating Production, Storage and offloading System . . . . . . . . . .
19
1.6
Subsea System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
19
1.7
Fixed Platform Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
1.7.1
Functional Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
1.7.2
Geometrical Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
20
1.4
1.5
Contents
1.7.3
Contents
Foundation Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 DESIGN METHODOLOGY
21
23
2.1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
23
2.2
Design Stages . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
2.2.1
FEED . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
2.2.2
Basic Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
24
2.2.3
Detailed Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
25
3 LOADS
29
3.1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
3.2
Types of Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
29
3.3
Gravity Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
3.3.1
Dead Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
3.3.2
Facility Dead Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
3.3.3
Fluid Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
30
3.3.4
Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
3.3.5
Drilling Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
Environmental Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
3.4.1
Wind Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
31
3.4.2
Wave and Current Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
34
3.4.3
Current Profile . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
35
3.4.4
Marine Growth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
36
3.4.5
Morison Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
3.4.6
Wave-Current Interaction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
37
3.4
Contents
Contents
3.4.7
Selection of Wave Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
38
3.4.8
Wave Load on a Member . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
39
3.4.9
Maximum Global Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
44
3.4.10 Buoyancy Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
45
3.4.11 Ice Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
3.4.12 Mud Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
48
3.5
Load Estimation and Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
49
3.6
Load Combinations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
51
4 MATERIALS AND CORROSION
53
4.1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
53
4.2
Structural Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
4.2.1
Structural Member Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
4.2.2
Steel Grades . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
54
4.2.3
Manufacturing
56
4.2.4
Chemical Requirements
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
4.2.5
Carbon Equivalent (CE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
56
4.2.6
Mechanical Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
4.2.7
Notch Toughness Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
4.2.8
Supplementary Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
4.3.1
Seawater Corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
57
4.3.2
Factors influencing corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
58
4.3.3
types of corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
60
4.3.4
Rates of corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
61
4.3
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Contents
Contents
4.4
Corrosion Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
4.5
Cathodic Protection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
62
4.5.1
63
Sacrificial Anode System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
5 SIMULATION
67
5.1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
67
5.2
Structure Geometry selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
5.3
Geometry Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
68
5.3.1
Axis System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
5.3.2
Joints or Nodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
69
5.3.3
Members and properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
70
5.3.4
Offsets and Eccentricities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
5.3.5
Wish-bone Connections . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
71
5.3.6
Dummy Structure Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
72
Foundation Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
5.4.1
Pile Modelling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
75
5.4.2
Soil Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
5.4.3
Pile Group Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
77
Load Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
5.5.1
Dead Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
5.5.2
Equipment Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
5.5.3
Fluid Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
80
5.5.4
Drilling Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
5.5.5
Live Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
5.5.6
Wind, Wave and Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
81
5.4
5.5
Contents
Contents
6 In-place Analyses
85
6.1
Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
85
6.2
86
6.2.1
Simplified Topside Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
6.2.2
Load Simulation
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
87
6.2.3
Topsides Load COG Shift Envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
6.2.4
Minimum and Maximum Water Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
88
6.2.5
Maximum Wave Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
89
6.2.6
Allowable Stresses
89
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7 Dynamic Analysis
91
7.1
Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
91
7.2
91
7.3
Load Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
7.3.1
Computer Generated Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
7.3.2
Direct Input Mass
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
92
7.4
Foundation Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
7.5
Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
93
7.5.1
94
Dynamic Amplification factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
8 Fatigue Analysis
95
8.1
General . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
8.2
Deterministic Fatigue Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
95
8.3
Wave Scatter Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
96
8.4
Spectral Fatigue Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
Contents
Contents
8.4.1
Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
8.4.2
Wave Spectra . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
98
8.4.3
Wave Theory Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
8.4.4
Wave Steepness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
8.4.5
Transfer Functions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
99
8.4.6
Selection of Frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
8.4.7
Stress Amplitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
8.4.8
Fatigue Life Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
8.4.9
S-N Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
8.4.10 Stress Concentration Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

8.4.11 Foundation Linearisation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
9 Ship Impact Analysis
107
9.1
Impact Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
9.2
Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
9.3
Method of Computing Impact Energy Dissipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
9.4
Energy dissipation by member . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
9.5
Energy Dissipation by Overall jacket deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
9.6
Structural Strength During Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
9.7
Push Over Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
General
One of the greatest discovery of 20th century was oil and it has so many applications that
it cannot be separated from mankind. The oil exploration has started as early as 1900 and
the oil exploration initially was concentrated on on land. As the need for oil expands in an
explosive rate, need for find new discoveries was eminent. During the middle of 20th century,
oil discovery started in near shore and medium range of water depth.
The need for qualified offshore structural personnel are rapidly increasing as the oil industry
moves into deeper water in the search for additional supplies of oil and gas, new technology
is emerging at a rapid peace for the development of new concepts for offshore platforms.
This book gives brief introduction to offshore engineering with basic concepts of various
types of offshore structures and provide insight into various design issues and requirements,
fabrication and installation techniques.
Chapter 1 gives introduction in to types of offshore platforms based on water depth requirements, geometry and installation concepts.
Chapter 2 gives some introduction to design methodology, and various design stages in a
offshore development project.
Chapter 3 gives basic loads applied on offshore structures and techniques of calculations of
such loading.
Chapter 4 gives introduction to material requirement for offshore structures including corrosion.
9
1.2. Types of Offshore Structures
Chapter 1. INTRODUCTION
Chapter 5 gives introduction to materials used for offshore structures, and corrosion and
cathodic protection.
Chapter 6 describes inplace analysis methodology, load combinations and and various principles involved in the design.
Chapter 7 describes methodology to carry out the dynamic analysis of an offshore platform
and its application to fatigue and seismic analyses.
Chapter 8 gives method of fatigue analysis such as deterministic and spectral methods including, selection of S-N curves, SCF equations etc.
Chapter 9 give some introduction in to ship impact with offshore platforms and method to
carry out push over analysis.
1.2
Types of Offshore Structures
The offshore structures built in the ocean to explore oil and gas are located in depths from
very shallow water to the deep ocean. Depending on the water depth and environmental
conditions, the structural arrangement and need for new ideas required. Based on geometry
and behaviour, the offshore structures for oil and gas development has been divided into
following categories.
1. Fixed Platforms
Steel template Structures
Concrete Gravity Structures
2. Compliant tower
Compliant Tower
Guyed Tower
Articulated Tower
Tension Leg Platform
3. Floating Structures
Floating Production System
Floating Production, Storage and Offloading System
10
1.3. Fixed Platforms
1.3
Fixed Platforms
The fixed type of platform shall exhibit a low natural period and deflection again environmental loads.
1.3.1
Steel template Structures
The steel template type structure consists of a tall vertical section made of tubular steel
members supported by piles driven into the sea be with a deck placed on top, providing space
for crew quarters, a drilling rig, and production facilities. The fixed platform is economically
feasible for installation in water depths up to 500m.
These template type structures will be fixed to seabed by means of tubular piles either driven
through legs of the jacket (main piles) or through skirt sleeves attached to the bottom of the
jacket.
The principle behind the fixed platform design is to minimize the natural period of the
structure below 4 seconds to avoid resonant behaviour with the waves (period in the order
of 4 to 25 seconds. The structural and foundation configuration shall be selected to achieve
this concept.
1.3.2
Concrete Gravity Platforms
Concrete gravity platforms are mostly used in the areas where feasibility of pile installation is
remote. These platforms are very common in areas with strong seabed geological conditions
either with rock outcrop or sandy formation.
Some part of north sea oil fields and Australian coast, these kind of platforms are located.
The concrete gravity platform by its name derive its horizontal stability against environmental forces by means of its weight. These structures are basically concrete shells assembled in
circular array with stem columns projecting to above water to support the deck and facilities.
Concrete gravity platforms have been constructed in water depths as much as 350m.
11
Figure 1.1: Different types of Offshore Structures
12
Figure 1.2: Fixed Template type platform
13
Figure 1.3: Concrete Gravity Platform
14
1.4. Compliant Structures
Figure 1.4: Complaint Tower Platform
1.4
Compliant Structures
In addition to the developing technologies for exploration and production of oil and natural
gas, new concepts in deepwater systems and facilities have emerged to make ultra-deepwater
projects a reality. With wells being drilled in water depths of 3000m, the traditional fixed
offshore platform is being replaced by state-of-the-art deepwater production facilities. Compliant Towers, Tension Leg Platforms, Spars, Subsea Systems, Floating Production Systems,
and Floating Production, Storage and Offloading Systems are now being used in water depths
exceeding 500m. All of these systems are proven technology, and in use in offshore production
worldwide.
1.4.1
Compliant Tower
Compliant Tower (CT) consists of a narrow, flexible tower and a piled foundation that
can support a conventional deck for drilling and production operations. Unlike the fixed
platform, the compliant tower withstands large lateral forces by sustaining significant lateral
deflections, and is usually used in water depths between 300m and 600m.
15
Figure 1.5: Tension Leg Platforms
1.4.2
Guyed Tower
Guyed tower is an extension of complaint tower with guy wires tied to the seabed by means of
anchors or piles. This guy ropes minimises the lateral displacement of the platform topsides.
This further changes the dynamic characteristics of the system.
1.4.3
Tension Leg Platforms
A Tension-leg platform is a vertically moored floating structure normally used for the offshore
production of oil or gas, and is particularly suited for water depths around 1000m to 1200
metres (about 4000 ft). The platform is permanently moored by means of tethers or tendons
grouped at each of the structures corners. A group of tethers is called a tension leg. A
feature of the design of the tethers is that they have relatively high axial stiffness (low
elasticity), such that virtually all vertical motion of the platform is eliminated. This allows
the platform to have the production wellheads on deck (connected directly to the subsea
wells by rigid risers), instead of on the seafloor. This makes for a cheaper well completion
and gives better control over the production from the oil or gas reservoir.
Tension Leg Platform (TLP) consists of a floating structure held in place by vertical, ten16
Figure 1.6: SeaStar
sioned tendons connected to the sea floor by pile-secured templates. Tensioned tendons
provide for the use of a TLP in a broad water depth range with limited vertical motion. The
larger TLPs have been successfully deployed in water depths approaching 1250m.
Mini-Tension Leg Platform (Mini-TLP) is a floating mini-tension leg platform of relatively
low cost developed for production of smaller deepwater reserves which would be uneconomic
to produce using more conventional deepwater production systems. It can also be used as a
utility, satellite, or early production platform for larger deepwater discoveries. The worlds
first Mini-TLP was installed in the Gulf of Mexico in 1998.
SPAR Platform (SPAR) consists of a large diameter single vertical cylinder supporting a
deck. It has a typical fixed platform topside (surface deck with drilling and production
equipment), three types of risers (production, drilling, and export), and a hull which is
moored using a taut catenary system of six to twenty lines anchored into the seafloor. SPARs
are presently used in water depths up to 1000m, although existing technology can extend its
use to water depths as great as 2500m.
17
1.4.4
Articulated Tower
Articulated tower is an extension of tension leg platform. The tension cables are replaced
by one single buoyant shell with sufficient buoyancy and required restoring moment against
lateral loads.
The main part of the configuration is the universal joint which connects the shell with the
foundation system. The foundation system usually consists of gravity based concrete block
or some times with driven piles.
The articulated tower concept is well suited for intermediate water depths ranging from 150m
to 500m.
Figure 1.7: Articulated Tower Platforms
18
1.5. Floating Structures
1.5
1.5.1
Floating Structures
Floating Production System
Floating Production System (FPS) consists of a semi-submersible unit which is equipped

with drilling and production equipment. It is anchored in place with wire rope and chain,
or can be dynamically positioned using rotating thrusters. Production from subsea wells is
transported to the surface deck through production risers designed to accommodate platform
motion. The FPS can be used in a range of water depths from 600m to 2500m feet.
1.5.2
Floating Production, Storage and offloading System
Floating Production, Storage and Offloading System (FPSO) consists of a large tanker type
vessel moored to the seafloor. An FPSO is designed to process and stow production from
nearby subsea wells and to periodically offload the stored oil to a smaller shuttle tanker.
The shuttle tanker then transports the oil to an onshore facility for further processing. An
FPSO may be suited for marginally economic fields located in remote deepwater areas where
a pipeline infrastructure does not exist. Currently, there are no FPSOs approved for use in
the Gulf of Mexico. However, there are over 70 of these systems being used elsewhere in the
world.
1.6
Subsea System
Subsea System (SS) ranges from single subsea wells producing to a nearby platform, FPS,
or TLP to multiple wells producing through a manifold and pipeline system to a distant
production facility. These systems are presently used in water depths greater than 1500m.
1.7
Fixed Platform Concepts
For the last few decades, the fixed platform concept has been utilized extensively over 300m
depth with various configurations.
19
1.7. Fixed Platform Concepts
Figure 1.8: Floating Production storage and offloading system (FPSO)
1.7.1
Functional Classification
The offshore platforms for oil and gas exploration purpose can be classified based on functionality and purpose of installation.
Wellhead platform - primarily meant for drilling and supporting wellhead equipment.
It supports very few equipment such as wellhead control panel and piping. Occasionally
it also supports helicopter landing structure for emergency evacuation.
Process Platform - primary meant for production facilities (oil or gas) and it may
support in addition to equipment for production, such as power generation, utilities
and living quarters.
Riser Platform - This is another kind of structure specially built to support all the
incoming and outgoing risers on a planned complex. This will also be connected to the
main platform by bridge.
Living Quarters Platform - Some times due to safety requirements, the living quarters will be supported on a separate structure away from the wellhead and process
platforms. This types of platform will be located atleas 50m away from the neighboring process platforms and will be connected by a bridge.
20
Figure 1.9: Platform Complex
Flare Support Platform- The flare boom structure to flare the excess gas from well
reservoirs may be supported on a separate structure either a tripod or four legged
jacket for safety reasons. This is to avoid excessive heat on wellhead and process
equipment on the neighboring platforms. Usually this will located away by a distance
to be calculated based on the heat output during flaring.
1.7.2
Geometrical Classification
The structural configuration of fixed template type structures vary extensively from location
to location depending on the requirement and environmental conditions such as water depth,
wave and current loads etc. Based on geometry, jackets can be classified in to following
categories.
Tripod - basically to support minimum facility such as few wellhead and riser or to
support a bridge between two major platforms or to support a flare boom
4 Legged- typically for wellhead platforms
6 or 8 Legged - mainly for process complex
21
1.7.3
Foundation Concepts
The offshore platforms shall be fixed to the seabed by means of piles either driven through the
main legs of the jacket or through skirt sleeves attached to the jacket legs or the combinations
of both main and skirt piles. This kind of arrangement is shown in the following pictures.
22
Chapter 2
DESIGN METHODOLOGY
2.1
General
The design of offshore structure is not an single step design process. The structural configuration, arrangement, member sizes and its specification requirements can be arrived after
few design cycles. In order to achieve a optimum design suitable for the installation method
proposed and satisfy the final operating requirements, a design procedure suitable for the
project shall be developed.
In an offshore project, the design of structural elements cannot be initiated unless the basic
understanding of the needs are identified. The basic needs are
What is the type of platform ? Oil or Gas, Process or Wellhead or Quarters etc
What is floor area of topsides required ?
Expected maximum weight of facilities ?
What is basic water depth and environmental parameters such as wave and current ?
Where is it located ?. Earthquake prone ?.
What is type of installation ? Lift installed or Launch installed ?
Any CAPEX constraints ?
The answer to the above questions will give some indication of type of jacket and topsides
required.
23
2.2. Design Stages
2.2
Chapter 2. DESIGN METHODOLOGY
Design Stages
The various design stages in an offshore project is listed below.

Front End Engineering Design (FEED) or Concept Selection
Basic Design
Detailed Design
2.2.1
FEED
The first step in initiating an offshore project is a FEED or concept selection. This stage of
project will involve following steps in all disciplines such as Process, Mechanical, Electrical
and Instrumentation in addition to Structural Engineering.
Collection Process Data and identifying process needs and equipment
Preliminary equipment sizing and area requirements
Weight estimation based on past projects
Identification of Structural configurations
Preliminary estimation of structural weight
Identification of installation methods
Estimation of CAPEX within 40%.
The above activities will define the project to a basic understanding and will provide enough
insight into carrying out further engineering activities.
2.2.2
Basic Design
At this stage of the project, the data collected during the FEED stage will be further verified
to make sure the authenticity and reliability of such data for further use. A detailed weight
estimates of all items involved in the project will be carried out. The process and mechanical
requirements will be further defined and identified. A Design Basis (DB) will be developed
for the proposed facility containing following information.
24
2.2. Design Stages
Process information containing type of well fluid (oil or gas) and its characteristics,
safety requirements and kind of process technology to be adopted.
Mechanical requirement such as type of facility and basic equipment required for the
process, and material handling and safety
Electrical requirement such power generation equipment, lighting and switch gears
etc
Instrumentation requirement such as basic control system, feedback requirement etc.
Piping information such as pressures, pipe sizes required etc.
Meta-Ocean information such as water depth, wave, current, wind and tidal information at the site.
Structural requirement such as materials proposed or available for use in the country,
design method to be adopted, codes and specifications to be used etc.
Installation information such as type of barge, lifting crane, loadout-method, piling
hammer etc.
At the basic design stage, the deck area required, number deck levels, etc will be defined.
This will lead to identification of number of legs required to support the deck. Normally the
spacing between deck legs for a typical platform can vary from 10m to 20m beyond which it
may become uneconomical to design a braced deck truss structure.
Basic weight estimates for various disciplines such as structural, mechanical, electrical, instrumentation and piping will be carried out. Based on the weight of total deck, it may then
be decided to fabricate the deck in one piece or in various modules. This kind decision can
only be taken together with the viable installation options such Availability of Heavy Lift
vessels in the region or use of float-over technique. In case such methods are not possible,
then the total topsides shall be divided in to various functional modules such as compression module, process module module, utility module, quarters module, etc. These modules
are self contained units with structure, piping, equipment etc fabricated and transported to
the site. These modules are then installed on top of the module Support Frame, which
transfers the loads to the jacket. Some times this module support frame may not needed, if
the modules are organised properly over the legs. This kind of basic ideas shall be made at
the basic design stage.
25
2.2. Design Stages
Figure 2.1: Deck Installation Concepts - Integrated Deck (Single Lift)
Figure 2.2: Deck Installation Concepts - Integrated Deck (Float Over)
26
2.2. Design Stages
Drill Rig
Living
Quarters
Utility Module Wellhead Module
Process Module
Module Support Frame
Figure 2.3: Deck Installation Concepts - Modular Deck (MSF)
Offshore Splice
Living Quarters
Compression Module
Process Module
Utility Module
Figure 2.4: Deck Installation Concepts - Modular Deck (Modules)
27
2.2. Design Stages
2.2.3
Detailed Design
Detailed design of offshore platform will be initiated once the basic design confirms the
economic viability and technical feasibility.
In the Detailed design or engineering of an offshore platform following items of the jacket
and deck will be developed in detail.
Deck
Framing Plans
Framing Elevations
Joint Details
Plate Girder Details
Connection Details
Welding Details
Deck plating & grating
Stairways and Walkways
Lifting Padeyes
Transportation tie-down
Monorails Details
Equipment Support Details
Flare Boom
Bridge
Crane Pedestal
Jacket
Framing Plans
Framing Elevations
Joint Details
Pile make-up
Launch Truss Details
Welding Details
Launch Cradle details
Walkways
Lifting Padeyes
Transportation Tie-down
Caissons and supports
Conductor guides
Barge Bumbers
Boat Landing
Closure Plate details
Riser Clamps
Table 2.1: Detailed Design Items

All necessary analysis required to complete the design above items shall be carried out.
28
2.2. Design Stages
Deck
Inplace
Loadout
Sea Transportation
Lifting or Floatover
Miscellaneous Calculations
Jacket
Inplace
Loadout
Sea Transportation
Lifting or Launch
Upending
Dynamic
Fatigue (Deterministic or Spectral)
On bottom Stability
Pile Driveability
Cathodic Protection
Ship Impact
Table 2.2: Detailed Design Analysis
29
2.2. Design Stages
30
Chapter 3
LOADS
3.1
General
3.2
Types of Loads
Loads on offshore structures are gravity loads and environmental loads. Gravity loads are
arising from dead weight of structure and facilities either permanent or temporary. Seismic
loads are arising from gravity loads and is a derived type.
Environmental loads play a major role governing the design of offshore structures. Before
starting the design of any structure, prediction of environmental loads accurately is important. Various environmental loads acting on the offshore platform is listed below.
Gravity Loads
Structural Dead Loads
Facility Dead Loads
Fluid Loads
Live Loads
Drilling Loads
EnvironmentalLoads
Wind Loads
Wave Loads
Current Loads
31
3.3. Gravity Loads
Chapter 3. LOADS
Buoyancy Loads
Ice Loads
Mud Loads
Seismic Loads
3.3
3.3.1
Gravity Loads
Dead Loads
Dead loads includes the all the fixed items in the platform deck, jacket, bridge and flare
structures. It includes all primary steel structural members, secondary structural items such
as boat landing, padeyes, stiffeners, handrails, deck plating, small access platforms etc.
The primary structural steel members will be calculated based on the structural information
in the model automatically when a computer program is used to analyse the structure. But
the weight of secondary structural steel items shall be calculated applied to the structural
model at appropriate locations.
3.3.2
Facility Dead Loads
The structure built either for drilling or wellhead type platform or for process type platform
supports various equipment and facilities. These are fixed type items and not structural
components. they do not have any stiffness to offer in the global integrity of the structure
and shall not be modelled. The weight of such items shall be calculated and applied at the
appropriate locations according the plan of the structure. These items include
Mechanical equipment
Electrical equipment
Piping connecting each equipment
Electrical Cable trays
Instrumentation items
32
3.3. Gravity Loads
3.3.3
Chapter 3. LOADS
Fluid Loads
The fluid loads are weight of fluid on the platform during operation. This may include all the
fluid in the equipment and piping. The weight of these items shall be calculated accurately
and applied to the correct locations.
3.3.4
Live Loads
Live loads are defined as movable loads and will be temporary in nature. Live loads will only
be applied on areas designated for the purpose of storage either temporary or long term.
Further, the areas designed for laydown during boat transfer of materials from boat shall
also be considered as live loads.
Other live load include open areas such as walkways, access platforms, galley areas in the
living quarters, helicopter loads in the helipad, etc. These loads shall be applied in accordance
with the requirement from the operator of the platform. This load vary in nature from owner
to owner but a general guideline on the magnitude of the loads is given below.
Sl. No
1
2
3
4
Location
Storage / laydown
Walkway
Access Platform
Galley
Load (kN/m2 )
10
5
5
10
Table 3.1: Live Loads
3.3.5
Drilling Loads
Drilling loads are due to drill rigs placed on top of the platform for drilling purposes. These
are large equipment assembled together and placed on top. Normally, drilling rigs are as
heavy as 500 Tonnes to 1000 Tonnes. These will deliver reaction forces on the deck and the
stiffness of the drilling rigs are not considered in the structural analysis. Hence the weight of
the structure shall be applied as load on the structure. Further, during drilling, additional
loads will be developed due to drill string and pulling operations. these loads also shall be
considered in the analysis.
33
3.4. Environmental Loads
3.4
Chapter 3. LOADS
Environmental Loads
3.4.1
Wind Loads
The wind speed at 10m above LAT (Lowest Astronomical Tide) is normally provided (Vo ).
This wind speed shall be extrapolated to the height above for the calculation of wind speed.
The extrapolation shall be calculated as below.
V = Vo
y 18
10
(3.1)
where y is the elevation of point in consideration in m above LAT and V is the velocity at
that point. Wind loads shall be calculated as per API RP2A guidelines.
Sustained wind speeds(10min mean) shall be used to compute global platform wind loads
and gust wind (3 second) shall be used to compute the wind loads to design individual
members.
The wind pressure can be calculated as
fw =
g 2
V
2
(3.2)
where F is the wind pressure per unit area, (0.01255 kN/m3 ) is the density of air, g is
the gravitational acceleration (9.81 m/sec2 ) and V is the wind speed in m/sec. the above
equation can be simplified by substituting the values and can be expressed as
fw = 0.6V 2
kN/m2
(3.3)
The total wind load on the platform can be calculated using the wind blockage area and the
pressure calculated as above. The shape coefficient (Cs ) shall be selected as per AP RP2A
guidelines. But for the calculation of global wind load (for jacket and deck global analysis)
shape coefficient can be 1.0.
The total force on the platform can be calculated as
Fx = fw Ax Cs
(3.4)
Fy = fw Ay Cs
(3.5)
34
Chapter 3. LOADS
Y
Ay
Fx
A1
Ay
A2
Fy
The exposed areas (Ax and Ay ) shall be calculated as length x height or width x height
depending on the axis system followed.
Wind load on oblique directions can be calculated using following relationship.
F = Fx cos() + Fy sin()
(3.6)
In practical design, it is often only Fx and FY will be calculated and applied in the structural
analysis as basic loads and the wind load effect due to non-orthogonal directions are simulated
using factors in terms of Fx and Fy in the load combinations. The factors can be calculated
as
The projected areas can be calculated as A1 = Ax cos() and A2 = Ay sin()
F = fw (A1 + A2 ))
(3.7)
F = fw (Ax cos() + Ay sin())
(3.8)
Fx = fw (Ax cos() + Ay sin()) cos()
(3.9)
Fy = fw (Ax cos() + Ay sin()) sin()
(3.10)
35
Chapter 3. LOADS
where Fx and Fy are the components of F in x and y directions respectively. Ratio between
Fx and Fx can be expressed as
Fx
fw (Ax cos() + Ay sin()) cos()
=
Fx
fw Ax
(3.11)
Fx
= cos2 () + (Ay /Ax )sin()cos()
Fx
(3.12)
Similarly, ratio between Fy and Fy can be expressed as

Fy
fw (Ax cos() + Ay sin()) sin()
=
Fy
fw Ay
(3.13)
Fy
= sin2 () + (Ax /Ay )sin()cos()
Fy
(3.14)
3.4.2
Wave and Current Loads
Methodology
In applying design waves load onto the offshore structures, there are two ways of applying
it.
Design Wave method

Spectral Method
In design wave method, a discrete set of design waves (maximum) and associated periods
will be selected to generate loads on the structure. These loads will be used to compute the
response of the structure.
In the spectral method, a energy spectrum of the sea-state for the location will be taken and
a transfer function for the response will be generated. These transfer function will be used
to compute the stresses in the structural members.
36
Chapter 3. LOADS
Design Wave method

The forces exerted by waves are most dominant in governing the jacket structures design
especially the foundation piles. The wave loads exerted on the jacket is applied laterally on
all members and it generates overturning moment on the structure.
Period of wind generated waves in the open sea can be in the order of 2 to 20 seconds. Theses
waves are called gravity waves and contain most part of wave energy.
Maximum wave shall be used for the design of offshore structures. The relationship between
the significant wave height(Hs ) and the maximum wave height (Hmax ) is
Hmax = 1.86Hs
(3.15)
The above equation correspond to a computation based on 1000 waves in a record.

The design wave height for various regions is tabulated below.
Region
Bay of Bengal
Gulf of Mexico
South China Sea
Arabian Sea
Gulf of Thailand
Persian Gulf
North Sea
1 year
8
12
11
8
6
5
14
100 year
18
24
24
18
12
12
22
Table 3.2: Maximum design waves in various regions

API RP2A requires both 1 year and 100 year recurrence wave shall be used for the design
of jacket and piles. Appropriate combination of loads with these waves shall be used in the
design. A one-third increase in permissible stress is allowed for 100 year storm conditions.
Spectral Method
Instead of simulating the design wave environment by discrete maximum wave, a design seastate described by energy spectrum of for the given site will be used in the load simulation.
A directional spectrum can also be used to simulate the changes design wave sea-state.
37
Chapter 3. LOADS
Surface
Seabed
Wind Driven Current
Tidal Current
Figure 3.1: Current Profiles

Various sea-state energy spectra are available for use, some of which are listed below.
PM Spectra
Jonswap Spectra
ISSC Spectra
3.4.3
Current Profile
Oceans currents induce drag loading on offshore structures. These currents together with
the action of waves generate dynamic loads.
Ocean currents are classified into few types based on their nature viz, tidal current, wind
driven current and current generated due to ocean circulation. Wind driven currents are
small in nature and it varies linearly with depth where as tidal currents vary nonlinearly
with depth. Similarly, the currents generated due to ocean circulation will vary nonlinear
with depth and can be as much as 5 m /sec.
The current variation with depth is shown in Figures and can be expressed as below.
VT = VoT
y 17
(3.16)
where VT is the tidal current at any height from sea bed, VoT is the tidal current at the
surface, y is the distance measure in m from seabed nd h is the water depth.
VW = VoW
y
h
(3.17)
38
Chapter 3. LOADS
where VW is the wind driven current at any height from sea bed, VoW is the wind driven
current at the surface, y is the distance measure in m from seabed nd h is the water depth.
3.4.4
Marine Growth
Marine growth is an important part in increasing the loads on offshore structures. The
growth of marine algae increases the diameter and roughness of members which in turn
cause the wave or current loading to increase. Detailed discussion on the member roughness
and its relationship with hydrodynamic coefficients can be found in API RP2A.
The thickness of marine growth generally decrease with depth from the mean sea level and
it is maximum in the splash zone. The thickness of marine growth in the splash zone can
be as much as 20cm and will reduce below to 5cm. In deeper zones, the thickness may be
negligible.
Splash Zone is a region where the water levels fluctuate between low to high. The actual
elevation of the bottom and top of these vary from location to location due to different tidal
conditions. In general terms, the splash zone will vary from -3m to +5m.
In structural analysis, the increased diameter of the member (D = d + tm ) shall be included
so that the wave and current loads can be calculated correctly. D and d are the diameter
of increased member and original member respectively and tm is the thickness of marine
growth.
The roughness of the marine growth is an important parameter in determining the drag and
inertia coefficients. reference shall be made relevant API RP2A clauses for more details.
3.4.5
Morison Equation
Wave and current loading can be calculated by Morison equation.

Morison equation can be written as :
FT =
D2
1
CD w D V |V | +
C M w a
2
4
(3.18)
where FT is the total force, w is the density of water, CD and CM are the drag and inertia
coefficients respectively, D is the diameter of the member including marine growth, V is the
velocity and a is the acceleration.
39
Chapter 3. LOADS
The first term in the equation is drag component (FD )and the second term is the inertia
component (FI ). This can be expressed as
FT = FD + FI
(3.19)
Most of the time, current exist in the same direction of the wave propagation and hence
the current shall be taken into consideration in the load calculation. However, algebraic
sum of wave and current loads is different from calculation of load by adding the horizontal
water particle velocity with the current velocity and computing the loads. This is because
of nonlinear term in the drag equation.
Current velocity shall be added vectorially with the water particle velocity before computation of drag force, i.e. V = Vw + Vc where V is the total velocity, Vw is the Velocity due to
waves and Vc is the velocity of current. This is required since there is a square term in the
drag force equation.
3.4.6
Wave-Current Interaction
The wave current interaction is an important phenomenon since the waves propagate on
the current. Both current modifies the wave and wave modifies the current exist. But the
former takes most priority in the calculations of wave loads. This interaction modifies the
wave parameters and modifies the wave field. Depending on the direction of current in
respect of wave direction, it either stretches the wave longer or shortens it.
If the current travels in the same direction as the wave, then the wave period becomes longer
and it is called apparent wave period (Tapp ). Recommendation of API RP2A shall be used
to estimate the apparent wave period. Following simultaneous equations shall be solved to
obtain the apparent wave period.
L
L
=
+ VI
T
Tapp
Tapp =
(3.20)
2L
g tanh kh
4/L
VI =
sinh kh
(3.21)
Uc (z) cosh 2k(z + h)dz
(3.22)
Refer to API clause 2.3.1.b (1) for more details on how to compute this apparent wave period.
40
3.4.7
Chapter 3. LOADS
Selection of Wave Theory
The computation of wave kinematics such as velocity and acceleration involves the equations
from wave theory. There are various kinds of solutions available depending on the accuracy
required, and parameters involved in the computation. The various wave theories are listed
below.
Linear / Airy Wave Theory
Stokes Wave Theory (up to 5th order approximations)
Stream Function Wave Theory (up to 22nd order approximations)
Cnoidal Wave Theory
Depending on the location such as deep water or shallow water and associated wave parameters, a suitable wave theory shall be selected for use. API RP 2A recommends to use a
chart for such selection based on d/gT 2 and H/gT 2 as the X and Y axis. Refer to Figure.
The wave theories discussed above are for non-breaking waves. For H/h > 0.78, these theories
are not applicable as the waves tend to break. In such situation, empirical equations shall
be used to calculate the breaking wave forces on the structures.
3.4.8
Wave Load on a Member
The various steps involved in calculating loads on a member can be shown graphically.
Morison equation is a general form and can not be applied to all members in the offshore
structure. It was developed specifically for a surface piercing cylinder like pile of a structure.
But in reality, the members of the offshore structure may be horizontal or inclined in space
and can not used without modification.
Water Wave Kinematics

Airy wave theory is considered in the calculation of wave kinematics. Consider a progressive
wave with water surface elevation depicted by cosine curve,
H
cos(kx t)
2
(3.23)
41
Chapter 3. LOADS
Figure 3.2: Selection of wave theory for load calculation 9ref : API RP 2A)
and the corresponding velocity potential is given by
=
H cosh k(h + z)
sin(kx t)
2 k
sinh kh
(3.24)
The horizontal and vertical velocity and acceleration of water particle can be calculated
using the following equations.
Vh =
H
cosh k(h + z)
=
cos(kx t)
x
2
sinh kh
42
(3.25)
Chapter 3. LOADS
Figure 3.3: Procedure for Calculation Wave Plus Current Loads (Extract from API RP 2A)
H
sinh k(h + z)
=
sin(kx t)
z
2
sinh kh
(3.26)
ah =
Vh
H 2 cosh k(h + z)
=
sin(kx t)
t
2
sinh kh
(3.27)
av =
Vv
H 2 sinh k(h + z)
=
cos(kx t)
t
2
sinh kh
(3.28)
Vv =
where k is the wave number defined by 2/L, is the wave circular frequency defined by
2/T , L is the wave length, and x is the distance of the point in consideration from origin.
Maximum Load on a vertical member

Consider a case of a surface piercing cylinder such as pile of a structure or a leg of a jacket,
the combined drag and inertia force (total force) varies with time and will be maximum only
at one occasion. In order find the maximum force, phase angle at which the maximum force
occurs shall be found first.
Let us express the total force on the pile by substituting the velocity and acceleration components and integrating between the limits (from surface to seabed, i.e., 0 to -h),
43
Chapter 3. LOADS
y
Direction of Wave Propagation
Highest Astronomical Tide (HAT)
Mean Sea Level (M.S.L)
Lowest Astronomical Tide (LAT)
Figure 3.4: Wave Loads on Jacket Structure
FT
2 H 2 cos | cos | sinh(2kh) h

1
CD D
+
=
2
T2
4k
2
sinh2 kh
D2 2 2 H sin
CM
4
T2
k
(3.29)
The total force will be maximum when,

FT
=0
(3.30)
44
Chapter 3. LOADS
Substituting the values of velocity and acceleration components in to the drag and inertia
force equation and differentiating with respect to and rearranging the terms, we get
max = cos
D CM
2 sinh2 kh
H CD (sinh 2kh + 2kh)
(3.31)
Maximum Load on a horizontal member

Consider a case of a horizontal cylinder such as brace of a jacket, the combined drag and
inertia force (total force) varies with time and will be maximum only at one occasion. In
order find the maximum force, phase angle at which the maximum force occurs shall be
found first.
Let us express the total force on the pile by substituting the velocity and acceleration,
cosh2 k(z + h)
1
H 22
FT = CD D
cos | cos |
2
4
sinh kh
D2 H 2
cosh2 k(z + h)
CM
sin
4
2
sinh kh
(3.32)
The total force will be maximum when,

FT
=0
(3.33)
Substituting the values of velocity and acceleration components in to the drag and inertia
force equation and differentiating with respect to and rearranging the terms, we get
max = sin
sinh kh
D CM
2H CD cosh k(h + z)
(3.34)
Maximum Load on a inclined member

The resultant force on a arbitrarily oriented circular cylinder in water waves can be calculated
using vector analysis combined with Morison equation.
45
Chapter 3. LOADS
The resultant force on a cylinder in general has component normal to the cylinder axis Fn
and a component along the axis of the cylinder (a tangential component) Ft . Thus, the total
force per unit length of the cylinder can be written as
F~ = F~n + F~ t
(3.35)
Each of these components can be expressed as functions of the fluid particle motions by
using Morisons equation. The force in normal direction can be expressed as
F~n = F~Dn + F~In
(3.36)
where FDn and FIn are the drag and inertia forces respectively. These forces can be expressed
as
1 n
F~Dn = CD
DV~n |V~n |
2
(3.37)
1 n
F~In = CM
ID2 a~n
4
(3.38)
where
n
CD
n
CM
D
~
Vn
a~n
=
=
=
=
=
=
Drag coefficient for flow normal to the cylinder

Inertia coefficient for flow normal to the cylinder
Diameter of cylinder
Density of seawater
Velocity of fluid particle normal to the cylinder axis
Acceleration of fluid particle normal to the cylinder axis
In the tangential direction, only a skin friction drag term exists since inertial component
along the member axis does not exist unless a axial inertia coefficient is specified. Hence the
equation for tangential force can be written as
F~ t = F~Dt
(3.39)
1 t
DV~t |V~t |
F~Dt = CD
2
(3.40)
where
46

n
CD
V~t
Chapter 3. LOADS
= Drag coefficient for flow tangential to the cylinder

= Velocity of fluid particle tangential to the cylinder axis
These forces can be summed and expressed in terms of cylinder local axis as below.
1 t
F~x = CD
DV~t |V~t |
2
(3.41)
1 n
1 n
F~y = CD
DV~n |V~y | + CM
ID2 a~y
2
4
(3.42)
1 n
1 n
F~z = CD
DV~n |V~z | + CM
ID2 a~z
2
4
(3.43)
The maximum forces can only be found numerically by calculating the forces for one wave
cycle.
3.4.9
Maximum Global Loads
Maximum global loads on a platform can be calculated using two principles.

Maximum Base Shear Method
Maximum Overturning Moment Method
It is important that the wave loads on the structure be checked for both conditions. The
maximum overturning moment method will give more pile loads than the other. Similarly,
the maximum base shear method may govern the design of some jacket leg members near
seabed due to high shear.
Maximum Base Shear

Maximum base shear or maximum total force on a structure has to be determined for the
global analysis of structures. As the wave propagates across structure wave force on each
member is different and all the locations will not be attaining the maximum forces. To find
the maximum total force a structure, following steps need to be considered.
Position the wave crest at the origin of the structure as shown in Figure.
47
Chapter 3. LOADS
Divide one wave cycle into number of segments either in terms of or in terms of
length.
Compute the wave forces on all members at that instant of time using water wave
velocities and accelerations computed.
Sum up the forces in horizontal direction for all the members.
Repeat the calculation in step 4 for all the points for one wave cycle.
The maximum of all the total forces computed in step 5 is the maximum base shear
or total force.
Maximum Overturning moment

Maximum overturning moment on a structure can be determined following the procedure for
the maximum base shear case. In this case, the loads on the members shall be multiplied by
the lever arm from mud-line. This shall be summed up and the procedure shall be repeated
for all the steps in the wave.
3.4.10
Buoyancy Loads
The offshore structural members mostly made buoyant by air tight sealing of the welds
to avoid water entry. This is purposely planned so that the overall structure will have
adequate buoyancy during installation. Typical example is the jacket structure. This kind
of structure requires at least a reserve buoyancy of 10% to 15%. The reserve buoyancy is
defined as buoyancy in excess of its weight. To obtain this buoyancy, structural tubular
members are carefully selected such that their buoyancy / weight ratio is greater than 1.0.
This means that the member will float in water. On other hand, if the member is part of a
structure supported at its two ends and forced to be submerged by weight of other members,
this member will experience a upward force equal to the displaced volume of water. This is
called buoyancy force. The buoyancy force can be calculated by two methods.
Marine Method
Rational Method
The marine method assumes that the member in consideration considered to have rigid body
motion. This means that the weight of the member is calculated using submerged density
48
Chapter 3. LOADS
Water Surface
Selfweight including
buoyancy (Marine Method)
Self Weight alone
Buoyancy by
Rational Method
Figure 3.5: Buoyancy Calculation methods

of steel and applied to the member vertically down as an uniformly distributed load. This
buoyant weight WB of the member per unit length can be calculated as
1
WB = (D2 (D t)2 )(s 1.025)
4
(3.44)
where s is the density of steel

Unlike gravity which is a true body force acting on every particle of a body, buoyancy is the
resultant of fluid pressure acting on the surface of the body. These pressures can only act
normal to the surface.
The rational method takes in to account this pressure distribution on the structure, results
in a system of loads consisting of distributed loads along the members and concentrated
loads at the joints. The loads on the members are perpendicular to the member axis and in
the vertical plane containing the member. The magnitude of this distributed member load
can be expressed as
1
BB = D2 w cos
4
(3.45)
where is the angle between the member and its projection on a horizontal plane
The joint loads consists of forces acting in the directions of all of the members meeting at the
joint. These joint forces act in a direction that would compress the corresponding members
49
Chapter 3. LOADS
if they acted directly on them, and have magnitude of :
PB = w Ah
(3.46)
where
A =
h
displaced area i.e. the material area for flooded members,

the enclosed area for non-flooded members
= water depth at the end of the member being considered
3.4.11
Ice Loads
For structures located in polar regions and cold countries, ice loading shall be considered in
the design. In this regions, the ice sheets of varying thicknesses can move from one location
to other due to tide and under water current. These ices sheets when come closer and hit
the offshore structures, large impact force is experienced by the structure.
F
Figure 3.6: Ice Loading on a structure

50
3.5. Load Estimation and Distribution
Chapter 3. LOADS
This kind of force cannot be calculated by means of analytical tools. However, based on
experimental studies, an empirical equation is available and can be used to estimate the
force Fice .
Fice = C f A
(3.47)
where
fice
Cice
A
=
=
=
3.4.12
Crushing strength of ice vary between 1.5 MPa to 3.5 MPa

Ice force coefficient vary between 0.3 to 0.7
Area struck by ice (Diameter of member x ice sheet thickness)
Mud Loads
Platforms located in the vicinity of the river mouth (shallow water platforms) may experience
the mud flow loads. The river flow brings sediment transport and nearby mud towards the
platform and may slide through the location.
Sometimes over a long period of time sediment settlement at the location of the platform
may have sloping surface and mud slides can also generate mud loads.
These loads can be calculated using
Fmud = Cmud D
(3.48)
where
Cmud
3.5
= Force Coefficient vary from 7 to 9

= Shear strength of soil 5 KPa to 10 kPa
= Diameter of pile or or member)
Load Estimation and Distribution
The gravity loads on the topside shall be estimated with care, especially at the initial stage
of the project. During initial stage, no reliable information may be available. based on past
experience weight of various items shall be assumed. Hence the possibility of weight overrun
during the project can occur.
In order to reduce the risk of such situation and further consequences of re-design, a planned
method of estimation and control shall be introduced called Weight Control procedure.
51
Chapter 3. LOADS
Mud Slide
Soft or Unstable soil
Stiff and Stable Soil
Figure 3.7: Mud Loading on a structure

In the weight control procedure, the weight elements of an topside shall be divided into the
following categories.
Primary Structure
Secondary Structure
Mechanical Equipment
Piping & Bulks
Electrical Equipment
Instrumentation
In a typical wellhead platform, the distribution or break down of total weight or payload is
shown in Table.
52

No
1
2
3
4
5
6
Total
Chapter 3. LOADS
Category
Primary Structure
Secondary Structure
Piping & Bulks
Instrumentation
%
20
15
25
25
10
5
100
Table 3.3: Typical Break down of total topside loads
The weight estimation of various components will start as early as FEED stage. Structural
analysis of concepts selected will require reasonable data for loading the structure with
and subsequent analysis work. However, the equipment and other information may not be
available at so early in the project. Hence weight estimation with suitable contingency
shall be used in the design. Further, during the progress of the project, design requirement
may change due to fundamental change in process techniques, equipment selection etc. This
contingency is used to allow for such unforeseen growth in the topside load. This contingency
is normally kept at higher during the initial stage and can be reduced once the information
on each item is available.
No Category
1
2
3
4
5
6
Primary Structure
Secondary Structure
Piping & Bulks
Instrumentation
FEED
25
35
45
35
40
35
Basic
Design
20
30
30
30
30
30
Detail
Design
15
25
25
25
15
25
Fabrication
Stage
10
15
15
15
10
15
Weighing
Stage
5
5
5
5
5
5
Table 3.4: Variation of contingency through project duration
Further, the variation in weight due to mill tolerances, fabrication tolerance, welding etc
shall also be accounted for in the design. This allowances can be normally estimated and
included. The total allowance for this shall be at least 5%.
There is another allowance normally kept aside during the design is the allowance for future
expansion. This is normally decided by owner or developer of the field and identified future
expansion. This is called Future expansion allowance.
53
3.6. Load Combinations
Chapter 3. LOADS
50
40
Upper bound
30
Lower bound
20
10
FEED
BASIC DESIGN
DETAIL DESIGN
FABRICATION
DESIGN / FABRICATION STAGES
Figure 3.8: Variation of Contingency through project duration
3.6
Load Combinations
The load combinations used for adequacy checking of any offshore structure can be divided
into following four categories.
Normal Operating Case - Maximum gravity loads arising from normal operation of
the platform with 1 year return period wave, current and wind. This case is used to
check the structure against loads during the normal operation of the platform.
Hydro-test case - This is a case where hydro-testing and commissioning of equipment
and piping is carried out offshore. In this case, the equipment and piping will be fully
filled with sea water and maximum gravity loads will be developed. It should be noted
that not all equipment will be hydro-tested simultaneously. It will be done one by one.
This case is used to check the local strength of the deck structure.
Extreme Storm Case - Maximum gravity loads arising from extreme case with 100
year return period storm wave, current and wind. This case is used to check the
structure due to loads during 100 year return period storm together with platform
gravity loads.
Some platforms are designed to be unmanned and will be operation during the
storm with remote control. Typically, a wellhead platform with only very mini54
Chapter 3. LOADS
mum personnel onboard will be fully functional except that the personnel will be
evacuated during the storm.
Second type of platforms are process platforms with attached living quarters where
large number of people staying on board, platform will be shutdown, and the
people will be evacuated during a severe storm.
Pull out case - Minimum gravity loads arising from extreme case with 100 year return
period storm wave, current and wind. This case is used to check the maximum tension
loads on the piles and structural members.
Seismic case - Maximum gravity loads with seismic loads from either strength level
earthquake or ductility level earthquake as per actual design requirement. This case
is used to check the seismic condition if the platform is located in seismically active
region.
Depending on type of platform operation such as process, welhead / drilling or living quarters, the required load combinations during a normal operation or extreme storm may change.
This is illustrated in the Tables.
The above table is based on the Working stress method (WSD) and does not include any
contingencies. Suitable contingency shall be added to the load combination.
55
No Load Category
1
Gravity Loads
Structural Dead Loads
Piping & Bulks
Instrumentation
Operating Fluids
Hydro-test Fluids
Live Loads
Drilling Loads
Drilling Equipment
Supplies
Hook Loads
Rotary Loads
Environmental Loads
Operating Wind
Extreme Wind
Operating Wave+current
Extreme Wave+Current
Seismic Loads
Chapter 3. LOADS
Normal
Operating
case
Hydro-test
case
case
Extreme
Storm
case
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.50
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
-
0.90
0.90
0.90
0.90
0.90
-
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
0.50
1.00
1.00
1.00
-
1.00
-
1.00
1.00
0.90
-
1.00
0.50
1.00
1.00
-
1.00
1.00
1.00
1.00
-
1.00
1.00
-
Tension
Pullout Seismic
case
case
Table 3.5: Load Combination for an offshore platform design based WSD
56
1.00
Chapter 4
MATERIALS AND CORROSION
4.1
General
Selection of suitable material for the offshore structure is a very important aspect. Materials
for offshore applications include the following.
Structural Materials
Structural Steel - Low carbon steel used for ll kinds of structural members in the
platforms
Structural concrete - Marine grade concrete used for construction of columns and
bases of gravity type platforms
Cement grout - used for grouting annulus between the pile and jacket leg or skirt
Piping Materials
Carbon Steel used for normal process piping
Stainless steel
Steel Alloys such duplex steel, super duplex steel etc for transporting corrosive
fluids such crude oil etc
Fibre Reinforced Plastics - used for sea water service such as fire water system
Miscellaneous Materials
Fibre Reinforced Plastics - used for splash zone protection of piles and members,
marine growth preventer etc
Fibre Glass - used for grating on offshore platforms
Timber - used for miscellaneous applications such as launch skid, temporary
works, mudmat, etc.
57
4.2. Structural Steel
4.2
Chapter 4. MATERIALS AND CORROSION
Structural Steel
Offshore structures are generally constructed of structural steel. But these structures are
mostly either fixed template type structures and deep water complaint structures. Some
times the concrete gravity type structure are also constructed. In this chapter, the type of
steel materials and its behaviour under water is discussed.
4.2.1
Structural Member Classification
Structural members in the offshore structures can be classified into following categories based
on the criticality.
Primary Structural Member - Primary Structural members shall include members
and components essential to the overall integrity and safety of the primary structure.
Secondary Structural Member - Secondary Structural Steel shall include members
and components essential to the local integrity of the structure where failure of these
members will not affect the overall integrity and safety of the primary structure.
Special Members - Special members are parts of primary members located in, or at
the vicinity of, critical load transmission areas and of stress concentration locations.
Ancillary Members - Ancillary members are minor members and attachments,
which do not fall in the above categories.
Typical examples in each category is given in Table 4.1.
Category
Primary
Secondary
Deck
Legs, main truss members,
plate girders
stringers, floor plates
Special
Ancillary
Nodes, lifting padeyes

handrails, platforms, supports
Jacket
Legs, piles, braces
Minor braces, caissons,
conductor supports
Nodes, padeyes
walkways, bumpers and guides
Table 4.1: Typical member types in Deck and Jacket
4.2.2
Steel Grades
The four (4) grades of steel, which may be used to fabricate plate, rolled shapes, built-up
girders and beams, and tubulars, are
58
Mild Steel (MS)

Special Mild Steel (SMS)
High Strength Steel (HS)
Special High Strength Steel (SHS)
Mild Steel (MS)

a) Mild Steel (MS) plate, shapes, and plate for tubulars, shall conform to ASTM A 36,
Specification for Structural Steel.
b) Structural grade seamless line pipe may be used for tubular less than 508 mm O.D., for
handrails, grating supports, walkways, or as shown on the Fabrication Drawings. Line pipe
shall meet the requirements of API Specification 5L Grade B or ASTM A 53 Grade B.
c) All mild steel shall have a minimum of 250 MPa yield strength.
Special Mild Steel (SMS)

Special Mild Steel (SMS) plate shall conform to ASTM A 36, except that this steel shall be
manufactured to a fully killed, fine grain practice, grain size six (6) and finer as determined
by ASTM E 112.
High Strength Steel (HS)

a) High Strength Steel (HS) plate shall conform to the requirements of API 2H Grade 50 or
ASTM A 633 Grade C.
b) High Strength Steel (HS) for rolled shapes shall conform to the requirements of ASTM A
633 Grade D.
c) These grades of steel shall be fully killed, fine grain practice, grain size six (6) or finer as
determined by ASTM E 112.
d) The carbon equivalent index shall be for Grade 50 steels as defined by API Specification
2H.
e) High Strength Steel for tubular less than 508 mm O.D. may conform to seamless API
Specification 5L.
59
Special High Strength Steel (SHS)

Two (2) special high strength steels may be used in the structure(s):
SHS-50 shall conform to the requirements of API 2H Grade 50 or ASTM A 633 Grade
C, Normalized High Strength Low Alloy Structural Steel with API 2H supplements S-1,
S-4 and S5 applicable to either designation.
b) These materials shall be fully killed and normalized, grain size six (6) or finer as
determined by ASTM E 112.
The steels shall meet the requirements of ASTM A 578, Straight Beam Ultrasonic
Examination of Plain and Clad Steel Plates for Special Applications and ASTM A770.
For ultrasonic examination acceptance level II shall be used and the entire plate shall
be scanned. Supplementary requirements S1 and S4 shall apply.
The maximum carbon equivalent shall be as defined by API Specification 2H for Grade
50 steels.
4.2.3
Manufacturing
Materials shall be produced by a manufacturing process which includes ladle vacuum degassing, calcium argon stirring, or other suitable techniques which shall result in removal or
shape control of the complex oxy-sulfides. The supplier shall provide a guarantee and substantial proof that the required properties and weldability can be achieved with the proposed
process. Melting by the open hearth process shall not be allowed.
4.2.4
Chemical Requirements
The maximum allowable sulfur content shall be 0.006 percent. Rare earth metal (REM)
additions shall not be permitted. This approval shall be contingent upon a review of the
details concerning the type and amount of REM additions, how and at what point in the
melting - ladle degassing process are the REM added, the sulfur level and the extent of
degassing prior to the REM addition, and the method used for analysis and control.
4.2.5
Carbon Equivalent (CE)
CE = C +
M n Cr + M o + V
N i + Cu
+
+
6
5
15
60
(4.1)
4.3. Corrosion
4.2.6
Mechanical Requirements
For grade SHS-50, the minimum yield strength shall be 345 MPa and the minimum tensile
strength shall be 483 MPa for plates through 100mm in thickness.
4.2.7
Notch Toughness Requirements
The Charpy V-notch impact test shall be used for all high strength ASTM materials for
notch toughness requirements. The test shall be conducted and acceptance criteria shall be
in accordance with API Specification 2H.
4.2.8
Supplementary Requirements
Suplementary requirements for structural steel such as S1 through S11 shall be followed as
per API 2H.
4.3
Corrosion
Corrosion of metals is a electro-chemical process of loss of material from one location. This
may get deposited in the same metal in another area. Corrosion in a wet environment attacks
the metal by removing the atoms on the metal surface. The metal atoms at the surface lose
electrons and become actively charged ions that leave the metal and enter the wet electrolyte.
The metal ions join with/to oppositely charged ions from another chemical and form a new,
stable compound.
4.3.1
Seawater Corrosion
Corrosion in a wet environment attacks the metal by removing the atoms on the metal
surface. The metal atoms at the surface lose electrons and become actively charged ions
that leave the metal and enter the wet electrolyte. The metal ions join with/to oppositely
charged ions from another chemical and form a new, stable compound.
Corrosion requires energy. During corrosion the reacting components go from a higher to
a lower energy state and release the energy needed for the reaction. In the dry corrosion
process of Figure 1 the metal and the oxygen combine to produce the oxide on the surface
because the reaction leads to a compound (the oxide) at a lower energy level.
61
4.3. Corrosion
The oxide layer shields the metal from the oxygen and forms a barrier. The oxide will not
react with the oxygen in the air or the metal. The barrier makes it difficult for oxygen in
the air to contact the metal and it eventually grows so thick that the movement of electrons
and ions across it stop. Provided the oxide layer does not crack, or is not removed, the
metal is protected from further corrosion. But if the bare metal is exposed to the oxygen,
it will again react to form the oxide. In this case the presence of oxygen benefits the metals
protection. Removal of the oxygen removes the metals ability to create its own protective
corrosion barrier.
Corrosion of steel in marine environmental is basically a electro-chemical reaction. This is
caused by flow of electrons from one location to another location results in recombined metal
or rust deposited in the receiving location called Cathode. The location from where the
metal is being taken away is called Anode.
The essential requirement of such metal transfer to occur is closed circuit between the two
locations. This is provided by the surrounding seawater which is a best electrolyte. The
presence of chloride, accelerates the process of corrosion.
This process is schematically showing in Figure 4.1.
In the above process the electrons from the corroding anode metal move to the connected
cathode where they recombine with the atoms of oxygen and water in the electrolyte to make
a new hydroxyl ion (OH-). This new negatively charged ion then reacts to make a stable
compound with the positively charged metal ions (F 2 +) that originally lost the electrons.
In this case, the electrons have a continuous pathway to escape the parent metal and the
parent metal, which cannot develop a protective barrier, disassociates or falls apart. Once
corrosion starts it continues until the ingredients are all used up.
4.3.2
Factors influencing corrosion
The factors influencing or accelerating the sea water corrosion process are listed below.
PH value of sea water- The electrolyte in wet corrosion can be neutral, acidic or
alkaline. For corrosion in near neutral solutions (pH 6 8) under oxygenated conditions
the predominant cathodic reaction is the oxygen absorption reaction (O2 + 2H2O +
4e- = 4OH-) shown in Figure 1. If instead the bimetallic cell has no oxygen present
in the electrolyte the hydrogen evolution reaction (H+ + e- = H followed by H +
H = H2 gas) becomes the cathodic process and the anode continues to corrode. This
reaction is a much slower reaction (the H+ ion has a very low concentration in solution)
than the oxygen absorbing reaction. In acidic solutions (pH 0 - 6) the hydrogen ion
concentration is higher and the hydrogen evolution reaction is the predominant one.
Corrosion rates become extreme as the pH drops (acid gets stronger).
62
4.3. Corrosion
Electrolyte - Sea Water

H2 O
Presence of Oxygen
O2
Corroding Metal - Fe
Cathode
2e
Anode
2e
F e F e2+ + 2e
2H2O + O2 + 4e 4OH
F e2+ + OH F e(OH)2
Rust
Cathode
Figure 4.1: Schematic showing the sea water corrosion process

Salt Content - The presence of chloride in sea water increase the chemical reaction
that takes place during the corrosion process.
Temperature of water - The effect of temperature on corrosion rate is very important. The rate of corrosion increases as the electrochemical reaction gets faster in high
temperature.
Velocity of flow - The rate of corrosion is higher in water circulating or flowing
through than in the stagnant water. During corrosion, ions build up immediately
around the anode and cathode saturating their respective regions. The corrosion rate
begins to fall due to the concentration of stagnant ions blocking the creation of more
ions in the electrolyte. If the ions are removed or more voltage is provided the corrosion
rate again picks up. If you want fast corrosion then agitate the electrolyte and add
oxygen.
63
4.3. Corrosion
Presence of Oxygen - Presence of oxygen is main cause of corrosion process to

start. The corrosion reaction requires oxygen and where oxygen is present the metal is
cathodic and where oxygen is depleted the metal is anodic and corrodes. The parts of
the metal in contact with the highest oxygen concentration become cathodic and are
protected, and the areas where oxygen concentration is low will corrode. Steel posts
dug into the ground will rust just below the surface because of this effect.
4.3.3
types of corrosion
General / Uniform Corrosion - this is basically a global corrosion occurring uniform

over the exposed surfaces of the metal. Typical example of uniform corrosion is the
corrosion of offshore structures in sea water.
Localised Corrosion - Some of the localised corrosion effects are listed with brief
description of hot it happens.
Pitting Corrosion - This type of corrosion happen due to presence of some kind
of opening in the metal surface such as fatigue cracks. In pitting corrosion the
metal at the top of the pit has access to the oxygen in the air and becomes the
cathode. At the bottom of the pit oxygen is depleted and the metal becomes the
anode. The deeper the pit is the less the oxygen available at the bottom and the
corrosion rate increases.
Crevice Corrosion - A crevice is created whenever two objects are brought together. Unless they are perfectly flat a crevice is present and oxygen cannot easily
enter the gap but is plentiful outside. Corrosion starts in the crevice because of
differential aeration.
Stress Corrosion - Metal under tensile stresses can corrode at higher rates than
normally expected. The stressed areas have changed electrical potentials to the
neighbouring metal and are also more likely to develop microscopic surface cracks.
Both situations promote increased corrosion rates.
Galvanic Corrosion Galvanic corrosion needs to be watched. Dissimilar metals of different potentials
joined together by an electrolyte, like process water or rainwater, will cause the
more anodic metal to corrode. Running copper water pipe to a galvanised tank
will cause the tank to corrode very quickly. Joining copper to steel is nearly as
bad. In the galvanic series listed in Table 1 only join metals that are near each
other.
Some protection from galvanic corrosion can be achieved if the electrolyte is not
present. Without the availability of water molecules the corrosion reaction stops
because the electrons cannot find a host to complete the chemical reaction. Where
dissimilar metals must be used, for example aluminum fins on the copper coils of
a refrigeration chiller condenser, protect them from contact with water. If water
64
4.3. Corrosion
must be used in contact with dissimilar metals insure it is deionised and oxygen
free.
Air
Air
High Oxygen
High Oxygen
Steel
Steel
Rust
Rust
Cathode
Cathode
F E 2+
F E 2+
Low Oxygen
Low Oxygen
Anode
Anode
Steel
Steel
Sea Water
Sea Water
Figure 4.2: Schematic showing the pitting and crevice corrosion

A metal can corrode without being in contact with another metal. In this case different areas
of the metal take on different electrical potentials. This can occur because of variations in
the metal metallurgical properties or because of variations in the surface oxide layer, such
as a break, thinning, inclusion like mill scale, contaminant like dirt, etc.
In pitting corrosion the metal at the top of the pit has access to the oxygen in the air and
becomes the cathode. At the bottom of the pit oxygen is depleted and the metal becomes the
anode. The deeper the pit is the less the oxygen available at the bottom and the corrosion
rate increases. Figure 2 shows the mechanism of pitting corrosion.
4.3.4
Rates of corrosion
Variation of corrosion along the depth of water depends on many parameters discussed in the
previous section. However, a general trend is that the corrosion rate decrease as the depth
increase. This is due to lack of presence of oxygen and decrease in temperature. However, the
salt content increases with the depth. Hence the rates of corrosion is a complex phenomenon
changes from location to location. The corrosion rate of 0.1mm to 0.5mm per year in the
splash zone and 0.05mm to 2mm below the splash zone has been given in the literature.
In case of jacket type structures, generally the corrosion allowance in the splash zone vary
from 6mm to 12mm and for other regions below, normally no corrosion allowance is provided
since sacrificial anodes are provided to protect the steel. The longer the design life of the
structure, the corrosion allowance in the splash shall be higher. But some times, a noncorrosive splash zone protection in the form wrapping using FRP materials are also provided
inplace of corrosion allowance.
65
4.4. Corrosion Protection
Zone 1 : Atmospheric
Zone 2 : Splash Zone
Zone 3: Tidal
Zone 4: Continuosly
Submerged
Zone 5: Sub-soil
0.10
0.50
0.20
0.40
Corrosion Rate mm/year
0.60
Figure 4.3: Rate of corrosion along depth
4.4
Corrosion Protection
There many ways of protecting the structures against corrosion. The possible methods are
listed below.
Select base materials such that they have corrosion resistant property inherently.
Providing protective coating or other means to stop the environment from attacking
the steel surface.
Cathodic Protection by means of sacrificial anodes or impressed current system.
Providing corrosion inhibitors to stop the corrosion process
Providing sacrificial corrosion allowance in areas where protection by other method
does not work.
4.5
Cathodic Protection
Cathodic protection has applications in most of the offshore structures and facilities.
66
4.5. Cathodic Protection
Offshore Platforms
Jack-up Rigs
Semi-Submersible Platforms
Jetties and Wharves
Submarine Pipelines
FPSOs
4.5.1
Sacrificial Anode System
A schematic showing the sacrificial anode system is shown in Figure 4.4. The metal surfaces
to be protected shall be connected to a sacrificial anode. In this method, the protective
current that flow from the sacrificial anode prevents the flow of corrosive current flowing
from anode to cathode. This way the metal corrosion is stopped. Instead, the sacrificial
anode corrodes during the process.
2e
Anode
F e2+
2e
Protective current
Corroding Metal - Fe
Cathode
Sacrificial
Anode
Cathode
Anode
Vathode
Result
Electrolyte - Sea Water

H2 O
Presence of Oxygen
O2
F e F e2+ + 2e
2H2O + O2 + 4e 4OH
F e2+ + OH F e(OH)2 Rust
Figure 4.4: Schematic showing the sacrificial anode system

67
For a freely corroding mild steel in sea water has a potential difference of -0.50 to -0.60
Volts when compared with Silver/Silver Chloride reference electrode. This negative potential
increases further when cathodic protection is applied. This negative volts increases more than
-0.80 Volts and this indicates that the cathodic protection system is in working condition.
This method is very suitable for offshore fixed type platforms. This method does not require
any maintenance and no external resources for operation. A typical fixed offshore platform
as shown in Figure 4.6 is provided with many number of anodes distributed from mudline
to LAT. It is to be noted that the cathodic protection by means of sacrificial anodes does
not work in the splash zone due to intermittent exposure. Hence the anodes need not be
provided in the splash zone.
The amount of sacrificial anodes required to protect the structure depends on the following
parameters and shall be carefully studied.
Seawater Resistivity, Salinity, temperature and flow velocity
Total Surface area to be protected
Type of Anode Material and its composition, size and shape
Among the various types of anodes used in the industry, the slender stand-off type anode
commonly selected due to its simplicity.
Anode Material - Aluminum Alloy
Anode Core - Steel Tube
h
l
L
b
B
Cross Section
Figure 4.5: Typical details of slender stand-off sacrificial anode
68
HAT
Splash Zone
LAT
Anode
Conductors
Piles
Seabed
Soil
Figure 4.6: Offshore platform protected with sacrificial anodes
69
70
Chapter 5
SIMULATION
5.1
General
With the advancement in computer and software technology and availability of computers,
the structural analysis of structures has been made easy and fast. There are a number of
commercial computer programs available specifically coded to carry out three dimensional
structural analysis for offshore structures. Few programs are listed below.
SACS - Structural Analysis Computer System - from Engineering Dynamics Inc. USA
Strucad - Also from Engineering Dynamics INC. USA
SESAM - from Det Norske Veritas, Norway
The modern day offshore development project schedules does not permit designers to carry
out hand calculations due to faster requirement of design and drawings for fabrication.
Usually, the first discipline to produce documents and drawings is structural so that the
materials can be ordered to mill for production. Hence the structural designers are under
very high pressure from fabricators to produce the structural material take off for order
placement. The use of structural analysis programs with fast computers has made possible
some of the largest structures to be designed in 6 to 8 months.
Following preparatory activities are required before analysis and design can be carried out.
Structure Geometry selection
Geometry Simulation
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5.2. Structure Geometry selection
Chapter 5. SIMULATION
Foundation Simulation
Load Simulation
5.2
Structure Geometry selection
Structure geometry shall be selected based on various requirement such as layout, water
depth, environmental condition, installation methodology and topside loads etc.
Figure 5.1: Computer Model of a Wellhead Jacket and Deck
5.3
Geometry Simulation
A geometric model of a structure contains a database of following information.

72
5.3. Geometry Simulation
Joints or Nodes
Members and Properties
Foundation
Loads
Each of the above information can be entered in a planned and systematic way so that the
post processing and correlating the design drawings with analysis results becomes easier and
faster.
5.3.1
Axis System
Any computer model of structure require origin and coordinate system so that the structure
information such as nodes and loads can be modeled. Normally, orthogonal coordinate
system with X, Y and Z will be used. The origin of such system shall be at the geometric
center of the platform in plan at the work point and at Mean Sea Level (M.S.L) in elevation
as shown in Figure.
Y
Z
X
LEG
Joint
LEG
Member
R
XB
BR
C
Figure 5.2: Computer Model of a Jacket with Axis system

73
The axis origin at the center of the jacket helps in modeling and transformation of geometry
for further installation analyses.
5.3.2
Joints or Nodes
Joints or nodes are defined as three dimensional coordinates of junctions of members in the
space frame. Joints are work points (W.P.) of ends of members and the member shall be
formed along the centreline of the member. Unique numbering system shall be followed so
that identification of location of joint becomes easy. For example following joint numbering
can be used.
No
1
2
3
4
5
Item Description
Jacket
Deck
Flare Boom
Bridge
Living Quarters
Joint Numbering
J1 to J999
D1 to D999
F1 to F999
B1 to B999
Q1 to Q999
Table 5.1: Joint Numbering scheme

Some software programs has the ability to generate automatic joint numbering based on
initial number given by the user. Each panel or plane framing can be given with unique
numbering. This numbering schemes will help a lot during post processing of results and
identification of members or joints that require redesign.
For example, in the deck joint numbering scheme, we can split the numbering system in
to blocks and use them in a systematic way. For cellar deck, D1 to D399, and for main
deck D400 to D799 and for upper deck D800 to D999 and so on. This way, we can easily
identify which node is lying on which deck etc. This method of modeling can only come by
experience and can be improved to produce a more user friendly model. This will definitely
help during quick processing of results and compiling the information from various analyses
for a jacket such as inplace, fatigue, seismic, loadout, transportation and launching etc.
5.3.3
Members and properties
A member in structural model is a an element (usually a beam element in terms of Finite

Element Terminology) connected between two nodes or joints. This member represents the
presence of a structural member in the analysis. The member can be defined by two joints
(one at each end of member) and a member group name (under which the member property
such as diameter and wall thickness can be assigned).
74
Similarly, the member properties can also be given in systematic way. Same member group
shall not be given to too many segments or members.
No Item Description
1 Jacket
Legs
Horizontal Braces
Elevation braces
Launch Truss
Boat Landing
2 Deck
Cellar Deck
Main Deck
Upper Deck
Crane Pedestal
3 Flare Boom
4 Bridge
5 Living Quarters
Member group
Prefix with either L or J
Prefix with H
Prefix with V
Prefix with T
Prefix with BL
Prefix with C
Prefix with M
Prefix with U
Prefix with P
Prefix with F
Prefix with B
Prefix with Q
Table 5.2: Member Group scheme
the above is list in an indication of how systematic a structural model can be made and it
is upto the designer to build it the way he wanted.
5.3.4
Offsets and Eccentricities
The members connecting at one common joint can be joined to one single joint if the offset
between the work points (W.P.) is less than the API RP2A allowable distance of D/4 where D
is the diameter of the chord member at the joint. This is based some studies on tubular joints
with eccentricities showed that the additional moment generated by these eccentricities have
consequences on the member and joint adequacy. The shear capacities of tubular members
are generally high and may not be serious issue is the eccentricity is within D/4.
However, this rule shall not be applied to deck truss. The column, brace and plate girder
junction shall be modelled with additional joint even if the eccentricities are less than D/4.
This is required to model the shear transfer between the brace and plate girder through the
web of the girder. If a separate joint is not modelled, the vertical component of the braces
forces will directly taken by the column and the shear capacity of the plate girder at the
joint may be checked correctly.
75
Figure 5.3: Computer Model of a vertical elevation of jacket
5.3.5
Wish-bone Connections
The conductors are tubes inserted through series of guides in the jacket at various levels and
driven in to the seabed for at least 30 to 40m. These tubes are later used to pass through
the drill safely without damaging the jacket members. Further, these tubes prevent the
drill pipes (normally very small diameter, typically 13 to 16 inch) from failure due to large
displacement and vortex induced vibration. These conductors are not structurally connected
to jacket members but just touching the conductor guides at different elevations. Total
number of such conductors may vary from platform to platform, in some cases, there may as
much as 30 to 40 conductors of 30 inch diameters. Wave and current loading on conductors
need to be included in the structural analysis and hence they need to to modelled.
The conductors and the structural elements at the conductor guide level will be modelled
through a stiff element called wish bone with only axial stiffness so that it will transfer
76
ac
Brace
Br
Br
ac
e
Chord
e1
e2
Common Joint
for all the braces
For e1 and e2 less than D/4

Separate Joint
for each brace
e1 e2
For e1 and e2 greater than D/4
ac
Br
ac
Br
Column
Figure 5.4: Joint offset or eccentricities in jacket tubular Joint
Plate Girder
e1
e2
Increased Flange Thickness
Increased web thickness
Separate Joint
for each brace
e1 e2
Should be modelled even if e1 and e2 are less than D/4
Figure 5.5: Joint offset or eccentricities in deck truss Joint

the lateral loads from wave and current on conductors. The length of the wish bones will be
very small. This is done by creating a joint with almost same coordinate of the structural
joint.
77
Conductor Guide
Support Braces
Wish bone
Conductor
Anulus Gap
Figure 5.6: Wish bone modelling of conductor / guide interface
5.3.6
Dummy Structure Models
Jacket structure has many appurtenances attached to it. The wave and current loading on
them shall be taken into account but the stiffness need not considered in the global analysis
of jacket. This is to simplify the load path and to understand the behaviour clearly. Further
the materials of such appurtenances may not be in line with the main structure, it is obvious
to ignore them in the global structural stiffness. Such structures are listed below.
Boat Landing
Barge Bumber
Launch Runner
Mudmat
Anodes
Conductors
Risers
J-tube
Similarly, the deck structure has many appurtenances as listed below.
Walkways
78
5.4. Foundation Simulation
Stairways
Platforms
Equipment Supports
Monorails
But these items on the deck does not have wave or current loading but may have wind loading
on them. Since the wind loading on deck is normally considered as block area, this may not
be the case. But these appurtenances need to be modelled to simulate the vertical COG.
This is required in the sea transportation analysis and seismic analysis. Refer to relevant
section for more details.
The dummy structure can be modelled in two ways. The first method is to model as a
structural member and give very high Young modulus so that the stiffness is very low. This
method will lead to large displacements and may not be correct.
The other method is to remove such members after the loads are calculated and summed
to the nearest joint. Some of the software programs have this ability to simulate dummy
structure based on this method.
5.4
5.4.1
Pile Modelling
In an offshore structure, the piles hold them on to the sea bed. This needs to be simulated
in the structural analysis involving their inplace strength and stability. There are type of
pile system that can be used in the offshore structures.
Main Pile
Skirt Pile
As it can be seen from the figure that the skirt pile is always grouted with the skirt sleeve
of the jacket. But in the case of main pile, the annulus between the pile and the jacket leg
may be grouted or not grouted depending on the design water depth. Like other structural
elements of the jacket structure, pile is also a structural member and shall be modelled
according to the diameter, wall thickness and material properties. It is the load transfer
mechanism between the jacket leg and pile that requires special care in simulation of actual
load transfer.
79
Pile to Deck Connection

Pile To Jacket Connection
Jacket Brace
Pile
Jacket Leg
Wish-Bone
Structure Node
Pile Node
Pile Head Node
Figure 5.7: Pile Simulation for an Offshore jacket
80
For the case of grouted skirt piles and main piles, the model becomes much easier by simply
specifying the cross section as a Composite Section containing jacket leg, pile and the
annulus filled with cement grout. The equivalent axial area, shear area and bending stiffness
can be calculated using the equivalent section concept and used in the analysis.
But for the case of main pile, this cannot be done. The pile and jacket are two parallel
members physically connected at the top of jacket by means welded connections and else
where no welding but spacers are placed inside the jacket leg to provide contact points for
load transfer. These spacers are specially located at the horizontal framing such that the
lateral loads from the wave and current can be easily transferred to the piles.
5.4.2
Soil Simulation
Piles below seabed shall be modelled in the structural analysis to reflect the vertical and
lateral behaviour of pile soil system. This is very essential to simulate the jacket and deck
deflections and pile stresses. This can be done in three ways.
Equivalent Pile Stub P-Y, T-Z and Q-Z Curves Linearised Pile Stiffness Matrix -
5.4.3
Pile Group Effect
The skirt piles for very large jackets normally arranged in cluster at each corner to resist the
forces from gravity and environmental loads.
These pile clusters can be arranged in various ways but due to construction limitations
usually they will arranged in closed manner as shown in the Figures 5.10 and ??. The
distance between the jacket leg and the farthest pile shall be kept to a minimum possible for
fabrication to avoid unnecessary bending on jacket legs as well on the pile sleeves.
It is a good practice to space the centre to centre of adjacent piles at a distance of 3D
where D is the diameter of the pile. This will prove a clear distance between the pile face of
2D.Even with this separation, the effect of load on one pile will affect the behaviour of the
adjacent pile. The issues to be looked into are two categories as listed below.
Effect Axial Capacity
Effect on P-Y, T-Z and Q-Z behaviour
81
Jacket Legs
Brace
Skirt Sleeve
Main Pile
Soil Lateral
Resistance
Figure 5.8: Pile Simulation for an Offshore jacket
82
Figure 5.9: Pile Group arrangements for 4 legged platform
Figure 5.10: Pile Group arrangements for 8 legged platform
83
5.5. Load Simulation
5.5
Load Simulation
5.5.1
Dead Loads
The dead loads of primary structural members such as deck beams, braces, jacket legs and
braces, piles etc shall be calculated by the program automatically based their dimensions
and unit weight of material supplied. Hence in the simulation of geometry, the structural
members shall be modelled as close as possible to the actual arrangement including member
offsets. Otherwise, the weight of the member may not be calculated accurately. Especially
for jacket, if the offsets at the joints are not modelled, then the buoyancy will be either over
estimated or under estimated depending on the member weight to buoyancy ratio. Typical
K joint of a jacket is shown in Figure.
5.5.2
Equipment Loads
Generally, the equipment weight are manually entered based on VENDOR supplied information. The weight of the equipment shall be distributed to the deck beams or plating
depending the load transfer method adopted for the design of the equipment skid. Equipment skids may have been designed for four corner support or continuous supports. Provision
of continuous supports shall be carefully examined as it may be very difficult to achieve.
Hence these equipment loads shall be distributed to the deck beams at appropriate locations
based on equipment Center of Gravity (COG) as point loads.
Only very small equipment may be placed directly on the deck plating. This can be applied
as patch loads on the deck plating.
5.5.3
Fluid Loads
The fluid loads are based on equipment operating weight. This can also be obtained from
the equipment manufacturer. The contents of the equipment can be calculated as below.
Wf luid = WOper Wdry
(5.1)
where Woper and Wdry are the weight of equipment in operating and dry conditions. Similarly,
the contents of the piping during operation can be estimated based on length of pipes,
diameters etc. This can only be estimated very approximately and large contingency shall
be applied on this item.
84
These loads shall be applied as member load on the deck beams. The distribution of these
loads shall be as per the estimated overall piping COG at each deck levels.
5.5.4
Drilling Loads
Drilling equipment include rig, drill strings, mud tanks, etc. These equipment are also similar
to the other equipment described above except that the drilling rig is not an fixed equipment.
Usually, the drilling rig is designed to be used for drilling more than one well. Each platform
may have a matrix array of wells either 3x3 or 4x4 depending on the field development plan.
Hence these drilling rings will be mounted on skid beams (part of deck with raised T sections
as rails) so that the drilling rig can be moved longitudinally. Across the other direction, the
drill dig will have a skid arrangement to move. This arrangement will produce different
reaction on to the deck structure at each drilling location.
Normally, these shall be applied as point loads on the skid beams. There may be several load
cases to cover all the well positions. The complication is due to application of wind loads on
these drilling rig structure. Each time the drilling rig changes position, the wind load also
shall be applied to the corresponding load point. This will lead to several combinations in
the global inplace analysis.
5.5.5
Live Loads
The live loads shall be applied on open areas not occupied by equipment or facilities. This
can be applied as member loads,
5.5.6
Wind, Wave and Current
Wind
Wind loads are normally calculated manually and applied to deck edge usually on nodes at
the periphery. Diagonal or non-orthogonal wind load cases can be generated from loads from
orthogonal cases. For example, the loads in +X, +Y, -X and -Y will be applied manually.
The load case for 45 degree can be generated suitably using loads in +X and +Y. The load
combination factors are discussed in the earlier Chapter Loads.
85
Wave and Current

The wave and current shall be simulated using software contained modules. Manual calculation and application of these loads will lead large errors and approximations since the
number of members are very high. However, following points shall be noted in selecting
various parameter for calculation.
Wave and Current Directions - Normally for a 4 or eight legged jacket, at least
8 directions shall be considered. For tripod structures, at least 12 directions shall
be considered. Diagonal directions shall be selected to maximize the pile loads. For
example, if the platform geometry in plan is a square, 45 degree angle will produce
maximum pile load. But if the geometry is a rectangle, then the angle shall be the
diagonal angle joining the diagonal pile groups as shown in Figure 5.11
Selection of suitable Wave Theory
Hydrodynamic Coefficients
CD and CM
Current Blockage Factor
Conductor Shielding
Kinematics Factor
Apparent Wave Period
Simulation of Non-structural items
Boat Landing
Barge bumper
Walkways
Anodes
launch Runner
Skirt Sleeve Connections
Risers and J-tubes
Mudmat
86
270o
225o
315o
L
Y
Single Pile or Group
0o
180o
45o
135o
90o
360 1 + 2
270o
180 + 1 + 2
180 + 1
360 1
L
Y
Single Pile or Group
0o
180o
180 1
1
1 + 2
1 = tan BL
90o
180 1 2
2 = 180 21
Figure 5.11: Wave attack angles for platform with square and rectangular base
87
88
Chapter 6
In-place Analyses
6.1
Principle
In-place analysis can be carried out in two ways.

Pseudo Static Analysis
Wave Response Analysis
The pseudo static in-place analysis can be carried out as below.
Geometry Simulation - Simulate the geometry of the jacket as per the drawings and
Basis of Design (B.O.D)
Load Simulation - Simulate the gravity and environmental loads as per weight control
report and meta-ocean report.
Modal Analysis - Evaluate the dynamic characteristics of the deck/jacket system
and determine the dynamic amplification factor (DAF).
Foundation Simulation - Simulate the foundation pile and soil as per the geotechnical report
Pile/Soil Interaction - Carry out static analysis with pile/soil interaction
Post processing of results. - Post process the results to obtain member forces, joint
deflections, pile loads, etc.
89
Chapter 6. In-place Analyses
The wave response in-place analysis can be carried out as per the steps below.
Geometry Simulation - Simulate the geometry of the jacket as per the drawings and
Basis of Design (B.O.D)
Load Simulation - Simulate the gravity loads as per the weight control report and
generate results of the analysis.
Foundation Simulation - Simulate the foundation pile and soil as per the geotechnical report
Modal Analysis - Establish the dynamic characteristics of the deck/jacket system
and generate modal masses, modal frequencies and mode shapes
Wave Response Analysis -Carry out time series wave response analysis together
with the pile/soil interaction.
Combine Gravity and Wave Response - Combine the results of the gravity static
analysis due to gravity loads and wave response analysis with appropriate load combination factors.
Post processing of results. - Post process the results to obtain member forces, joint
deflections, pile loads, etc.
The analysis will be performed on a 3D space-frame computer model representing the jacket.
All primary structural members, caissons and appurtenances will be modelled.
6.2
Geometry Simulation
A 3-dimensional rigid spaced frame structural computer model with all members contributing
to its stiffness will be generated. This consist of:
Legs - Jacket legs normally consists of normal sections and can section. Member
between two adjacent horizontal frames shall be defined using member segments rather
than additional joints. Care shall be taken to provide correct length of the CAN at
the joints.
Braces - Brace members shall be modelled with offsets from the jacket legs. Any
eccentricities more than D/4 shall be modelled by adding additional joints.
Appurtenances - These include conductors, risers, walkways, mudmat, anodes, etc.
These needs to accounted for both theair weight and wave load purposes.
90
6.2.1
Simplified Topside Model
The primary frame members within the deck shall be included in the sub-structure models in
order to correctly represent the stiffness of the deck and the load transfer from the topsides
to the jacket. The other structures, living quarters, drilling rig, drilling support module
and vent boom will be explicitly modelled. The loads on these modules and structures will
be applied accurately within the structure itself to reflect the actual COG of the loaded
structure. Stiff members to appropriate locations within the integrated deck model will
connect the individual structural units for the representation of load transfer and stiffness
simulation.
6.2.2
Load Simulation
Dead Load
Program SACS using element areas and densities computes the dead weight of all jacket
and topside structural elements. The weight of non-modelled components, such as leg diaphragms, pile sleeve guides and appurtenance steel will be input as additional member
or joint loads, at appropriate points of application on the structure. The non-structural
appurtenance dead weights will be applied as point loads at their points of attachment to
the jacket. Where it is impractical to input these as individual point load, to reflect the
best current estimate of the structure dead weight, the member densities will be factored
up to include the weight of those items. These include miscellaneous pipes, joint and ring
stiffeners, conductor casing program, etc. Upper and lower values of jacket weight will be
evaluated for use in the load combinations. The lower value of jacket weight will be the base
weight. This will be used to check for maximum tension uplift force in the piles. A factor of
1.00 shall be used. The upper value of the jacket weight will include all design allowances.
Wave and Current Loading

Drag and inertia forces on individual members will be calculated using Morisons Equation.
Shielding or interaction effects within the structure will be considered.
The water particle velocities and accelerations for the design waves will be computed using
Stream Function Theory in accordance with API RP 2A. For any given position along the
wave profile, the specified current velocity profile will be from seabed to the free water
surface. Current and wave directions will always be assumed parallel and of the same sense;
resultant particle velocities being the vector sum of these components.
For the initial stage of the analysis, the structure will be modelled using a combination of
91
tubular structural and wave force elements. Structural elements are those elements that
attract wave forces and contribute to the stiffness of the structure. Wave force elements
attract wave force but are considered to possess zero stiffness. Wave and current forces will
be computed using Morisons equation.
Pile sleeve bottle sections will be modelled as tubular members with effective section properties equal to the pile pitch circle diameter plus sleeve diameter. Pile stick-up of 9.0 m will
be allowed on all skirt sleeves. Elements with attachments will have wave loading calculated
based on the nominal member section with modified Cm and Cd values.
Similarly, where two or more members are combined into one for the purposes of the wave
load analysis, the hydrodynamic coefficients will be modified to give the correct total drag
and inertia response.
Drag and inertia coefficients for non-tubular and/or complex geometry will be calculated
using an equivalent diameter. The equivalent diameter will be based on the circumscribing
circle.
In the calculation of all effective drag and inertia coefficients, the increase in diameter due to
marine growth of both the true structural members and the equivalent wave force members
will be taken into account where appropriate.
6.2.3
Topsides Load COG Shift Envelope
The topsides operating weight and COG, including all allowances and factors will be taken
from the latest topside model available at the time of the analysis and used in the jacket
in-place analysis. This, by implication implies, that the values used in the detailed design
analyses may well differ later on when topside detail engineering becomes more advanced and
information more accurate. The load contingency percentages are included to take care of
possible weight growth. The load to be used in the Detailed Design analysis will be applied
as described below.
An envelope within which the topsides centre of gravity is shifted will be included in the
in-place analysis. A load case shifting the COG to each of the four extreme corners of the
envelope as well as in between the extreme corners will be included in order to maximise leg
loads/frame loads. A COG shift of 1.0 m between north and south, 1.5 m east to west will
be envisaged (rectangle box).
92
6.2.4
Minimum and Maximum Water Depth
Inplace analysis shall be carried out for minimum and maximum water depth cases. The
minimum design water depth shall be the water depth to LAT and the maximum water
depth shall include storm tide (100 year) and any surge shall also be included.
6.2.5
Maximum Wave Loads
Maximum Base Shear

Maximum Overturning Moment
6.2.6
Allowable Stresses
Allowable stresses for members and joints shall be taken as per API RP 2A. One-third
increase in allowable stresses is allowed for storm load cases.
93
94
Chapter 7
Dynamic Analysis
7.1
Principle
Basically, the dynamic analysis is carried out to determine the natural periods, mode shapes
etc for further use in the seismic analysis, spectral fatigue analysis. Further, the natural
period will be used for the calulation of Dynamic Amplification Factor (DAF) for both
inplace storm analysis and fatigue analysis.
7.2
Geometry Simulation
The stiffness model for the jacket will be developed from the in-place model with the specific
modifications detailed below:
The model incorporates plan framing and vertical trusses, providing overall stiffness simulation.
Additional joints required for mass modelling are provided at the centre of gravity positions
of the drilling, drilling support midule, LQ and other deck equipment for mass modelling.
These joints will be connected by triangulated (pyramid form) stiff links to the deck model.
Stiff links will be created by applying large section properties to the link members, however
densities should be set to zero to ensure that there are no effects due to mass of these
members.
The jacket model used in the natural frequency analysis is similar to the one used in the inplace analyses. Modifications will comprise alteration to the Foundation Model as described
below, preparation of a complete mass model and any alterations to appurtenance simulation
necessary to minimise the number of potential spurious local vibration modes.
95
Chapter 7. Dynamic Analysis
Stiffness matrices developed for extreme storm condition, corresponding to the 100-year wave
height will be used to generate the linearized foundation stiffness.
7.3
Load Simulation
The mass model comprises the structural mass, water added mass, contained mass and
marine growth. Added mass is the mass of water assumed to move in unison with the
structural member as it deflects. For tubular, a value of mass numerically equal to the
mass of water displaced by the submerged member is used including marine growth where
applicable. Contained mass is the water contained or enclosed by the submerged members.
In this analysis the water depth is taken at mean sea level to be the fatigue design water
depth (maximum still water depth). All members below this depth will therefore have an
added mass value. The four corner legs will be flooded to top of leg, while all other members
will be considered non-flooded.
Pile sleeves, their added masses and contained grout mass will be computed manually and
lumped proportionately at the nodes of the members defining the elements.
7.3.1
Computer Generated Mass
The SACS Program will internally compute the structural mass, water added mass, flooded
mass and mass of marine growth for all active members (only) of the structural model.
Members will be temporarily designated active or inactive depending on whether computer
mass generation or direct input mass is required.
For steel mass calculation, active members of the jacket will consist of elements in the corner
legs, plan levels and frames. Additional jacket mass due to the nodes will be generated by
SACS based on variable sectional properties input for each member so that the total stick
mass and node mass add up to the overall steel mass of the jacket. SACS will also calculate
the water added mass of each active structural member and the mass of marine growth on
it. Each mass will be calculated for a structural member and assigned equally to the joints
bounding the member.
7.3.2
Direct Input Mass
The masses that are not generated by program will be calculated by hand and allocated
to their appropriate centre of gravity positions at each level. Masses will be based on the
weight reports for jackets and topsides and will include the following:
96
Deck Structure
Caissons and Supports
Anodes
M&E piping
Walkways
Pile sleeves, pile and grout
Entrained water and marine growth masses not generated by the program.
7.4
The dynamic analysis cannot be performed together with the iterative nature of soil-pile
interaction.
The non-linear soil-pile system of the jacket foundation is replaced by linear foundation
model obtained through Pile Soil Interaction (PSI) analysis of the SACS Program. The
foundation model will comprise a 6 x 6 stiffness matrix, representing each pile to provide a
linear elastic approximation to the soil stiffness.
7.5
Solution
The soultion to the following equation will give the eigen values and eigen vectors.
[M ]X + [K]X = 0
(7.1)
An eigen value analysis will be performed for the jacket model using computer program.
The program uses the standard Householder-Guyans extraction technique in solving for the
eigen values and eigen vectors of the reduced sets of equations for the model.
The consistent mass approach is adopted to generate the mass matrix. The program first
assembles the overall stiffness and mass matrices corresponding to all degrees of freedom
of the model. Subsequently, both the stiffness and mass matrices are reduced to have only
master or retained degrees of freedom using Guyan reduction procedure.
Matrix decomposition and solution yields eigen values and eigen vectors from which the
natural periods are extracted and the mode shapes of the structure plotted. At least twentyfive modes will be considered in this analysis.
97
7.5. Solution
7.5.1
Dynamic Amplification factor
From the structural periods derived, the ratio of structural period to wave period will be
computed for the relevant waves.
The dynamic amplification factors (DAFS) will then be derived using the relationship for a
single degree-of-freedom system, i.e.
DAF = s
2 2
Tn
T2
(7.2)
2 2
2Tn
T2
where
T
Tn
=
=
=
Wave Period
Natural period of structure (first mode)
Damping factor (5% for steel structures in water)
These DAFs will be used in the fatigue analyses and in-place analyses if necessary, when
the natural period exceeds three seconds.
98
Chapter 8
Fatigue Analysis
8.1
General
Fatigue analysis can be carried out using the following two methods.
Deterministic Method - In the deterministic method, the seastate energy is is simulated using discrete frequencies and wave heights with corresponding number of occurrences. Structural responses and hot spot stresses are generated for each of these
discrete waves. The summation of fatigue damages due to these discrete wave load
cases are then summed up to obtain the total damage during the life of the structure.
Spectral Method- Spectral method uses the seastate energy spectra us used to generate the transfer function for the structural response. This transfer function is then
used to generate the hot spot stresses in the joints.
8.2
Deterministic Fatigue Analysis
Deterministic Fatigue analysis of jacket involves the following steps.

Establish a wave scatter diagram for the field location including ranges of wave height,
wave period and occurrences
Simulation of jacket structure stiffness and deck stiffness accurately and make the
model simple enough to understand the behaviour.
Simulate deck and jacket mass accurately including vertical COG to determine the
dynamic characteristics of the platform
99
8.3. Wave Scatter Data
Chapter 8. Fatigue Analysis
Establish Dynamic amplification factors (DAF) either using discrete approximate method
or using wave response analysis
Select appropriate wave theory and generate wave loading on all the members
Compute stress range using appropriate method
Determine Stress Concentration factors for all the joints using suitable empirical equations
Establish Hot Spot stresses for the tubular joints
Select suitable S-N curve for the joint configuration
Determine Fatigue damage due to all the wave load cases and sum up to obtain the
total fatigue damage
8.3
Wave Scatter Data
The wave scatter data contains the sea state information such as wave height, wave period
and their distribution over a certain period of time. This information may be available for a
1 year period based on measurements at the site or may be based on numerical simulation
validated with bench mark measurements. These data will give a indication of each set of
waves with (definitive height and period) will occur how many times in a given period of
time. Further, this will also define the direction of approach to the platform. Normally, at
least 8 direction sectors (45 degrees each) shall be used for fatigue analysis.
A typical wave scatter data for the middle east (Persian Gulf)is given in Table 8.1.
100
Table 8.1: Wave Scatter Data
8.3. Wave Scatter Data
101
8.4. Spectral Fatigue Analysis
It should be noted that sometime such information may be only available with significant
wave height and zero crossing periods. This shall be converted into individual maximum
wave heights and peak period using appropriate factors as shown below the table.
8.4
Spectral Fatigue Analysis
8.4.1
Principle
The spectral fatigue analysis will consider the dynamic response of the structure to a range of
wave heights covering a frequency range that includes all sea-states contributing significantly
in terms of fatigue damage. The response transfer functions and the sea-state spectra will be
used to generate stress spectra according to the well- known power spectral density approach.
Assuming that the joint stress histories conform to a Rayleigh distribution, the fatigue
damage will be calculated using Miners Rule.
8.4.2
Wave Spectra
Methods of fatigue analysis recognise the probabilistic nature of sea states. The random
sea surface can be represented in a deterministic domain by superimposing a finite number
of sinusoidal components of amplitude and phase. An energy spectral density function is
constructed from the mean square of the amplitude components for each narrow band of
frequency, f , and plotted against the appropriate wave frequency.
The two-parameter ISSC modified Pierson-Moskowitz wave spectrum will be used to represent sea surface elevation and is given by:
Hs2 Tz
1
4
Sh (f ) =
exp
(f Tz )
4(f Tz )5
(8.1)
where
Sh (f )
Hs
Tz
f
=
=
=
=
Single sided spectral density of wave amplitude (m2 unit frequency)

Significant wave height (m)
Zero up-crossing period (sec)
Wave frequency (Hz )
102
8.4.3
Wave Theory Selection
Water particle velocities and accelerations will be calculated using stream function.
In determining the water depth to use in the deterministic fatigue analysis, care will be
taken to recognise that higher water particle velocities, and hence higher local member wave
loads, result from shallower water depths. To this end, the Mean Sea Level (MSL) will be
used which reflects the long-term average of water depth. Current will be excluded from the
analysis.
8.4.4
Wave Steepness
In a fatigue analysis, the forces are assumed to be proportional to wave height. If this
assumption were always true, the selection of wave height (wave steepness) would be immaterial to the analysis. However, non-linear effects are present in wave force calculation due
to drag influences.
Wave steepness is defined by the ratio of wave height to wavelength. The wavelength is
obtained from the appropriate wave theory. For small amplitude deepwater waves, the
wavelength in metres is given by:
wavesteepness =
Hd
L
where
L = 1.56T 2
(8.2)
where T is the wave period and Hd is the design wave height.

From experience a wave steepness of 1:16 will be used for generation of wave forces.
8.4.5
Transfer Functions
In order to perform a fatigue analysis, the wave height spectra must be transformed into
a series of member-end hot-spot stress-amplitude response spectra at each of 8 equallyspaced circumferential points around each end of each member for each sea state. This
transformation is accomplished by multiplying the appropriate frequency ordinate of the
spectrum for the sea state under consideration, by the square of the corresponding ordinate
of the hot spot transfer function. The transfer function ordinates are defined as the ratio of
hot spot stress amplitude at a particular member-end circumferential point divided by the
wave amplitude that generates the stress amplitude at that point as a function of frequency.
Consequently, units of the transfer function will be, for example, MP a/m of wave amplitude.
103
8.4.6
Selection of Frequencies
The inaccuracy introduced when a transfer function is used to convert a wave spectrum is
dependent on the number of frequencies for which transfer function ordinates are available.
If an infinite number of ordinates were available, the response spectrum would be exact.
This, however, is obviously not practical. All that is really required is a sufficient number of
ordinates to describe adequately the variation of transfer function over the frequency range
of interest. For this to be done, the frequencies at which transfer function peaks and troughs
can be expected must first be anticipated. Ordinates are then computed at these points and
at other intermediate points. A minimum of 8 ordinates will be considered.
To generate a transfer function ordinate for a particular fatigue wave direction, selective
waves of various heights but constant steepness are used to load the structure. These waves
need not necessarily be the waves from the fatigue environment, but waves chosen based on
the following criteria:
Dynamics Criterion : The waves with frequencies corresponding to first three modal
frequencies will be considered.
Leg Spacing Criterion: Certain frequencies are chosen such that the corresponding wavelengths are approximately integral (n) or half integral (n/2) multiples of the distance between
legs. This criterion is used to locate the crests and troughs in the transfer function.
Minimum and Maximum Wave Height Criterion: Waves with a minimum height of
0.25 m and a maximum wave height obtained among the fatigue wave climate will also be
considered for generating transfer function.
8.4.7
Stress Amplitudes
As the wave profile should be a pure sinusoid for the response to be interpreted as a transfer
function, the Stream Function theory does result in wave profiles that are pure sinusoids.
The stress is calculated at various wave positions and the difference between the maximum
and minimum stress called the stress range is determined for each wave. Dividing these stress
ranges by one-half of the corresponding wave height produces stress ranges for waves of unit
amplitude (for sinusoidal waves, wave height equals twice the wave amplitude). The relationship between the stress ranges of unit amplitude and the corresponding wave frequency
for all waves considered is the transfer function.
104
8.4.8
Fatigue Life Calculation
Calculation of Stress Ranges

If for the direction being considered, the wave height spectral density Sh (f ) of a particular
sea-state is known and the transfer function Hi (f ) for the point can be calculated, then
the statistical cyclic stress range (RMS cyclic stress range) at that point for this particular
sea-state is given as:
sZ
Hi2 (f )Sh (f )df
RM S i =
0
(8.3)
Cumulative Damage calculation

For every RMS stress, there exist an average time, TZ, between zero crossings with a positive
slope for a stationary Gaussian process with zero mean. This period called the zero crossing
period is given by:
Tz = qR
RM S i
(8.4)
f 2 H 2 (f )Sh (f )df
For a narrow band process, this is the average period or the reciprocal of the average frequency of the process. The expected number of cycles associated with this sea-state during
the design life of the structure is:
n(s) =
mL
Tz
(8.5)
where, L is the design life of the structure and m is the fraction of the design life that this
sea-state prevails.
For a given stress range s, the number of cycles to failure, N(s), can be found from the S-N
curve used. Then, the expected damage from the given sea-state is given as:
n(s)
D= 2
RM S i
s
exp
N (s)
s2
2
RM
Si
ds
(8.6)
The total expected damage for all sea-states during the life of the structure is the sum of
the damage for each individual sea-state. The expected fatigue life is equal to the design life
divided by the expected damage.
105
8.4.9
S-N Curves
For a particular stress range s, there exists a theoretical number of cycles N(s) at which
fatigue failure may occur. The relationship between this number of allowable cycles and the
stress range is usually expressed as an S-N curve. The API RP 2A-WSD curve X applicable
for normal welding and curve X 0 applicable for profile control welding.
8.4.10
Stress Concentration Factors
In most tubular joints, local stresses on both the stub and chord side of the stub-to-chord
weld will be considerably higher than the nominal stub and chord stresses resulting from a
global frame analysis of the structure. The magnitudes of these stress concentrations are
dependent upon the weld profile and the joint geometry. Weld profile stress concentrations
result from notches in the weld and are difficult to quantify explicitly using full-scale test
results or finite element techniques. Consequently, they are incorporated into the empirically
derived S-N curves.
Tubular Joints
Several researchers for various unstiffened joint geometry have developed geometric stress
concentrations, but those developed by Efthymiou is preferred.
Hot spot stresses on the chord and brace sides of the chord-to-brace weld are determined by
multiplying the nominal stub stress by chord and stub stress concentration factors (SCFs)
respectively. The manner in which each SCF is computed is dependent on the details of the
geometry of the joint under consideration. The following joint configurations exist.
Unstiffened Non-overlapping Joints

SCFs will be derived from the formulae of Efthymiou for all joints. These formulae include
parameter ranges within which they are said to be valid. In many cases there is no alternative
but to use the formulae outside these ranges, but in these cases the joint will be the subject
of special consideration. Normally, SCFs will be computed for the actual parameter values,
and again using values on the limit of exceeded ranges. The maximum of those two values
will be used.
106
Figure 8.1: S-N Curve [API RP2A 2000]
107
Unstiffened Overlapping Joints

SCFs will be derived from the Efthymious formulae. However, overlapping joints shall be
avoided wherever possible.
iv) Internally Stiffened Joints
The SCFs for internally stiffened joints will be calculated based on the Lloyds Register
formulae.
Cone Transitions
The geometrical SCFs for conical transitions will be determined as below:
SCFgeom = (fa + fb + fb1)/( fa + fb)
where:
fa = Axial stress fb = Bending stress fb1 = Secondary bending stress as defined in API
RP2A Section 2.5.
Fabrications Misalignments / Thickness Transitions

The Fabrication Specification will require that all plate misalignments in excess of 10% of
the minimum thickness of the plates being joined must be profiled to a slope of 1:4 and
that smaller misalignments will be joined with a tapering weld. Thickness transitions will
be effected with a 1:4 taper on the thicker plate.
Minimum Stress Concentration Factors

In general, for tubular node joints, the minimum axial and bending SCF for all stubs and
all chords is taken as 2.0. SCFs less than 2.0 may be used only for fully backed-up leg nodes
when justified by finite element or acrylic model test results. Similarly, the minimum SCF
for stiffened joints is taken as 2.5 unless otherwise justified.
8.4.11
Foundation Linearisation
The fatigue analysis involves series of structural analysis for each direction and each wave
set. It will be very time consuming if every analysis has to be carried out with pile/soil
108
interaction. Further, the modal analysis cannot be carried out with pile/soil interaction.
Hence the nonlinear foundation shall be linearised and a stiffness matrix that corresponds to
six degrees of freedom at the pile head shall be used for the analyses. But to generate this
spring stiffness, a representative wave height and direction shall be selected that represents
the fatigue seastate.
The foundation spring stiffness will be derived using loads corresponding to an equivalent
wave height, He . From the wave scatter diagram, it is possible to derive a fatigue damage
scatter diagram on the basis of the following:
Di = Hsibm
Pi
Tzi
(8.7)
where
Di
m
b
Hsi
Tzi
Pi
=
=
=
=
=
=
Damage of the ith sea-state

Slope of the S-N curve
Slope of log-linear wave height versus stress(Assumed = 1.80)
Significant wave height of the ith sea-state
Zero up-crossing period of the ith sea-state
Probability of occurrence of the ith sea-state
The above assumes a log-linear wave height versus stress relationship.

After constructing the fatigue damage scatter diagram using the above formula, its centroid
will be determined using the following equations to identify the sea-state causing the most
damage:
P
Hs =
P
Tz =
Di Hsi
Di
(8.8)
Di Tsi
Di
(8.9)
The deterministic design wave (Hd , Td ) which represents the seastate at the centre of the
damage scatter diagram is usually taken to be:
Hd = 1.86Hs
(8.10)
Td = 1.27Tz
(8.11)
109
110
Chapter 9
Ship Impact Analysis
9.1
Impact Vessels
In am offshore development, often service boats and supply vessels have to serve the offshore
operation. During their trips, due to harsh weather conditions, it may some time drift and
hit the the jacket legs or braces. These vessels during their normal approach to the platform
may arrive in with normal operating speed or may arrive at accidental speed depending on
the weather conditions at the time of arrival. API RP2A specifies a operating a speed of 0.5
m/sec and accidental speed of 2 m/sec.
The jacket legs and braces in the splash zone shall be designed of such loads to avoid
premature failure and collapse of the platform. Where such impacts are not allowed, a
properly designed boat impact guard (sacrificial) shall be provided. For example, the risers
located outside the jacket perimeter shall be protected with riser guard or riser protector
and this kind of riser guard shall be located sufficiently away (at least a 1m) so that during
vessel impact, risers does not experience large deflection.
The purpose of the boat impact analysis is:
Normal Impact - To ensure the adequacy of the jacket leg and brace members in the
splash zone such that they can absorb the energy imparted by a design vessel traveling
at normal operating velocity.
Accidental Impact To ensure the adequacy of the jacket leg and brace members in
splash zone such that they can absorb the energy imparted vessel traveling at accidental
velocity.
Post Impact Strength - To ensure the compliance of the damaged platform for
operating (1-year wave) design requirements after the boat impact.
111
9.2. Principle
9.2
Chapter 9. Ship Impact Analysis
Principle
The general methodology for ship impact analysis involves the following three primary steps:
Impact LocalImpact analysis to estimate the damage to the members which are
directly hit by the ship and the impact force.
Impact Global Analysis - Static analysis to ensure that the jacket will be able to
withstand the impact force safely. In this analysis the member and joint stresses are
allowed up to yield limit as this force is temporary.
Post Impact Analysis Static analysis to verify if the damaged platform can sustain
the 1 year operating environmental loads.
9.3
Method of Computing Impact Energy Dissipation
As the boat hits any member, equal and opposite forces are applied to the member and to
the boat. These forces cause the following effects:
Local denting of the member under the point of impact, which causes a local reduction in the effective cross-sectional area and section modulus of the member. The
relationship between dent depth and lateral forces causing the dent is given by the
DNV curve (Furnes and Amdahl) for knife-edge contact.
Bending of the member, initially elastic and subsequently, elasto-plastic until a
plastic mechanism form.
Denting of the boat - The force/indentation curves contained in DnV TN A202
document is used for this purpose.
Global deformation - Elastic deformation of the rest of the structure.
9.4
Energy dissipation by member
The total energy dissipation is computed in four stages as described below by iterating on
the dent depth.
Stage 1 : Elastic Beam Bending - Stage 1 of the energy absorption process covers
the period from the moment of impact until the section starts yielding due to the axial
112
9.4. Energy dissipation by member
load and moments at the dented section. The impact is conservatively assumed to
occur at midspan of the member. For a given dent depth, X, the lateral force, Pd ,
causing the dent depth is calculated in accordance with the DNV curve for B/D = 0,
where, B is the central length of the dent and D is the mean diameter of the member.
The equation given below approximates the DNV curve for B/D = 0:
Pd = 15mp (D/t)(X/R)
(9.1)
where
mp
D
R
t
X
= is the plastic moment capacity of tube wall equal toFyt24

= is the mean diameter of the tubular member
= is the mean radius of the tubular member
= is the thickness of the tubular member
= is the dent depth
The energy absorbed, Ed , by a dent of given depth, X, is found by integration of the

force over the dent and is given as,
Ed = 14.14mp
X 3/2
t
(9.2)
The lateral force, Pd , causes a change in the bending moment distribution of the
member. The moments at the ends and at the middle depend on the original moments
and the rotational stiffness of the ends of the member. The energy absorbed by the
bending deformation is given by,
Eb = 0.5Pd
(9.3)
Where, is the lateral displacement of the member centre line. The other energy absorbing components are energy due to the longitudinal strain, global structural transitional energy and ship distortion energy. Stage 1 of the energy absorption mechanism
ends when the sum of the axial and bending stresses at the centre of the tube is equal
to the plate yields stress. This point is found by iterating on the dent depth.
Stage 2 : Elasto-Plastic Beam Bending The behaviour of the member in Stage 2 is similar to that in Stage 1. Stage 2 ends
at the formation of full plasticity at the dented section. By iterating on the depth of
dent until the formation of first plastic hinge, the end of Stage 2 is found. The energy
associated with the formation of the first plastic hinge is calculated in the same way
as in Stage 1.
113
9.5. Energy Dissipation by Overall jacket deflection
Stage 3 : After Formation of First Hinge

This phase of energy absorption process continues until a 3-hinge mechanism is formed.
For a given dent depth, the lateral force is found. The deflection at the centre of the
beam is calculated assuming that the dent force is carried by the two cantilevers. If
the energy absorbed at the end of Stage 3 is less than the impact energy of the ship,
then the absorption mechanism enters Stage 4.
Stage 4 : After Formation of Three-Hinge Mechanism At this stage, it is assumed that no further dent growth occurs and the dent has
absorbed all the energy it is capable of. The energy absorption at this stage is due to
the triangulation effect of longitudinal strain, structure distortion and ship deformation
energy. Rupture of the brace being impacted and consequently penetration of the
boat within the jacket shall be prevented by limited the tension strain to 10%. The
displacement of the braces on gridline 1 shall be limited to prevent damage of the
conductees.
All the computations involved in the above four stages of energy absorption process are
incorporated in the IMPACT program. Starting from Stage 1, the energy computations
are continued over the four stages till the full ship impact energy is absorbed.
9.5
Energy Dissipation by Overall jacket deflection
Energy absorbtion by global deflection of the structure shall be included in the calculation
of total energy of absorbtion.
9.6
Structural Strength During Impact
The strength of jacket immediately after impact is a static inplace analysis without any
environmental loads. But the impact load at the point of impact shall be considered and
the global strength of the jacket including piles shall be evaluated.
9.7
Push Over Analysis
Post impact analysis can be classified in to following three categories.

Post Impact Strength Analysis
114
9.7. Push Over Analysis
Post Impact Redundancy Analysis

Post impact strength analysis is carried out to check the structure against 1 year environmental loads with all gravity loads. This is to ensure the structure is able to function as
normal for some period of time so that any repair needs to be carried out due to the impact. However, at this stage, the structure need not be designed for 100 year storm loads.
Obviously, the structure is checked for stresses against allowable stresses as per API RP 2A.
Push Over analysis is carried out to check the global integrity in terms of collapse behaviour.
The analysis will be performed using the full non-linear structural model described in Section
3.8. The finite element program ABAQUS 4.9 (Ref 3.0-2) will be used to carry out the
analyses. ABAQUS uses full Newton-Raphson iteration to determine the non-linear response
of the platform. Geometric non-linearity will be included and the load-displacement curves
will be obtained using the automatic increment options, based on the modified Riks method
(see Ref 3.0-2).
The analyses will be conducted by first applying the dead loads and the buoyancy loads,
and then incrementally increasing a concentrated force at the point of impact until either
instability in the model is achieved or the resisting strain energy of the structure greatly
exceeds the specified impact energy.
Energies associated with the two non-linear springs (representing the energy absorptions
due to local deformation of the vessel and jacket), the elements used to model the impacted
member, and the remainder of the structure will be computed at each incremental step of
the analysis which will effectively produce a history of the energy distribution as a function
of the impact force.
The energy response from the structure will be used in an energy balance relationship to
proportion the levels of energy dissipated by the substructure and the vessel. The impact
load will be determined at which the sum of the strain energies of the structure and vessel
equals the kinetic energy of the supply ship. Rebound (unloading) analysis will be carried
out as this impact load is removed; this will give the final displaced shape of the structure
which could be used as the initial point for the post-impact pushover analysis, if required.
The ultimate axial and bending moment capacity of the jacket tubular joints will be checked
to see that they have sufficient capacity to carry the maximum brace loads from the abnormal
environmental condition and the accidental ship impact conditions.
The lower bound ultimate capacity formula for axial load, inplace and out-of-plane bending
moment in API RP2A (Ref 3.1-2) will be adopted for the joint strength checks. The ultimate
capacity formulas are the same as the API RP2A nominal load formula except that the factor
of safety of 1.7 is removed.
115

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Analysis and Design

Types of Offshore Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Steel template Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Concrete Gravity Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Tension Leg Platforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Floating Production System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Floating Production, Storage and offloading System . . . . . . . . . .

Fixed Platform Concepts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Facility Dead Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Wave and Current Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Selection of Wave Theory . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Wave Load on a Member . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Maximum Global Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.4.10 Buoyancy Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.4.11 Ice Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

3.4.12 Mud Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Load Estimation and Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

4 MATERIALS AND CORROSION

Structural Member Classification . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Carbon Equivalent (CE) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Notch Toughness Requirements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Factors influencing corrosion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Sacrificial Anode System . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Structure Geometry selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Members and properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Offsets and Eccentricities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Dummy Structure Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Pile Group Effect . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Wind, Wave and Current . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Simplified Topside Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Topsides Load COG Shift Envelope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Minimum and Maximum Water Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Maximum Wave Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Computer Generated Mass . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Direct Input Mass

Dynamic Amplification factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Deterministic Fatigue Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Wave Scatter Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Spectral Fatigue Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Wave Theory Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Selection of Frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Stress Amplitudes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100

Fatigue Life Calculation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101

S-N Curves . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

8.4.10 Stress Concentration Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102

Impact Vessels . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107

Method of Computing Impact Energy Dissipation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Energy dissipation by member . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108

Energy Dissipation by Overall jacket deflection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Structural Strength During Impact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

Push Over Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110

1.2. Types of Offshore Structures

Types of Offshore Structures

1.3. Fixed Platforms

Steel template Structures

Concrete Gravity Platforms

1.3. Fixed Platforms

Figure 1.1: Different types of Offshore Structures