Thermodynamical Structure of AdS Black Holes in Massive Gravity

with Stringy Gauge-Gravity Corrections

S. H. Hendi1,2 , B. Eslam Panah1 , and S. Panahiyan1,3

arXiv:1510.00108v2 [hep-th] 18 Jan 2017

Physics Department and Biruni Observatory, College of Sciences, Shiraz University, Shiraz 71454, Iran
Research Institute for Astronomy and Astrophysics of Maragha (RIAAM), P. O. Box 55134-441, Maragha, Iran
3
Physics Department, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran 19839, Iran
Motivated by gauge/gravity group in the low energy effective theory of the heterotic string theory
and novel aspects of massive gravity in the context of lattice physics, the minimal coupling of GaussBonnet-massive gravity with Born-Infeld electrodynamics is considered. At first, the metric function
is calculated and then the geometrical properties of the solutions are investigated. It is found that
there is an essential singularity at the origin and the intrinsic curvature is regular elsewhere. In
addition, the effects of massive parameters are studied and black hole solutions with multi horizons
are found in this gravity. Also the conserved and thermodynamic quantities are calculated, and
it is shown that the solutions satisfy the first law of thermodynamics. Furthermore, using heat
capacity of these black holes, thermal stability and phase transitions are investigated. The variation
of different parameters and related modifications on the (number of) phase transition are examined.
Next, the critical behavior of the Gauss-Bonnet-Born-Infeld-massive black holes in the context of
extended phase space is studied. It is shown that how the variation of the different parameters
affects the existence and absence of phase transition. Also, it is found that for specific values of
different parameters, these black holes may enjoy the existence of new type of phase transition which
to our knowledge was not observed in black hole physics before.

I.

INTRODUCTION

This fact that the Universe expands with acceleration follows directly from the observation of high red-shift supernova [1] and indirectly from the measurement of angular fluctuations of cosmic microwave background fluctuations
[2]. Since Einsteins theory can not explain current acceleration of the Universe, without fine tuning, various modified
gravities have been proposed. For example one can refer to brane world cosmology [3, 4], scalar-tensor theories [5]
and F (R) gravity theories [68].
One of the interesting modified gravity theories is Lovelock gravity [9]. It is the most generalization that satisfies
properties of Einsteins tensor in higher dimensions [9]. In addition, by taking the Gaussian null coordinates into
account, one can find that the near null surface behavior of gravitational field equations is equivalent with the
conventional first law of thermodynamics (see [10, 11] for more details). On the other hand, evolution of the spacetime
has been investigated by using degrees of freedom of bulk and surface in Lovelock gravity. It was also pointed out
that considering Lovelock gravity provides a natural backdrop to test different conceptual and mathematical aspects
of Einsteins theory [12]. Lovelock gravity also enjoys only first and the second-order derivatives of metric function
in its field equations and it was shown that it is a ghost free theory of gravity. Furthermore, the effects of higher
curvature terms of this generalization present themselves in higher dimensions. Indeed Gauss-Bonnet (GB) gravity is
a topological invariant term in 4-dimensions, and therefore, it has no contribution to the equations of motion.
Generalization of Einstein gravity to higher curvature Lovelock theory enables us to obtain a better insight into
the phenomena in the context of gravity. The first three terms of Lovelock gravity called GB gravity in the presence
of cosmological constant (GB gravity). The first term is the cosmological term and the second and third terms are
the Einstein and second order Lovelock (GB) terms, respectively. The GB gravity has interesting properties which
are listed below.
In order to have a ghost-free action, the quadratic curvature corrections to the Einstein-Hilbert action should
be proportional to the GB term [13]. In addition, the natural next-to-leading order term of the heterotic string
effective action which plays a fundamental role in Chern-Simons gravitational theories is GB term [14]. In Ref. [15],
it was pointed out that considering GB gravity will lead to obtain the modified Renyi entropies. These entropies
violate specific inequality which must be hold for Renyi entropy. In addition, in case of AdS/CFT correspondence,
it was shown that considering GB gravity will modify shear viscosity, entropy, thermal conductivity and electrical
conductivity [16].

email address: hendi@shirazu.ac.ir

email address: behzad.eslampanah@gmail.com
email address: sh.panahiyan@gmail.com

2
The existence of singularity at the origin for a point-like charge, represents a shortcoming of Maxwell theory. In order
to overcome this problem, Born and Infeld [17] generalized linear Maxwell theory to a nonlinear one. The nonlinear
form of the Born-Infeld theory results into a bounded electric field associated to a point-like charge everywhere. This
leads into a finite self-energy which resolves the shortcoming of the Maxwell theory in this regard. The spherically
symmetric solutions of Einstein gravity in the presence of Born-Infeld (BI) theory was obtained in Ref. [18]. Various
applications of BI theory in the context of black hole physics have been investigated by many authors [19]. On the
other hand, it was shown that BI theory could be derived in open super strings and D-branes in the context of this
theory are free from physical singularities [20]. For getting a better picture of properties of BI theory in string theory
see Ref. [21]
In Einstein theory of gravity, gravitons are massless particles. In order to make a massive theory, one can simply
add massive terms to Einstein gravity. This will lead to introduction of a massive theory with a massive spin 2 particle
propagation in which for m 0, massless Einstein theory of gravity is recovered.
Manipulation of anti-de Sitter/conformal field theory (AdS/CFT) correspondence may lead to obtain a massive
gravity theory. In usual AdS/CFT correspondence, the graviton in AdS side is corresponding to the energy-momentum
tensor of CFT. In this usual regard, diffeomorphism invariance in AdS gravity translates to energy-momentum conservation in the CFT side. Motivated by generalized energy-momentum dispersion relation in UV regime [22] and
multi-trace deformation [23], one may deform the CFT in a way that violates the energy-momentum conservation.
Accordingly, a gravitational Higgs effect appears in AdS gravity and diffeomorphism invariance gets broken, and
therefore, the graviton acquires a mass (for more details see [24]). In addition, a model of cosmological topologically
massive gravity in the context of AdS/CFT relation has been presented in Ref. [25].
In addition, using an equivalent of the Brout-Englert-Higgs mechanism [26] for gravity, gravitons (spin 2 particles)
can attain mass by spontaneous local symmetry breaking [27]. Also, two models of exhibiting Higgs mechanism for
gravitons and the criteria for having massive graviton based on the process of spontaneous symmetry breaking of
diffeomorphisms have been constructed in [28]. Moreover, a modified gravity based on supersymmetry (where the
graviton has acquired a mass) has been used by Sj
ors [29]. He has taken into account the Vainshtein mechanism
to obtain a constraint on the graviton mass, which is proportional to 102 H0 . Regarding the mass of the graviton
proportional to the inverse Hubble scale today, the cosmological constant problem may be resolved and the value of
is in agreement with todays observations [30]. Besides, based on SO(3) symmetry and time reparameterization
invariance, a class of massive gravity theory was proposed [31].
On the other side, the one-loop mass shifts for the graviton, has been calculated in the context of bosonic string
theory [32]. Based on Kawai-Lewellen-Tye formulae [33], the soft behavior of gravitons to sub-leading order for
superstring amplitudes with massive insertions to open and closed strings has been investigated in Refs. [34, 35]. In
addition, the consistent equations of motion for the massive spin-2 field interacting with gravity in the context of both
field theory and string theory have been obtained [36].
Following the massive gravity model of Visser [37], an interesting cosmological model was obtained which has
acceptable value for the age of the Universe. This consistent model can be fitted by the present cosmological supernovae
type Ia data without considering dark energy [38]. Finally, we should note that although some models of general
relativity put a limit on the graviton mass, such models do not rule out interesting cosmological and gravitational
effects of massive gravity. In this direction, inability of LIGOs observation [39] for distinguishing general relativity
and its massive extension has been recently reported by Deser [40].
Several types of massive gravity with their specific characteristics have been introduced and their properties have
been investigated [4146]. In Ref. [47] massive gravity is explored in more details. Another class of massive theory
was introduced by Vegh in Ref. [48]. The black holes solutions of this theory in AdS spacetime has been investigated
[49]. One of the interesting aspects of this theory is the lattice like behavior of the graviton in holographic conductor
model. It was shown that limit of massless gravity leads to a Drude peak which approaches to delta function. This
is the behavior of the lattice in theory of the field. In addition, this theory has been employed to study stability
conditions and metal-insulator transition in AdS/CFT context [50, 51]. Several studies regarding thermodynamical
aspects of the Veghs massive gravity have been conducted [5254]. In the context of holography, the conductivity
and phase transitions of this theories of massive gravity has been investigated [51]. Charged BTZ black hole solutions
and their thermodynamics with Maxwell and BI fields in massive gravity have been studied in [55]. In addition, the
generalization to GB gravity and BI nonlinear electromagnetic fields were done. Their thermodynamical behavior
have been investigated in details [56, 57]. In this paper, we consider these two generalization for gravity and matter
field of the action and black holes in GB-BI-massive gravity.
Thermodynamical aspects of black holes plays a crucial role toward theory of quantum gravity [58]. Of the greatest
interest is thermal stability of the black holes. In order to black holes be stable, thermal stability conditions indicate
that the heat capacity must be positive valued. This is known as canonical ensemble. Investigation of the heat
capacity also enables one to study the phase transitions of the black holes. It was pointed out that roots of the
denominator and numerator of the heat capacity are denoted as two different types of the phase transition.

3
Recently, there has been a growing interest in considering cosmological constant as a thermodynamical variable.
It was pointed out that this consideration will enrich thermodynamical structure [59] of the black holes and leads to
removing ensemble dependency [60]. On the other hand, it was shown that interpretation of the negative cosmological
constant as thermodynamical pressure may lead to a van der Waals like behavior of liquid/gas for black holes [61].
Consideration of the cosmological constant as a thermodynamical variable could be justified through AdS/CFT. In
the first case, the Yang-Mills theory residing on the boundary of the AdS spacetime enjoys the existence of variation
of color which is related to the variation of cosmological constant in the bulk spacetime [62]. In the second case,
an RG-flow in the context of field theory corresponds to extended phase space which is obtained by consideration
of cosmological constant as thermodynamical variable [63]. In the space of the field theory, the way that number of
degrees of freedom runs with the energy scale is codified by isotherm curves.
The main motivation of this article comes from string theory. As mentioned before, BI theory and GB-gravity arise
from the low-energy limit of the open and heterotic string theories, respectively. So, we add massive spin-2 particle
to these theories and obtain the black hole solutions and investigate phase transition and their other properties.
Regarding the motivations for considering GB-BI-massive set up, one can point out following ones; The Einstein
theory of gravity has specific problems which could be solved by consideration of generalization to GB gravity. Then
again, the GB gravity has special properties that are mentioned before which make its studying crucial. But this
set up of gravity (EN-GB) provides massless gravitons. In order to have massive gravitons, it is necessary to include
mass terms such as those introduced by Veghs theory of massive gravity. In addition, it is well-known that BI theory
enjoys vast number of properties that are absent in the Maxwell theory which among them one can name: the absence
of shock waves and birefringence phenomena [64], existence of electric-magnetic duality [65] and etc ( see also [66]).
Therefore, for enriching our solutions to include these properties, we consider BI generalization of Maxwell theory as
well.
Adding these terms to action of our gravitational system will have specific contributions into geometric and thermodynamics of black holes. These contributions and their corresponding modifications will introduce new phenomenologies to physics of black holes which are of our interest in this paper. We are especially interested in thermal structure,
stability condition and phase transitions of black holes which are solutions to this specific set up of gravitational
system. We are interested to see how the effects of these generalization will modify the thermodynamical picture of
black holes.
Another important property of such set up is the fact that some of the symmetries of the system are broken (due
to presence of massive gravity). This symmetry breaking could be used to conduct specific studies in the context of
gauge/gravity duality. For example, the massive theory which is employed here has interpretation of lattice. As it was
stated before, the graviton in this theory in specific limits presents a behavior which leads to interpretation of lattice.
Now, the generalization to GB and BI will affect this lattice like behavior to some degrees which could introduce new
limits for having lattice like behavior and new physics for it.
On the other hand, properties such as shear viscosity, Renyi entropy and conductivity of the usual GB-BI black
holes will be modified in the presence of massive gravity. These modifications motivate one to consider this specific
set up for our gravitational system. Here, we will not address all the issues, but rather providing required information
to some level, so one is able to conduct mentioned studies.
Different theories that are introduced regarding physical systems may have specific shortcomings. In order to
remove these shortcomings, introducing new phenomena for physical systems and obtaining more accurate and reliable solutions, one should apply a number of generalization. Having this in mind, we would like to impose three
generalizations into Reissner-Nordstr
om black holes: I) Gauss-Bonnet gravity which is considered to solve some of
the shortcomings of Einstein gravity such as renormalization problem. II) Born-Infeld gravity which is taken into
account to remove problems of Maxwell theory such singularity at the origin. III) Finally, massive gravity which
solves the absence of massive gravitons in the Einstein and Gauss-Bonnet gravity models. It is worthwhile to mention
that existence of massive graviton was proposed by studies in the brane-world gravity theories. These theories are
also motivated from different aspects of physics which were pointed out before. But the main idea is to see how the
combination of these different generalizations and corrections, motivated from different branches of physics, would
modify the geometry and thermodynamics of the black holes in different contexts. In this paper, we try to provide a
picture regarding this matter. In order to provide a situation for considering a combination of all GB, BI and massive
gravity, the best candidate is a black hole in high energy and high curvature regimes. This situation is more subtle
because the geometrical behavior and thermodynamical aspect of the solutions are not, in general, as trivial as in
usual general relativity.
The paper is organized as follow. In Sec. II, GB-BI-massive gravity action and corresponding field equations will be
introduced. Then, in Sec. III a class of black holes with this configuration is obtained and geometrical properties are
investigated. Next, validation of the first law of thermodynamics is investigated through obtained thermodynamical
and conserved quantities. Sec. V will be devoted to study thermal stability in canonical ensemble for GB-BI-massive
black hole solutions. Next, we employ the analogy between cosmological constant and thermodynamical pressure in

4
extended phase space and study critical behavior of the obtained solutions. We finish our paper with some concluding
remarks.
II.

BASIC EQUATIONS

The d-dimensional action of GB-massive gravity with a nonlinear electrodynamics is

1
I=
16

!
4
X

2
ci Ui (g, f ) ,
d x g R 2 + LGB + L(F ) + m
d

(1)

where R, , m and are the scalar curvature, the cosmological constant, the massive parameter and the coefficient
of GB gravity, respectively, and LGB is the Lagrangian of GB gravity
LGB = R R 4R R + R2 ,

(2)

where R and R are, respectively, the Ricci and the Riemann tensors. f is a fixed symmetric
tensor, ci s are

constants and Ui are symmetric polynomials of the eigenvalues of the d d matrix K = g f , which can be
written as
U1 = [K] ,

U2

U3

U4

(3)

 
= [K] K2 ,
 
 
3
= [K] 3 [K] K2 + 2 K3 ,
 
 2
 
  2
4
= [K] 6 K2 [K] + 8 K3 [K] + 3 K2 6 K4 .

(4)
(5)
(6)

One of the primitive motivations of studying the BI theory is due to its relation to string effective actions. The
functional form of BI Lagrangian L(F ) is presented by

L(F ) = 4

F
1+ 2
2

(7)

where and F = F F are the BI parameter and the Maxwell invariant, respectively, in which F = A A
is the electromagnetic field tensor and A is the gauge potential. It is notable that, in the limit , Eq. (7)
reduces to the standard Maxwell Lagrangian, as it should be.
Using the action (1) and variation of this action with respect to the metric tensor (g ) and the Faraday tensor
(F ), one can obtain the following field equations
1
2F F
G + g + H g L(F ) q
+ m2 = 0,
F
2
1 + 2 2

gF
= 0,
q
F
1 + 2
2

(8)

(9)

in which G is the Einstein tensor, H and are in the following forms

8R R 4R R 4RR + 8R R + g LGB ,
2

c3
c1
c2
2
= (U1 g K )
(U3 g 3U2 K
U2 g 2U1 K + 2K
2
2
2
c4
2
3
2
3
4
+6U1 K 6K ) (U4 g 4U3 K + 12U2 K 24U1 K
+ 24K
).
2

H =

(10)

(11)

5
III.

GB-BI-MASSIVE BLACK HOLE SOLUTIONS

Here, we are looking for obtaining the topological static black holes. For this purpose, we consider the metric of
d-dimensional spacetime as
ds2 = f (r)dt2 + f 1 (r)dr2 + r2 hij dxi dxj ,

i, j = 1, 2, 3, ..., d 2,

(12)

in which hij dxi dxj is the line element with constant curvature (d 2) (d 3) and volume Vd2 . The constant
is related to the boundary curvature and may have a positive (elliptic), negative (hyperbolic) or zero (flat) constant
curvature.
Following [48], we consider the ansatz metric in the following form
f = diag(0, 0, c2 hij ),

(13)

where c is a positive constant. Considering Eq. (13), Ui s are [48]

U1 =

d2 c
,
r

U2 =

d2 d3 c2
,
r2

U3 =

d2 d3 d4 c3
,
r3

U4 =

d2 d3 d4 d5 c4
,
r4

(14)

where di = d i. We use the gauge potential ansatz A = h(r)0 in Maxwell equation (9) to obtain electric field.
Considering the metric (12), one can obtain
r
d2 q
h(r) =
H,
(15)
2d3 rd3
where H and are
H =
=

2 F1



 


3d7/3
1 d3
,
, ,
,
2 2d2
2d2

d2 d3 q 2
,
2 2 r2d2

(16)
(17)

in which q is an integration constant related to the electric charge. In addition, the Maxwell equation implies that
the nonzero component of the electromagnetic field tensor in d-dimensions is given by
q
d2 d3
2 q
.
(18)
Ftr = d
r 2 1+
Now, we obtain the topological static GB-BI black hole solutions in massive gravity. To do so, one may use any
component of Eq. (8) and obtain metric function f (r). It is a matter of calculation to show that rr and tt are the
same, whereas, the xi xi components of Eq. (8) are identical. Therefore, we write





1
f
2d4 f
2

2 d4 d5 (2f )
ett = 2 f 1
+ 4 d2 d3 d4 f [2rf + d5 f ] d2 d3 r
+
1

2r
r2
r





,
(19)
2r4 d2 [d3 f + rf ] r2 + m2 r2 d2 cc1 r + d3 c2 c2 + d2 d3 d4 c3 c3 r + d5 c4 c4






1
2rf 2
ex1 x1 = 2r2 2 [ 1] 2 d3 d4 d5 f [4rf + d6 f ] r4 (2 + f ) + d3 d4 2 f 2 + f f f
r
2r
d4





d5 d6 (2f ) 4d5 f

2
2
2
(20)
,
+
+
2f

1
+
d
m
c
(c
r
+
d
cc
)
r
+
d
d
c
(c
r
+
d
cc
)
d3 d4 r2
3
1
4 2
4 5
3
6 4
r2
r
r
 

where f and h are functions of r and also =

function as

. Using Eqs. (19) and (20), we can obtain the metric

s
(

)
d1 d2 m0
r2
8d3 d4
1 1+
+
+A+B
,
f (r) = +
2d3 d4
d1 d2
2rd1

 d2 q 2
p
A = 2 2 1 1 + 22d2 H,
r


d3 d4 c4 c4
d3 c3 c3
c2 c2
cc1
2
,
+
+ 2 +
B = m d1 d2
2r4
2r3
2r
2d2 r

(21)

6
where m0 is an integration constant which is related to the total mass of the black hole. It is notable that, the
obtained metric function (21), satisfies all the components of Eq. (8).
In order to study the geometrical structure of this solution (21), we look for the essential singularity(ies). For this
purpose, we calculate the Ricci and Kretschmann scalars and obtain following results

lim

r0

lim R ,

(22)

(23)

r0
R R

the above results confirm that there is a curvature singularity at r = 0. On the other hand, in order to investigate
the asymptotical behavior of the solutions, we find the curvature scalars at r . So, we have
q

dd1
d22 + 8d2dd13 d4 1
,
(24)
lim R
r
2d2 d3 d4
"
!#
r
1
8d3 d4
4
d1
lim R R
1d 1+
+

.
(25)
r
d3 d4 d2
d3 d4
d1 d2
These results confirm that, the asymptotical behavior of the solutions are (a)dS with an effective cosmological
constant (ef f ). This effective cosmological constant reduces to ordinary for vanishing . In other words, neither
massive nor BI parts affect the asymptotical behavior of the solutions.
It is worthwhile to mention that, in the absence of massive parameter (m = 0), the solution (21) reduces to ddimensional asymptotically adS topological black hole solution which was found in Ref. [69]. In addition, for ,
obtained solution reduces to GB-massive solution with Maxwell field [56]. Moreover, for vanishing the solution of
Einstein-BI-massive gravity may be recovered [57].
In order to study the effects of the GB-BI-massive gravity on metric function, we have plotted the diagrams related
to this solution in Figs. 1 and 2. The GB-BI-massive black holes may behave like Reissner-Nordstr
om black holes. In
other words, these black holes may contain two horizons (inner and outer horizons), one extreme horizon or without
horizon (naked singularity) (see Fig. 1 for more details). On the other hand, by adjusting some of the parameters,
we may encounter with interesting behavior in which more than two horizons are observed (Figs. 2). The existence
of three and four horizons for black holes is due to the presence of massive part of gravity [54, 56, 57]. Although
multiple horizon solutions may be applied to find some algebraic mathematical relations for the horizons (see multiple
horizon relations in [67]), all thermodynamical analysis of the black holes should be calculated at r = r+ which is
the outermost horizon of the solutions. Speaking more precisely, the outermost horizon of the black holes can be
event horizon (r+ ) or cosmological horizon (rc , which c stands for cosmological). It is notable that event horizon
satisfies r gtt |r=r+ > 0 (gtt = g rr ) condition and for r > r+ , the metric function is real and positive valued. On the
contrary, for cosmological horizon, r gtt |r=rc < 0 is satisfied and in case of r > rc , the metric function is negative.
Regardless of the number of the horizons, the outermost horizon (event horizon) of the black holes with mentioned
conditions should be employed to study thermodynamical properties of the black holes. The existence of multiple
horizon solutions has been reported for other black holes in massive gravity and F (R) gravity as well. It was shown
that the existence of the multiple horizon solutions provides the possibility of the anti-evaporation property for the
black holes [68]. Meaning that these specific configurations for the number of horizons introduce a new phenomena
which acts in opposite of the evaporation of the black holes (see Ref. [68] for more details).
IV.

THERMODYNAMICS

In this section, we study thermodynamic properties of GB-BI-massive black holes. In order to examine the first
law, we should calculate the conserved and thermodynamics quantities of the solutions in d-dimensions.
The Hawking temperature of these black holes can be obtained through the definition of surface gravity
q
12 ( ) ( )

f (r+ )
T =
=
=
=
2
2
4
"







#

2
2
3
3
cc1 r+ + d3 c2 c2
2 2
m2 d3 d4 c3 c3 r+ + d5 c4 c4 + r+
+ d4 d5
2r+
d3 r+
4 2 r+
1
(26)
,
+

+
4N
r+
d2
d2 +
r+

2
where is the surface gravity, = t denotes the (timelike) Killing vector, N = 2d3 d4 + r+
and + = r=r+ .

FIG. 1: f (r) versus r for = 1, q = 1, = 0.9, = 0.4, c = 1, c1 = 0.3, c2 = 1, c3 = 4, c4 = 2, m = 1, = 1 and d = 5;

m0 = 2.5 (dashed line), m0 = 1.3 (continues line) and m0 = 0.4 (dotted line).

FIG. 2: f (r) versus r for = 0.4, q = 1, = 0.6, = 0.3, m0 = 3.1, c = 0.8, c1 = 2.1, c3 = 4, c4 = 1.9, m = 1.4, = 1
and d = 5; c2 = 3.250 (dashed line), c2 = 3.325 (continues line) and c2 = 3.4 (dotted line).

Besides, using the Gausss law, one can find the total electric charge of the black holes

Vd2 d2 d3
Q=
q.
4

(27)

We obtain the electric potential at the horizon with respect to spacial infinity as reference
r

d2 q


H+ ,
(28)
U = A |r A rr+ =
d3
2d3 r+

where H+ = H r=r+ . The calculation of the entropy of black holes depends on the gravity under consideration.
Regarding Einstein gravity, it was shown that the entropy of black holes satisfies the so-called area law which states
that the black hole entropy is equal to one-quarter of horizon area [70]. However, it is not possible to use the area law
for higher derivative gravity models [71, 72]. Depending on the asymptotical behavior of the solutions, the entropy
of higher derivative gravity theories can be obtained from Wald formula or Gibbs-Duhem relation [69, 72, 73]. It is

8
straightforward to find that
Vd d2
S = 2 r+
4


2d2 d3
1 + 2 ,
r+

(29)

which shows that area law is violated for GB-BI-massive black holes with non-flat horizons.
In addition, for obtaining the total finite mass of the black holes, one can use Hamiltonian approach which leads
into following result
M=

d2 Vd2
m0 .
16

(30)

Having conserved and thermodynamic quantities, we are in a position to check the first law of thermodynamics.
For this purpose, we obtain the mass (m0 ) of Eqs. (21) and (30), as a function of other parameters
(


i 2d q 2
p
2rd1 h
d2 Vd2
2
d5
d3
M (r+ , q) =
d3 d4 2 r+
+ r+
+ + 2 2 1 1 + + +
H+
d3
16
d1 d2
d1 r+
)
d5





m2 r+
2
3
4
2
,
(31)
d2 d3 c c3 r+ + d4 c c4 + r+ cc1 r+ + d2 c c2
+
d2
where + =

d2 d3 q 2
2d
2 2 r+ 2

. Using Eq. (31), and by defining the temperature and the electric potential as
T =
U =

M
r+
M
Q

r+
S

(32)

(33)

one finds that Eqs. (32) and (33) coincide with Eqs. (26) and (28), and therefore, we find that these thermodynamics
quantities satisfy classical form of the first law of black hole thermodynamics
dM = T dS + U dQ.
V.

(34)

HEAT CAPACITY AND STABILITY IN CANONICAL ENSEMBLE

Considering obtained conserved and thermodynamic quantities, we are in a position to study thermal stability of the
solutions. There are different approaches for studying thermal stability which are in the context of canonical and grand
canonical ensembles. In grand canonical ensembles, by employing the mass of the black holes as a thermodynamical
potential and its corresponding extensive parameters, one can build up the Hessian matrix. The stability is investigated
by studying the behavior of the determinant of this Hessian matrix. The canonical ensemble approach is based on
behavior of the heat capacity. In this paper, we will investigate the stability conditions in canonical ensemble. One
can use following relation for calculating the heat capacity

1
T
CQ = T
.
(35)
S Q
Using Eq. (26), we obtain


T
S

=
Q

T
S Q

in the following form

2
d3 N 2r+
d5
d2 N 3 r+

2
3N 2r+




4h h
4 2 (+ 1)
2 2
d8 3
+
d2 N 2 r+
+

d7
d22 N 3 r+


2
2 d3 d4 d5 N + 2r+
2m2 E

d
d3
d2 N 3 r+3
d2 N 3 r+

(36)
(37)

where E is
E = d3 d4










N
N
2
2
2
2
2
3
d5 c c4 r+ +
+ c c3 r+ + r+ d3 c c2 r+
+ cc1 r+ r+ N ,
2
2
4

(38)

FIG. 3: For different scales: CQ (down panels) and T (up panels) versus r+ for q = 1, = 1, c = c1 = c2 = 2, c3 = c4 = 0.2,
= 0.5, = 0.5, d = 6 and = 1; m = 0 (continues line), m = 1 (dotted line), m = 3 (dashed line) and m = 5 (dashes-dotted
line).

Eqs. (26) and (35) show that investigation of heat capacity in analytical form is not easy, and therefore, we plot T
and CQ to study their behaviors (see Figs. 3 - 8).
It is evident that the temperature and its specific properties are functions of the massive, GB and BI parameters as
well as topological structure of the black holes and dimensionality. In other words, variation of one parameter while
the other parameters are specifically fixed, leads to changes in number (and place) of the extremum and root that
temperature can obtain ( see Figs. 3 and 4 up panels, 6 and 7 right panels ). In some cases, the variation of one
parameter for different domains may results into different (and in some cases opposite) behavior for the temperature.
These modifications lead to change in number and places of the extrema and roots of the temperature. ( see Figs.
5 up right panel and 8 up panels ). In case of the topological effect, by adjusting parameters properly, one can find
a divergency for the case of k = 1. This singular point of temperature comes from the GB modification of the
temperature and does not appear in the Einstein gravity ( see Eq. 26 ).
The heat capacity is constructed by employing temperature and its derivation. The derivation of the temperature
resides in denominator of the heat capacity ( see Eq. 35 ). Therefore, one can conclude that roots and extrema of the
temperature are places in which heat capacity acquires roots and divergencies, respectively. The root and divergencies
of the heat capacity are interpreted as physical limitation point and phase transitions of the black holes, respectively.
Now, considering what was mentioned in last paragraph regarding the effects of variation of different parameters on
number of root and extremum and their corresponding places, one can conclude that consequently, the number of
divergencies and root are functions of different parameters.
The thermal stability conditions are indicated by the number of roots and divergencies. In other words, the thermal
stability conditions are dictated according to the type of extremum, its number and roots. In root, usually a transition
from non-physical solutions to physical ones takes place. In place of minimum in temperature, a phase transition from
larger unstable to smaller stable black holes happens whereas in maximum of the temperature the opposite (phase
transition of smaller unstable to larger stable black holes) takes place.
According to what was stated, depending on number of the extremum, their types and roots, the physical and

10

FIG. 4: For different scales: CQ (down panels) and T (up panels) versus r+ for q = 1, = 1, c = c1 = c2 = 2, c3 = c4 = 0.2,
m = 3, = 0.5, d = 6 and = 1; = 0 (continues line), = 0.5 (dotted line), = 1 (dashed line) and = 2 (dashes-dotted
line).

stability conditions for these black holes vary. By adjusting different parameters properly, one can see that these
black holes may have different phase transitions and limitation point; a) only one phase transition of smaller unstable
to larger stable ( see Figs. 3 and 4 down panels, 6 and 7 two left panels), b) one phase transition of smaller unstable
to larger stable and another phase transition of larger unstable to smaller stable ( see Figs. 3 and 4 down panels ), c)
one limitation point from non-physical to physical and two phase transitions of smaller unstable to larger stable and
larger unstable to smaller stable ( see Fig. 8 two left panels ) and d) one limitation point for non-physical to physical
and two phase transitions of smaller unstable to larger stable and two phase transitions of larger unstable to smaller
stable ( see Fig. 5).
VI.

P V CRITICALITY OF BLACK HOLE SOLUTIONS IN GB-BI-MASSIVE GRAVITY

In this section, we study the phase transition points of black holes in GB-BI-massive gravity through the use of
P V criticality and related phase diagrams in spherically symmetric spacetime ( = 1). To do so, we consider
following relationship between thermodynamical pressure and cosmological constant
P =

.
8

(39)

From thermodynamical point of view, one can point it out that conjugating thermodynamical variable corresponding
to pressure would be thermodynamical volume. Therefore, in order to calculate the thermodynamical volume of the
solutions, one should use


H
.
(40)
V =
P S,Q

11

FIG. 5: For different scales: CQ and T (only right up panel) versus r+ for q = 1, = 1, c = c1 = c2 = 2, c3 = c4 = 0.2, m = 3,
= 0.5, d = 6 and = 1; = 0.1 (continues line), = 1 (dotted line), = 10 (dashed line) and = 100 (dashes-dotted line).

FIG. 6: For different scales: CQ (left and middle panels) and T (right panel) versus r+ for q = 1, = 1, c = c1 = c2 = 2,
c3 = c4 = 0.2, m = 3, = 0.5, d = 6 and = 0.5; = 1 (continues line), = 0 (dotted line) and = 1 (dashed line).

Considering cosmological constant as thermodynamical pressure leads to an interpretation of mass not only as
internal energy but as Enthalpy of thermodynamical system. This interpretation leads to following relation for the
Gibbs free energy of the system
G = H T S = M T S,

(41)

There are several methods for studying the critical behavior of the system near critical points. Among them one can
name P V , T V and G T diagrams. The similarity that was observed in studying P V diagrams of black holes
and van der Waals liquid/gas system, brought a new insight to black holes thermodynamics. T V diagrams enable

12

FIG. 7: For different scales: CQ (left and middle panels) and T (right panel) versus r+ for q = 1, = 1, c = c1 = c2 = 2,
c3 = c4 = 0.2, m = 3, = 0.5, = 1 and = 0.5; d = 6 (continues line) and d = 7 (dotted line).

FIG. 8: For different scales: CQ (down panels) and T (up panels) versus r+ for q = 1, = 1, c = c1 = c2 = 2, c3 = c4 = 0.2,
m = 3, = 0.5, = 1 and = 0.5; d = 8 (continues line), d = 9 (dotted line) and d = 10 (dashed).

one to investigate single state region of different phases for thermodynamical systems. In case of black holes, these
single state of different regions are denoted as small and large black holes, which phase transitions take place between
them. The formation of the swallow-tail for pressures smaller than critical pressure, makes the G T diagrams one of
the easiest ways for detecting a phase transition. According to what was mentioned, we will study critical behavior
of these black holes by plotting P V , T V and G T diagrams.
In order to find critical points, we use the inflection points that are obtainable through the use of isotherm P V

13
diagrams. We use following relations for obtaining critical values


P
r+

2P
2
r+

= 0.

(42)

Using Eqs. (26), (29), (31), (39) and (41), one can find following relations for pressure and Gibbs free energy




2
2
T
d2 2 + r+
(d3 cc2 + c1 r+ )
m2 cd2 d3 d4 c2 (d5 cc4 + c3 r+ ) + r+
P =

3
4
4r+
16r+

2
2 ( 1 + + 1) d2 d5 + d3 r+
,

+
4
4
16r+
"




d5
2
d2 d3 c2 (d4 cc4 + c3 r+ ) + r+
(d2 c2 c + c1 r+ )
m2 cr+

d2
d3
r+ 1 + 2
+
G =
16
r+
d2





#
d2
2d2
2
d1 



1
+
r
d3 r+
+ d5d
2
2
p
+
4r+
d
r
2d
q
4
3
2
+


+
2 1 1 + + + 4P +
H+
d3
2
d1 d2
r+
16 2 + r+
d1 r+
#





2
3 
p
m2 c d3 d4 c2 (d5 cc4 + c3 r+ ) + r+
(d3 c2 c + c1 r+ )
4r+
2
+
1 1 + + + 4P ,
+
r+
d2
where = d3 d4 .
Now, by employing Eqs. (42) and (43), one can find following relation for calculating critical horizon radius



2d p

2d2
d3 d4 c3 c2

2 2d3/2 2
2
2
2
4
2
c1
2r+ 1 + + 2 d3 + m c2 c r+ 12m cr+
+ 12d2 d3 q 2 r+
D
2





d3 d4 d5 2 4 d3 2 2
2d
2d 2
2 + d3 d4 m2 c4 c4
m c4 c + m c2 c + 24d5 r+
24r+ 1 2 2
2
2

 

2 
2

2d5/2 2 2d3
r+
r+
2

2 8
2d2 2

6 2d2 d3 q

=0
r+ + 4d7/2 r+ + d2 d3 q r+ d +
5
3
6
2

(43)

(44)

(45)

where D is



3
3
2 
r2
d3 d4 m2 c3 c3 r+
r2
m2 c1 cr+
d3 m2 c2 c2 r+
D = d3 d4 d5 m2 c4 c4 + + +
+

2
4
2
6
2


4


d3 r+
2
+ d5 .
r+
+
12
m

rc

Tc

Pc

Pc rc
Tc

0.000000
0.500000
1.000000
1.500000
2.000000

2.020913551
2.378161673
2.518902071
2.555959475
2.570059221

0.1396519429
0.4423844412
1.3647986130
2.9044194570
5.0602917940

0.02602417127
0.0555448739
0.1515266147
0.3125563944
0.5381806700

0.3765976991
0.2985970525
0.2796608232
0.2750571980
0.2733352639

Table (1): q = 1, = 0.5, = 0.5, c = c1 = c2 = 2, c3 = 0.2, c4 = 0.2 and d = 6.

(46)

14

FIG. 9: P r+ (left), T r+ (middle) and G T (right) diagrams for = 0.5, q = 1, m = 0.5, = 0.8, c = c1 = c2 = 2,
c3 = 0.2, c4 = 0.2 and d = 6.
P r+ diagram, from up to bottom T = 1.1Tc , T = Tc and T = 0.9Tc , respectively.
T r+ diagram, from up to bottom P = 1.1Pc , P = Pc and P = 0.9Pc , respectively.
G T diagram for P = 0.5Pc (continuous line), P = Pc (dotted line) and P = 1.5Pc (dashed line).

rc

Tc

Pc

Pc rc
Tc

109
105
0.100000
5.000000
50.00000
500.0000
5000.000

2.308160166
2.308163661
2.352654221
2.379768359
2.379784726
2.379784890
2.379784892

0.4455199824
0.4455195772
0.4429849335
0.4423515057
0.4423511724
0.4423511689
0.4423511693

0.0568662372
0.0568660973
0.0558166578
0.0555299142
0.0555296666
0.0555364292
0.0552976969

0.2946139089
0.2946138981
0.2964373857
0.2987405516
0.2987414994
0.2987779041
0.2974935588

Table (2): q = 1, m = 0.5, = 0.5, c = c1 = c2 = 2, c3 = 0.2, c4 = 0.2 and d = 6.

0.000000
0.800000
1.400000
2.000000

rc

1.655138693
2.745465406
3.430032297
4.066801555
0.4604432507
7.000000
8.5661098700
0.6532944257
8.000000
9.3813191800
0.7978966829
9.000000
10.181225130

Tc

Pc

Pc rc
Tc

0.7701822534 0.1684536184 0.3620105508

0.3752283006 0.0381288304 0.2789805157
0.3026420039 0.0223913368 0.2537751123
0.2625706266 0.0152864154 0.2367622723
0.04557012100 0.619424375 6.258701240
0.16263006060 0.0032210312 0.1696593344
0.05173846074 0.319158907 4.029975610
0.15530428400 0.0026797563 0.1618735099
0.05408684451 0.219549753 3.238828615
0.14928940340 0.0022720106 0.1549463726

Table (3): q = 1, m = 0.5, = 0.5, c = c1 = c2 = 2, c3 = 0.2, c4 = 0.2 and d = 6.

It is evident that due to existence of the swallow-tail in G T diagrams for P < Pc , system enjoys the existence
of second order phase transition for specific values of different parameters (Fig. 9 ). The critical horizon radius is an
increasing function of m, and . Whereas the critical temperature and pressure are increasing functions of massive
parameter (Fig. 10 left and middle panels) and decreasing functions of GB (Fig. 11 right and middle panels) and
nonlinearity (Fig. 12 left and middle panels) parameters. In addition, the ratio PTccrc is a decreasing function of the
GB, massive and nonlinearity parameters.
On the other hand, the size of swallow-tail is an increasing function of the massive (Fig. 10 right panel) and GB
(Fig. 11 right panel) parameters and is not a highly sensitive function of the (Fig. 12 right panel). The length
of subcritical isobars which is representing the phase transition region, is an increasing function of GB parameter

15

FIG. 10: P r+ (left), T r+ (middle) and G T (right) diagrams for = 0.5, q = 1, = 0.8, c = c1 = c2 = 2, c3 = 0.2,
c4 = 0.2, d = 6, m = 0 (continuous line), m = 0.5 (dotted line) and m = 1 (dashed line).
P r+ diagram for T = Tc , T r+ diagram for P = Pc and G T diagram for P = 0.5Pc .

FIG. 11: P r+ (left), T r+ (middle) and G T (right) diagrams for = 0.5, q = 1, m = 0.5, c = c1 = c2 = 2, c3 = 0.2,
c4 = 0.2, d = 6, = 0 (continuous line), = 0.8 (dotted line) and = 1.4 (dashed line).
P r+ diagram for T = Tc , T r+ diagram for P = Pc and G T diagram for P = 0.5Pc .

(Fig. 11 middle panel) and a decreasing function of the massive parameter (Fig. 10 middle panel). It is worthwhile
to mention, similar to the case of size of swallow-tail, the length of subcritical isobar is not changed considerably by
variation of nonlinearity parameter (Fig. 12 middle panel).
It should be pointed out that for large values of nonlinearity parameter, the nonlinear strength will be weak and the
behavior of the system will be Reissner-Nordstr
om like. On the contrary, for sufficiently small values of nonlinearly
parameter, the black holes present a Schwarzschild like behavior and the effects of nonlinearity increases drastically.
Interestingly, in case of these black holes, due to their structures, the critical behaviors are not highly modified for
variation of the nonlinearity parameter comparing to massive and GB parameters (see tables 1 3 for more details).
Critical temperature and pressure were highly sensitive to variation of the massive parameter. Whereas in case of
the critical horizon radius, it has considerable modification due to variation of GB parameter.
Interestingly, for small values of GB parameter, there exists a second order phase transition and the usual van der
Waals like liquid/gas phase transition (Fig. 9). On the other hand, for specific range of GB parameter, black holes
enjoy two critical horizon radii which are increasing functions of this parameter. Critical temperature and pressure
for smaller critical horizon radius are increasing functions of GB parameter whereas in case of larger horizon radius,
they are decreasing functions of it (see table 1).
In case of smaller critical horizon radius a negative pressure is obtained. Plotted phase diagrams represent inverse
van der Waals like diagrams. In other words, the existence of swallow-tail, subcritical isobars and inflection point are
observed in G T , T r+ and P r+ , respectively. But the behavior of diagrams before and after critical point is
opposite of van der Waals like diagrams (Fig. 13). On the other hand, all the critical parameters in case of larger
critical horizon radius are positive. But here, instead of swallow-tail, a cusp is observed which represents the existence
of the first order phase transition (Fig. 14).
Next, for large values of , one critical horizon radius with corresponding positive and negative critical temperature
and pressure, respectively, is found. The plotted phase diagrams are similar to the ones that were observed for smaller

16

FIG. 12: P r+ (left), T r+ (middle) and G T (right) diagrams for = 0.5, q = 1, m = 0.5, c = c1 = c2 = 2, c3 = 0.2,
c4 = 0.2, d = 6, = 109 (continuous line), = 0.1 (dotted line) and = 5 (dashed line).
P r+ diagram for T = Tc , T r+ diagram for P = Pc and G T diagram for P = 0.5Pc .

FIG. 13: P r+ (left), T r+ (middle) and G T (right) diagrams for = 0.5, q = 1, m = 0.5, c = c1 = c2 = 2, c3 = 0.2,
c4 = 0.2, d = 6, = 7 (continuous line), = 8 (dotted line) and = 9 (dashed line).
P r+ diagram for T = Tc , T r+ diagram for P = Pc and G T diagram for P = 0.5Pc , For smaller roots.

critical point in previous case. In other words, around critical points opposite behavior to the case of van der Waals
like black holes is observed (Fig. 15).
Clearly, the type of phase transition is different for the three cases that were observed in plotted phase diagrams.
The cases of two horizon radii represents a boundary case. Here, the second order phase transition is vanished, a first
order phase transition and another type of phase transition is observed. Increasing GB parameter leads to vanishing
the first order phase transition and the existence of other mentioned phase transition.
The GB parameter is a free parameter which represents the power of higher derivative gravity. It is evident that
depending on the gravitational power, the type and number of the phase transition may vary. The phase structure of
these black holes with this specific configuration (GB-BI-massive) goes under three modifications. These modifications
and their corresponding properties are determined by the value of GB parameter. In other words, observed critical
behaviors are functions of power of gravity.
The van der Waals like behavior of the 4-dimensional black holes in the presence of Born-Infeld nonlinear electromagnetic field was first investigated in Ref. [74]. The generalization to higher dimensions and the effects of the
dimensionality on critical behavior were investigated in Ref. [75]. Furthermore, the effects of the Lovelock gravity
coupled with Born-Infeld nonlinear electromagnetic field on critical behavior of the black holes have been explored
[76]. In these works, it was shown that existence of the critical behavior, depends on gravities and matter fields
under consideration and it is possible to obtain limits for the presence/absence of van der Waals like behavior. In this
paper, we have considered one more generalization: massive gravitons. The mentioned generalization introduced new
critical behaviors. It was shown that depending on the choices of different parameters, these black holes could have
three distinctive critical behaviors which were highlighted in tables and plotted diagrams. The usual van der Waals
like phase transition was related to only one of these three behaviors while the other ones were not observed before.
These three groups of behaviors have their own characteristic properties such inverse van der Waals like behavior or
existence of valid critical values for set of parameters and absence of valid ones for the others. Depending on the

17

FIG. 14: P r+ (left), T r+ (middle) and G T (right) diagrams for = 0.5, q = 1, m = 0.5, c = c1 = c2 = 2, c3 = 0.2,
c4 = 0.2, d = 5, = 7 (continuous line), = 8 (dotted line) and = 9 (dashed line).
P r+ diagram for T = Tc , T r+ diagram for P = Pc and G T diagram for P = 0.5Pc , For larger roots.

FIG. 15: P r+ (left), T r+ (middle) and G T (right) diagrams for = 0.5, q = 1, m = 0.5, c = c1 = c2 = 2, c3 = 0.2,
c4 = 0.2, d = 5, = 400 (continuous line), = 500 (dotted line) and = 600 (dashed line).
P r+ diagram for T = Tc , T r+ diagram for P = Pc and G T diagram for P = 0.5Pc .

critical point being located in one of these three categories, the critical behavior of the system around it was different.
These new phenomena in critical behavior of the system are rooted in specific set up the we have considered in this
paper. In addition to these new phenomena, it was also shown that the values of the critical points were sensitive to
variation of the gravitons mass. This shows that critical nature of the system could be modified depending on values
that the mass of the graviton could acquire.
VII.

CLOSING REMARKS

In this paper, we have generalized Einstein-BI gravity by considering GB and massive gravities. It was shown that
obtained black hole solutions in this case can enjoy the existence of multiple horizons. Considering the configurations
of the horizon, different phenomenologies could be described. Conserved and thermodynamic quantities, that were
calculated for these black holes, satisfied the first law of thermodynamics.
Next, we studied thermal stability of these black holes and their corresponding phase transition in the context of
canonical ensemble. We also investigated the effects of different parameters on the behavior of the temperature. We
found that considering the contributions of different parameters, the behavior of the temperature could be highly
modified and resulted into different number of phase transitions, hence, different stability conditions.
It was seen that in case of divergencies for the heat capacity, GB and massive parameters have opposing effects,
although the existence of phase transitions were observed for specific values of . On the other hand, strong nonlinearity parameter modified the behavior of the temperature completely. A region of non-physical and phase transitions
related to root and four divergencies were observed.
It is evident that matter field (nonlinear electrodynamics), gravitational field (GB gravity) and massive gravity
contribute highly to thermodynamical structure of these black holes. Each of these factors add an effective parameter

18
to the phase transitions and thermal stability structure of these black holes which enable one to modify/control the
effects of other parameters.
It was also pointed out that dimensionality modifies the stability and thermodynamical behavior of the system.
The cases of d < 7 and d > 7 had different behaviors regarding stability conditions. These conditions were originated
from number of roots and divergencies in the heat capacity. The case of d = 7 was also different from the other
dimensions.
Here, we should point out that in cases of the maximums in temperature, a phase transition from larger unstable
to smaller stable exists. Whereas, for the minimums of temperature smaller unstable to larger stable phase transition
takes place which shows that temperature itself presents an independent picture for studying phase transitions and
stability conditions.
Next, we have studied the critical behavior of the GB-BI-massive black holes through P V , T V and G T
diagrams. We employed the analogy and linear proportionality between cosmological constant and thermodynamical
pressure in extended phase space. It was shown that variation of m, and affect the critical values, phase transition
region and size of the swallow-tail. The variation of the GB parameter leads to interesting second order, first order
and another type of phase transition. The case of the second order phase transition was related to existence of usual
van der Waals like behavior. Whereas, first order phase transition was due to existence of cusp. The other type of
phase transition was for the cases in which around the phase transition point, the behavior of the system was opposite
(and also symmetric) to the van der Waals manner. Therefore, three different behaviors were observed around critical
points for these black holes. Considering these three behaviors around the critical points, one can conclude that in
strong higher derivative gravity the phase structure of these black holes will be drastically different and the behavior
of the system will be even opposite of the van der Waals behavior. To our knowledge, this is a unique behavior which
is observed only for these black holes.
Considering obtained types of phase transition, it will be worthwhile to study these phase transitions in the context
of superconductors. Also, it will be interesting to study the structure of new phase transition that was observed in
this paper in more details. In other words, one may think about the possible relation between obtained negative
critical pressure with the nature of dark energy.
Acknowledgments

We would like to thank anonymous referees for their enlightening comments. We thank Shiraz University Research
Council. This work has been supported financially by the Research Institute for Astronomy and Astrophysics of
Maragha, Iran.

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