Lec 18 PDF

Lecture 18: Cooperation & Conflict; Speciation
Ironically, "On the Origin of Species" had little to say about speciation... the process by which LUCA
diverged into the millions of species now living on Earth. This lecture explores how and why speciation
happens, and indeed what we mean by "species" in the first place.
Independent study outcomes
1. Identify the criteria used by the Biological, Phylogenetic and Ecological

Species Concepts to define species
Biological Species Concept: defines a species as a group of organisms that can successfully
interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
Phylogenetic Species Concept: defines a species as a group of organisms bound by a unique
ancestry.
Ecological Species Concept: defines a species as a group of organisms that share a distinct
ecological niche.
2. Identify limitations of the Biological Species Concept

The definition can work for species that reproduce sexually, but NOT asexual organisms.
Androdioecous organisms (natural population of functional males and hermaphrodites but
include no true females vs. Gynogenetic species: have only females. They dont fit in the
traditional definition of species.
What about hybridization? When two species interbreed and produce fertile offspring.
Fossils: we are only looking at fossils and make assumptions and predictions, there is no way to
prove that they can interbreed and reproduce.
3. Distinguish between pre-zygotic and post-zygotic isolating mechanisms and

recognize examples of each
Two ways of reproductive isolation:
Pre-zygotic isolating mechanism: exert the effects and to isolate before the production of a
zygote or fertilized egg.
1. Ecological isolation: Species that live in the same geographic region, but possess different
habitat (tigers and lions dont want to make Li-Gers, tigers in forests & lions in grasslands.)
(NEAR FARRR WHEREVEERR YOU AREEE)
2. Temporal isolation: Species that live in the same habitat, but mate at different times of the
day or different times of the year. (Two pines in California, pinus radiate releases pollen in
February, and P. muricata releases it in April.) (The moment when guys feel like doing IT,
and the girls dont.)
3. Behavioral isolation: The mating signal used by one species is not recognized by the other.
(Female fireflies identify males in their complicated flashing patterns. (You break-dance to
try to impress a girl. Some girls find break-dancing gesture to be romantic and hot, others
think it is just dumb.)
4. Mechanical isolation: differences in the structure of copulatory organs prevent successful
mating individuals of different species. (Easy example: a dog trying to hump a fish.)
5. Gametic isolation: the incompatibility between the sperm of one species and the eggs of
another. (some fishs egg have a shield against other species sperm. Or the reproductive tract
simply kills the foreign sperm) (imagine a sperm try to enter chicken egg: its BLOCKED)
Post-zygotic isolating mechanism: barriers operate after zygote formation.

Hybrid inviability: Due to many genes govern the complex processes that transform a
zygote into a mature organism.
1. Hybrid individual have two sets of developmental instructions. (incompatible)
2. Incompletion at the embryonic development
3. Die as a hybrid embryo.
Hybrid sterility: Due to difference in number or structure of the parent species
chromosomes; they cannot pair properly during meiosis. (They have zero fitness because
they are sterile.)
Hybrid breakdown: F1 generation hybrid is healthy, vigorous, and fully fertile and can
breed with another F1 or both parent species. F2 generation, however, have reduced survival
or fertility. (Examples: fruit flies: off spring of hybrids have abnormalities in chromosomes.)
(TOO SAD TO MAKE JOKES)
Both can operate simultaneously.
Lecture outcomes
How selection can favor self-sacrificing behavior directed toward non-relatives
The principle is: help thy neighbor. If you help others, in the future they will help you, (which
in the long run, species that does this to each other ill have a better fitness than the ones who
doesnt)
Vampire bats: individual help out non-relatives. (Vampires are cool) (Those who fail to gather
blood will be fed by another colony.)
Conditions that favor evolution of reciprocal altruism and cooperation in the

face of the prisoner's dilemma
The opportunity to have their good deed reciprocated, (favor is returned)

(Because in real life, there are chances for us to interact more than once) opportunity of repeated
interactions between individuals
Individuals can remember helpers and heaters
However, if you never, ever gonna see them again, defect is favored. (screw each other over.)
Role of human emotions in the evolution of reciprocal altruism
Grudge, Guilt, gratitude, trust.

The fact that human use language to gossip about the reputation of the others (Social
scorekeeping)
This has something to do with the adaptation of altruistic behavior toward non-relatives.
Opportunity for reciprocity, (apparently altruistic acts towards non-relatives will increase your
fitness in the long term)
Meaning of: morphological species concept, biological species concept,

pre-zygotic vs. post-zygotic isolating mechanisms; allopatric, sympatric; isolation,
divergence, secondary contact, reinforcement
Specie Concept: how we define it
Morphological species concept:

A species a distinct cluster in phenotypic space, non-overlapping with other such clusters (Or,
things that look the same probably belong to the same species. )
Problems: sexual dimorphism. Male looks different with the female, how can they belong to
different species brahhh
Biological species concept:

Species a potentially interbreeding group of individuals, reproductively isolated from other
such groups
Or, things that interbreed to produce fertile offspring belong to the same species.
Problems: Asexual, hybrids, fossils
Some animals just like to fuck around (lion + tiger = liger), (donkeys + horse = mule) Those are
some cases of hybrids are not sterile.
Pre-zygotic vs. post-zygotic isolating mechanisms (check ISO)
Allopatric: separate geographical ranges, (somehow a barrier shows up between them.)

allopatric speciation happens more widely than sympatric
Sympatric: Within the same geographical ranges, just random events, it just happens what can
you do
Isolation: process by which population become isolated from each other, they cant exchange
genes they are no migration between the two populations
Divergence: after isolation, populations become genetically/phenotypically different than one

another (due to different selection pressure.)Genetic drift distinct from one another.
Secondary contact, the barrier goes away; the populations come back into contact to each other.
(What happens now: depends on the degree to which they have become
genetically different than one another.)
(Short-lived barrier) May resume interbreeding (they have not diverged that
much)
(Diverged substantially) may have become reproductively isolated.
Reinforcement: if populations establish secondary contact after becoming postzygotically
isolated, selection favours prezygotic isolating mechanisms. (avoid reproducing hybrid offspring)
Applications of, and strengths and weaknesses of, biological vs morphological
species concepts
Applications strengths Weakness
Biological a potentially interbreeding group More testable and Not universally applicable:
of individuals, reproductively objective than the 1. Asexual reproduction
isolated from other such groups other one 2. Extinct species
(makes fertile babies) 3. Allopatric populations
morphological a distinct cluster in phenotypic Simple to apply. Sexual dimorphism: male
space, non-overlapping with and female from the same
other such clusters (look-alikes) species look different.
Which species concept is being used, given real world examples

Example: happy face spiders that appears differently but can interbreed and the offspring of which
can successfully reproduce and have equal fitness with the parents.
Biological species concept: yes they belong to one species since they can interbreed and produce
fertile offspring
Morphological example: they look so much different, they are not from one species.
Which type of isolating mechanism is occurring, given real world examples

Prezygotic isolation (ISP)
Postzygotic isolation (ISP)
Whether coming into secondary contact is required for speciation to occur

Coming to secondary contact is NOT required for speciation to occur.
Why secondary contact can promote prezygotic isolation

Because, since two branched subspecies are postzygotically isolated (or prezygotically isolated),
when they establish secondary contact, their attempts to mate will be futile. And that change will
drive them even further apart. Eventually become more prezygotically isolated.
Why most speciation occurs in allopatry (ie why sympatric speciation is rare)
Most of the times speciation occurs due to geographic separation (allopatry,)
Because there is no physical barrier for exchange of gametes in sympatric speciation, the
population is still in the same area. (Therefore sympatric speciation is relatively low.)
How polyploidy can induce sympatric speciation
PolyploidyHave more than regular amount of genetic material
A tetraploid offspring from two diploid parents
This reproductively isolated tetraploid (mostly plants) cannot reproduce with other diploid plants,
but it can self-fertilize (plants shit) or breed with other tetraploid organisms.
How selection against hybrids can induce sympatric speciation

IF the hybrids are selected against in a population (they have very low survival rate, the hybrid all
dies, so the sympatric speciation occurs, the two parent species are now reproductively isolated
(even though they are in the same area.) (Makes post-zygotic isolation eventually )
Two parent forms have bigger survival rate than the intermediate hybrid form.

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Lecture 18: Cooperation & Conflict; Speciation

Independent study outcomes

1. Identify the criteria used by the Biological, Phylogenetic and Ecological

2. Identify limitations of the Biological Species Concept

3. Distinguish between pre-zygotic and post-zygotic isolating mechanisms and

Post-zygotic isolating mechanism: barriers operate after zygote formation.

How selection can favor self-sacrificing behavior directed toward non-relatives

Conditions that favor evolution of reciprocal altruism and cooperation in the

The opportunity to have their good deed reciprocated, (favor is returned)

Role of human emotions in the evolution of reciprocal altruism

Grudge, Guilt, gratitude, trust.

Meaning of: morphological species concept, biological species concept,

Morphological species concept:

Biological species concept:

Pre-zygotic vs. post-zygotic isolating mechanisms (check ISO)

Allopatric: separate geographical ranges, (somehow a barrier shows up between them.)

Divergence: after isolation, populations become genetically/phenotypically different than one

Which species concept is being used, given real world examples

Which type of isolating mechanism is occurring, given real world examples

Whether coming into secondary contact is required for speciation to occur

Why secondary contact can promote prezygotic isolation

How selection against hybrids can induce sympatric speciation

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