Physics Unit 2 Revision (Higher tier)

Static electricity
In static electricity when two objects are rubbed together the electrons move from one object

to another. This causes one object to have an overall positive charge and the other object to
have an overall negative charge.

Like charges repel

Unlike charges repel

Neutral objects are attracted to both positively and negatively charged

objects.

If you wanted to test if an object was charged then you could check if it
attracted bits of paper, hair etc. It could attract or repel another charged
object.

If an object becomes highly charged then the potential difference between

then object and the ground increases and the objects will discharge. When a
charged object discharges (goes to ground) then a spark might occur. This is
the electrons jumping from the object to the earthed conductor.
Static electricity is used in smoke precipitators and photocopiers. When smoke leaves the
chimney the particles are given a negative charge. Positively charged plates on the side of the
chimney attract the negatively charged particles so they dont enter the atmosphere.

This diagram below shows how a photocopier works.

Static electricity can be dangerous in some situations. A charge can build upon
fuel tankers due to the tyres rubbing on the road. To ensure it is safe the tank
is earthed when before it is opened.
Question 1 (Sample question taken from June 2008 paper)
Question 2 (Sample question taken from Jan 2009 paper)
Current and circuits

We use symbols in circuits and you need to be able to recognise and draw
circuits using the following symbols.

Open Closed Lamp Cell

Switch Switch Thermistor

Diode

Battery Voltmeter Resistor Fuse Variable Ammeter

(connect in resistor (connect in
parallel) series)
 Light
dependent
resistor
(LDR)
Most of the symbols you will already know but here are what the more difficult
ones do.

A diode is a component that This is a temperature resistor. As

only allows current to flow the temperature increases the
one way in a circuit resistance decreases

A LDR is a resistor whose This is a resistor whore resistance

resistance decreases if can be changed. E.g. a dimmer
more light is shone on it switch

Question 3 (Sample question taken from Jan 2008 paper)

Current (symbol I, measured in amperes, A) is the rate of flow of electrical

charges or electrons.

Resistance (symbol R, measured in ohms, ) is something that apposes the

flow of current.

R
I

Voltage or potential difference (symbol V, measured in volts, v) is the push

given to the electrons in a circuit.

They are related by the equation: V=IxR

Current- potential difference graphs tell you how the current through a
component varies with voltage.

A diode

A filament lamp

Resistor at a constant temperature

There are two types of circuits, parallel and series circuits.

Vtotal

In a series circuit

The total resistance is the sum of the resistance of each component in

the circuit
V2
V1

Total resistance (Rtotal) = R1 + R2

R2
R1

The current is the same through each component

The voltage is shared equally between each component in the circuit

Itotal

Total voltage (Vtotal) = V1 + V2

In a parallel circuit

I1
V1

The voltage is the same across each component

o V1 = V 2

V2

The total current through the circuit is the sum of the current through each
component
I1

Total current (Itotal)= I1 + I2

Question 4 (Sample question taken from Jan 2009 paper)

Question 5 (Sample question taken from June 2008 paper)
Mains electricity and safety

In circuits which are powered by cells/batteries the current only flows in one
direction, this is called direct current (d.c.).

Alternating current (a.c.) is what we receive from power station and what
comes out of plug sockets. This current changes direction i.e. the current move
back and forth in the circuit. The properties of the UK electrical supply are
230 volts and the frequency is 50 cycles per second (50 Hertz [Hz]).
If you were to look at D.C and A.C current on an oscilloscope you can see how
the voltage changes over time.

Alternating current

Direct current

From the oscilloscope trace you can determine the period and frequency of the
alternating current (A.C.)
Period

The period is the length of time for one complete wave to pass. In the
oscilloscope trace on the left, there are 5 scale divisions for the period. If one
scale division is 0.005 seconds then the period is 5 times that.

Period = 0.005s x 5 = 0.02seconds

When you know the period you can calculate the frequency (the number of
cycles per second)

Frequency= 10.02s=50Hz

Most of your electrical devices are connected to the mains supply by a cable connected to a

three pin plug. The electrical cable is composed of a copper wire surrounded by a plastic
insulator. The three pin plug consists of 3 separate wires called the Earth wire, Live wire and
Neutral wire. The live and neutral wires are responsible for carrying the electrical supply to
and from the mains supply.

The voltage of the live wire (red line) alternates between positive and negative
and the neutral wire (blue line) remains close to zero. The earth pin is used for
safety (in particular with devices that have a metal case) in conjunction with
the fuse. If the live wire happens to come in contact with the metal case then
you could get an electrical shock as the current will pass through you to get to
the ground. However, the earth wire and fuse prevents this from happening.
The earth wire will take the current from the live wire. This high current then
flows through the fuse wire causing it to melt. Fuses have different current
ratings. The fuse will blow if the current exceeds this rating e.g. a 3 amp fuse
will blow if the current is greater than 3 amps.

Charge and power

Current is the amount of charges (measured in Coulombs) that flow every

second, it is represented by the equation:

Charge

Charge (Coulombs, C) = Current (Ampere, A) x Time (s)

Current

Time

Electrical devices use different amounts of power (measured in watts). Power is

the amount of energy transformed by the device every second. It calculated
one of 2 ways

Power W= Energy transformed Jtime s

Power W=potential difference Vcharge (C)

Question 6 (Sample question taken from Jan 2009 paper)

Question 7 (Sample question taken from June 2009 paper)
Atoms and their properties

In the early 1900s, it was believed that the atom was a positively fluid (the
pudding) with electrons dotted inside it (the plums). This model was later
disproved by Rutherford and Marsdens scattering experiment.

The way they disproved this was by firing alpha particles (positively charged) at a gold leaf

and observing that angles at which they got reflected. What they should have seen was the
alpha particles passing practically straight through. However, what they discovered was that a
number of the particles got deflected at different angles; with some coming straight back on
themselves. What they concluded was that most of the atom was empty space with a small
positively charged nucleus in the centre with electrons orbiting the outside.

Atoms contain protons, neutrons and electrons. The nucleus is made up of protons and
neutrons. All atoms of a particular element have the same number of protons e.g. all carbons
have the same number of protons; one carbon atom wont have more protons than another.
Atoms of different elements have different numbers of protons e.g. carbons atoms have a
different number of protons to an oxygen atom.

The properties of the protons, neutrons and electrons are:

Particle Relative mass Relative charge

Proton 1 +1
Neutron 1 0 (no charge)
Electron Very small (0.0005) -1
Atoms normally have a neutral charge, due to have equal numbers of electrons
and protons. However, atoms can gain or lose electrons and form charged
particles called ions.

Atomic number2Mass
number4He
Atoms have a mass number which tells you the number of protons and neutrons
in an atom. They also have an atomic number which tells you the number of
protons in the atom.

In electrically neutral atoms, the number of protons must equal the number of
electrons.

Some atoms of the same element can have different mass numbers

For example: Carbon12, Carbon13, Carbon14

In these atoms the number of protons hasnt changed, but the number of
neutrons has e.g. carbon14 has 2 more neutrons than carbon12. These are
called isotopes.

Isotopes which have an unstable nucleus (radio-isotopes) emit radiation or

decay. You need to know about two forms of decay for your exam, beta and
alpha decay.

Beta decay is when a beta particle (an electron) is emitted from an atom.

Tip for remembering: beta has the letter e in it so it is an electron.

Alpha decay is where an alpha particle (a positively charged particle consisting

of 2 neutrons and 2 protons i.e. a helium nucleus) is emitted from an atom.

Tip for remembering: Alpha has the letter p in it so it is positively charged.

Alpha also has the letter h in it so it is a helium nucleus.

The radiation that is emitted is all around us. This background radiation comes
from space in the form of cosmic rays, form animals, buildings and rocks.
Nuclear fission and fusion

Fusion is the easiest to remember as it is exactly like it sounds. Fusion is where

two atomic nuclei join together to form a larger one. When this occurs energy
is released. It is by this process that stars get their energy.

Fission is the opposite; it is the splitting of an atomic nucleus and it is the

process that nuclear power plants use. The two most common fissionable
materials are uranium 235 and plutonium 239.

In order for fission to occur the atomic nucleus must absorb a neutron. The
neutron is fired at the nucleus and caused the nucleus to spilt, forming two
smaller nuclei. When the splitting occurs energy is released along with 2 or 3
more neutrons. These neutrons are then absorbed by other nuclei causing the
process to repeat. This is called a chain reaction. This reaction is controlled in
a nuclear reactor by using control rods. This rods absorb neutrons if the
reaction needs to be slowed down.
Question 8 (Sample question taken from June 2009 paper)
Question 9 (Sample question taken from Jan 2008 paper)
0 2 4 6 8

Time (s)

6
4

Distance (m)

Distance-time graph

Distance-time and velocity-time graphs

Distance-time graphs tell you how an objects distance is changing over time. If
there is a smooth slope on your graph then the object is moving at a constant
speed. If there is a flat line then there is no movement. A steeper slope means
a faster speed. If the slope is downwards the object is returning to the
starting position. If there is an upwards curve ( ) on a distance time graph
then the object is accelerating, a downward curve ( ) means it is
decelerating.

In order to work out the speed from the slope you choose a section of the slope
and determine what size it is relative to the axis. Since speed is distance time
you then use those values from the slope. So in this case

Speed = 4m 4s = 1m/s
Velocity

A velocity-time graph tells you how an objects velocity changes over a certain
time. This is the acceleration.

Time

Acceleration

Acceleration ms2= change in velocity (ms)time taken for change

(s)

0 2 4 6 8

Time (s)

8
6

Velocity (m/s)

Velocity-time graph

Velocity-time graphs tell you how an objects velocity is changing over time. If
there is a smooth slope on your graph then the object is accelerating. If there
is a flat line then the object is moving at a constant speed. A steeper slope
means a larger acceleration. If there is a downwards slope then the object is
decelerating. The area under the velocity time graphs tells you the distance
travelled. To work out the acceleration from a section of the slope you use the
same method as above for the distance-time graph.

Forces

Forced act in pairs. When 2 forces interact they are equal and opposite in
direction e.g. a person exerts a force on the chair but the chair applies an equal
force upwards on the person.

Weight is also a force measured in newtons. Dont confuse mass and weight
where mass is actually the amount of stuff that makes up an object measured
in kilograms. Weight is calculated by

Weight (N) = Mass (kg) x Gravitational field strength (N/kg)

The gravitational field strength on Earth is taken as 10N/kg.

A resultant force is the sum of forces acting on an object.

Resultant force = 2N + 4N = 6N to the right

4N

2N

4N

Resultant force = 4N - 2N = 2N to the right

2N

Balanced forces occur when an object is stationary or moving at a constant

speed. For falling objects, when the forces are balanced, the velocity at which
the object is falling is called the terminal velocity. This is true for objects
falling through gases and liquids. For a falling object the force is given by:
Resultant Force (N) = Mass (kg) x Acceleration (m/s2)

Force and energy

When a force acts upon an object causing it to move a through a distance

energy is transferred and work is done. The amount of work done is equal to
the amount of energy transferred. The amount of work done is calculated by:

Box moved from A to B

Work done (Joules, J) = Force applied (N) x distance moved (m)

Work done = 2N x 5m = 10J

5m

2N
B
A

If you try to do work against a surface with friction then most of the energy
gets transformed into heat.

Work can also be done on other objects. If you change the shape of an object
then the energy gets stored in the object, e.g. an elastic band. This is elastic
potential energy. Remember, potential energy is stored energy that is waiting
to be used, kinetic energy is movement energy.

To work out the kinetic energy a body has you need to know its mass and its
velocity;

Kinetic energy J= 12mass kgvelocity2 (ms)2

Kinetic Energy = x 2000kg x (50m/s)2

= x 2000kg x 2500(m/s)2

= 2500000J OR 2500kJ

Velocity 60m/s

Mass 2000kg
Momentum

Momentum (has the symbol p) describes how much motion an object has. It is
measured in kilogram metre per second (kg m/s). Like velocity, momentum has
magnitude acting in a certain direction.

Momentum (kg m/s) = Mass (kg) x Velocity (m/s)

Mass = 0.1kg

Momentum = 0.1kg x 50m/s

= 5kg m/s
Velocity = 50m/s

In all situations, momentum is conserved, providing there are no external forces

acting. For collisions, the momentum before the collision is equal to the
momentum after the collision e.g. snooker balls

EQUALS
Momentum after collision
Momentum before collision

p=mv
p=0
p=0
p=mv

After being fired

Another example is cannon before being fired and after being fired. Before the
cannon is fired the momentum is zero, after it is fired the cannon ball moves
forward and the cannon moves back. The momentum of the cannon ball is the
same as the momentum of the cannon moving backwards. In this sort of
example you should choose one direction to be positive and the other direction
to be negative. The example below illustrates this point. I will choose the right
to be positive and the left to be negative.

-pcannon
Before being fired

pball - pcannon = 0
p=0
+pball

If you apply a force to an object for a certain time you are giving an object
momentum e.g. kicking a football. This can be calculated by

Force N= Change in momentum (kg ms)time taken for change

(s)

A force of 50 Newtons is applied to the ball for 0.1 seconds. What is the
momentum?

p = 50N x 0.1s = 5kg m/s

Car safety

Momentum is also taken into consideration when designing safety features on

cars. If a car has a collision when it is has a certain momentum, the force the
driver feels will be reduced if you can make the time the crash lasts for longer.
In other words, if the car can come to a much slower stop (longer time) then
the force will be reduced when compared to a sudden stop (short time).

Some of the safety features that cars have for this purpose are crumple zones,
air bags and seat belts.

But what has caused you to crash in the first place? How quickly a car can come
to a stop depends on the car and the driver. The stopping distance is the
thinking distance (which depends on the drivers reactions) and the braking
distance (which depends on the car and road conditions).

The thinking distance will be increased if the driver is tired, been drinking
alcohol, been on drugs etc. The braking distance will depend on the road
surface, weather conditions and how well the car responds.

Stopping distance = thinking distance + braking distance

Question 10 (Sample question taken from June 2009 paper)

Question 11 (Sample question taken from Jan 2008 paper)
Question 12 (Sample question taken from June 2008 paper)
Question 13 (Sample question taken from June 2008 paper)
How science works

When carrying out experiments and answering questions based on interpreting

experiment you need to know the following.

The independent variable is what is changed during an experiment

Remembering Tip: Independent starts with I so it is the variable that I change
The dependent variable is what you measure in the experiment i.e. the results
The control variables are the things you want to keep the same during an
experiment.
During experiments we repeat measurements to make the results more reliable.
Dependent variable

When plotting a graph for your results you generally

plot the dependent variable along the y-axis and the
Independent variable

independent variable along the x-axis

Your independent variable can either be discrete, continuous, categoric or

ordered.

Continuous variables can be any number 1.2, 5.76, 3.0 etc

Discrete variables are whole numbers 1, 2, 3, 4 etc. An example, you are
investigating how the number of blades on a wind turbine will affect the speed
of the spin. So you can have 1, 2, 3 etc blades but you cant have half a blade
Categoric variables are things such as colours e.g. red, blue, green.
Ordered variables are like 1st, 2nd, 3rd etc

***Bar charts are normally only done for categoric and sometimes discrete
variables

Experimental procedure
Prediction: What you think will happen
Plan: How you are going to carry out your experiment
Conclusion: What you have found out from the experiment
Fair test: When you make sure each experiment is set up the same way
SOLUTIONS TO EXAM QUESTION

Question 1

Question 2
Question 3

Question 4
Question 5

Question 6
Question 7
Question 8
Question 9
Question 10

Question 11
Question 12

Question 13