Relays

Field-effect transistors (FETs) and thyristors are often used in applications where a direct interface is
required in an output device requiring high power (such as a motor or siren).

A relay may be used in circuits where it is not possible to have a direct electrical connection between the
control circuit and the output device: eg due to the risk of damage to the circuit from back electromotive
force (EMF).

A relay is a special type of switch turned on and off by an electromagnet (see the diagram of a simple
relay). When a current flows through the coil an electro-magnetic field is set up. The field attracts an
iron armature, whose other end pushes the contacts together, completing the circuit. When the current
is switched off, the contacts open again, switching the circuit off.

A useful property of relays is that the circuit powering the coil is completely separate from the circuit
switched on by the relay. For this reason relays are used where a safe low-voltage circuit controls a
high-voltage circuit.

The symbol for a relay makes the separation of the two circuits clear by separating the coil symbol from
the switch symbol.


 Electrostatic charges: some materials become charged when they are rubbed together
 polythene & Perspex attract each other but repel their own type
 Positive & negative charge from the atom. Total charge at rest is 0 but when they are rubbed

transfer of electron induces charge, one has negative charge(gain of electrons) & the other has
positive charge( loss of electrons

Conductors & insulators

 Conductors let the charge(flow of electrons ) pass through them easily as a

result they gain charge but lose it immediately to the surroundings until the balance of
positive & negative charge is restored

E.G.Metals because they have loosely held electrons in their configuration.

Insulators
 Hardly conduct at all because their electrons are tightly held and not free to move

E.g. non metals exception of carbon

Semi conductors

Poor conductors when cold but much better conductors when warm.E.g>cooper

8.02

A charged object will attract any uncharged object

Earthing

If too much charge builds up on something ,electrons may cause spark by excess contact
with the air which is dangerous, hence the objects can be earthed by connecting them to
the ground by a conducting wire which can dissipate the excessive charge to the
surroundings.

Induced charge

When a charged object is put close to a neutral object, charges are induced on the surface
of the neutral object and are called induced charges.

Unit of charge

Couloumb

Micro coulomb id 10-6

Electric field

Charged objects interact with nearby charges or objects even if they are not in contact. We
say that charged objects set up their electric field.
Ions

Electrically charged group of atoms. An ion is an atom or molecule in which the total
number of electrons is not equal to the total number of protons, giving the atom a net
positive or negative electrical charge

Air is a good insulator as it has no ions but with ions present it has charges that are free\

to move so the air becomes a conductor.

Current in a circuit

How does electricity flow in a simple circuit. A Battery has 2 plates, one charged with a
surplus of electrons, and one lacking electrons. When a circuit is closed, the difference in
the potential of the plates (called potential difference, and measured in Volts) causes
electrons to be pushed into one end of the wire at the negative terminal, while a strong
pull is made on the other end of the wire by the positive terminal. The electron at the
negative terminal pushes its way onto the copper atom, making it's charge unbalance, so it
lets one of its electrons go, this free electron, moves on the next atom ... and so on,
literally bumping electrons along the wire in the direction of pull, created by the battery.
finally an electron exists the wire into the battery and one electron has been transfered to
balance the battery charge.

The stronger the force (Voltage) the faster the electrons flow, this continues until the
driving force (battery) is balanced (discharged) when we say the battery is flat.

conventional current;flow of positive charge

C=A x t

POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE

TOTAL charge on a battery is known as potential.potential difference is voltage.

A battery produces highest PD when not in use in circuit. Maximum PD is called

electromotive force of the battery

To produce higher PD ,we connect many cells in series.

RESISTANCE

Current is flowed in the circuit only because of PD(voltage).

copper good conductor of current

Nichrome bad conductor of electricity and hence offers resistance to the flow of current.

Resistance= PD/Current

With a lower resistance, a lower PD would be needed to give the same current.
 Factors affecting resistance:

 Length: more length of wire more resistance

 Cross sectional area

 Material

 Temperature: metal- resistance increases with temp

Semi conductors- decreases with temperature

Heating effect : when the element has enough resistance ,the conductor becomes
heated.

 Resistance Components:

1. Resistors:

 Variable resistors

 Thermistors

 Light dependent resistors

 DIodes

 R=V/I resistance is measured in Ohms. Ohm's law states that the voltage across a conductor is directly
proportional to the current flowing through it, provided that the temperature and other physical
conditions are unchanged.

 Effect of length & area:

 Resistance is proportional to length

 Resistance is disproportional of area/diameter

 R=L/A

 R=rho(material)x L/A or Rho=RxA/L

 Series & parallel Circuits;

 Series connections
 Components that are connected one after another on the same loop of the circuit are connected in
series. The current that flows across each component connected in series is the same.

 Two lamps connected in series


 The circuit diagram shows a circuit with two lamps connected in series. If one lamp breaks

the other one will not light.

 Same voltage(PD) as a result dim light

2. Parallel connections
3. Components that are connected on separate loops are connected in parallel.
The current is shared between each component connected in parallel.

4. Two lamps connected in parallel

5. The circuit diagram shows a circuit with two lamps connected in parallel. If one
lamp breaks, the other lamp will still light.

6. Each get full PD so each glows brightly

Circuits & Switches

Parallel has different switches for same battery

series have same switch

Combined resistance of series: R=r1 + r2

Parallel: combined resistance R = Resistance multiplied(r1xr2)/r1 + r2

Power: Watt

Rate at which the PE is transformed from one form to another

P=E /time

P=PD/current

or
P=I2R

Electric motors

The electric motor

A simple electric motor can be built using a coil of wire that is free to rotate between two opposite
magnetic poles. When an electric current flows through the coil, the coil experiences a force and
moves.

The direction of the current must be reversed every half turn, otherwise the coil comes to a halt again.
This is achieved using a conducting ring split in two, called a split ring or commutator. A coil of wire is
used with lots of turns to increase the effect of the magnetic field.

Electromagnetic induction

A voltage is produced when a magnet is moving into a coil of wire. This process is called
electromagnetic induction. The direction of the induced voltage is reversed when the magnet is
moved out of the coil again. It can also be reversed if the other pole of the magnet is moved into
the coil.

If the coil is part of a complete circuit then a current will be induced in the circuit.

Notice that no voltage is induced when the magnet is still, even if it is inside the coil.

Increasing the induced voltage

To increase the induced voltage:

Move the magnet faster

Use a stronger magnet

Increase the number of turns on the coil

Increase the area of the coil`

Induced current