Semiconductor: Preparation of Semiconductor Materials

Semiconductor
A semiconductor is a solid that has electrical conductivity in between that of a

conductor and that of an insulator, and can be controlled over a wide range, either
permanently or dynamically. Semiconductors are tremendously important in
technology. Semiconductor devices, electronic components made of semiconductor
materials, are essential in modern electrical devices. Examples range from
computers to cellular phones to digital audio players. Silicon is used to create most
semiconductors commercially, but dozens of other materials are used as well.
Preparation of semiconductor materials

Semiconductors with predictable, reliable electronic properties are necessary for
mass production. The level of chemical purity needed is extremely high because the
presence of impurities even in very small proportions can have large effects on the
properties of the material. A high degree of crystalline perfection is also required,
since faults in crystal structure (such as dislocations, twins, and stacking faults)
interfere with the semiconducting properties of the material. Crystalline faults are a
major cause of defective semiconductor devices. The larger the crystal, the more
difficult it is to achieve the necessary perfection. Current mass production processes
use crystal ingots between four and twelve inches (300 mm) in diameter which are
grown as cylinders and sliced into wafers.
Because of the required level of chemical purity and the perfection of the crystal
structure which are needed to make semiconductor devices, special methods have
been developed to produce the initial semiconductor material. A technique for
achieving high purity includes growing the crystal using the Czochralski process. An
additional step that can be used to further increase purity is known as zone refining.
In zone refining, part of a solid crystal is melted. The impurities tend to concentrate
in the melted region, while the desired material recrystalizes leaving the solid
material more pure and with fewer crystalline faults.
In manufacturing semiconductor devices involving heterojunctions between
different semiconductor materials, the lattice constant, which is the length of the
repeating element of the crystal structure, is important for determining the
compatibility of materials.
Doping (semiconductor)
In semiconductor production, doping refers to the process of intentionally
introducing impurities into an extremely pure (also referred to as intrinsic)
semiconductor in order to change its electrical properties. The impurities are
dependent upon the type of semiconductor. Lightly and moderately doped
semiconductors are referred to as extrinsic. A semiconductor which is doped to such
high levels that it acts more like a conductor than a semiconductor is called
degenerate.
Some dopants are generally added as the (usually silicon) boule is grown, giving
each wafer an almost uniform initial doping. To define circuit elements, selected
areas (typically controlled by photolithography) are further doped by such processes
as diffusion and ion implantation, the latter method being more popular in large
production runs due to its better controllability.
The number of dopant atoms needed to create a difference in the ability of a
semiconductor to conduct is very small. Where a comparatively small number of
dopant atoms are added (of the order of 1 every 100,000,000 atoms) then the
doping is said to be low, or light. Where many more are added (of the order of 1 in
10,000) then the doping is referred to as heavy, or high. This is often shown as n+
for n-type dopant or p+ for p-type doping. A more detailed description of the
mechanism of doping can be found in the article on semiconductors.
Intrinsic semiconductor
An intrinsic semiconductor, also called an undoped semiconductor or i-type
semiconductor, is a pure semiconductor without any significant dopant species
present. The number of charge carriers is therefore determined by the properties of
the material itself instead of the amount of impurities. In intrinsic semiconductors
the number of electrons and the number of holes are equal. n = p.
The conductivity of intrinsic semiconductors can be due to crystal defects or to
thermal excitation. In an intrinsic semiconductor the number of electrons in the
conduction band is equal to the number of holes in the valence band. An example is
Hg0.8Cd0.2>Te at room temperature.
An indirect gap intrinsic semiconductor is one where the maximum energy of the
valence band occurs at a different k (k-space wave vector) than the minimum
energy of the conduction band. Examples include Silicon and Germanium. A direct
gap intrinsic semiconductor is one where the maximum energy of the valence band
occurs at the same k as the minimum energy of the conduction band. Examples
include Gallium arsenide.
A layer of i-type semiconductor is used in PIN diodes
Extrinsic semiconductor
An extrinsic semiconductor is a semiconductor that has been doped, that is, into
which a doping agent has been introduced, giving it different electrical properties
than the intrinsic (pure) semiconductor. Doping involves adding dopant atoms to an
intrinsic semiconductor, which changes the electron and hole carrier concentrations
of the semiconductor at thermal equilibrium. Dominant carrier concentrations in an
extrinsic semiconductor classify it as either an n-type or p-type semiconductor. The
electrical properties of extrinsic semiconductors make them essential components
of many electronic devices.
The two types of extrinsic semiconductor
N-type semiconductors
Band structure of an n-type semiconductor. Dark circles in the conduction band are
electrons and light circles in the valence band are holes. The image shows that the
electrons are the majority charge carrier.
Extrinsic semiconductors with a larger electron concentration than hole
concentration are known as n-type semiconductors. The phrase 'n-type' comes from
the negative charge of the electron. In n-type semiconductors, electrons are the
majority carriers and holes are the minority carriers. N-type semiconductors are
created by doping an intrinsic semiconductor with donor impurities. In an n-type
semiconductor, the Fermi energy level is greater than the that of the intrinsic
semiconductor and lies closer to the conduction band than the valence band.
P-type semiconductors
Band structure of a p-type semiconductor. Dark circles in the conduction band are
electrons and light circles in the valence band are holes. The image shows that the
holes are the majority charge carrier
As opposed to n-type semiconductors, p-type semiconductors have a larger hole
concentration than electron concentration. The phrase 'p-type' refers to the positive
charge of the hole. In p-type semiconductors, holes are the majority carriers and
electrons are the minority carriers. P-type semiconductors are created by doping an
intrinsic semiconductor with acceptor impurities. P-type semiconductors have Fermi
energy levels below the intrinsic Fermi energy level. The Fermi energy level lies
closer to the valence band than the conduction band in a p-type semiconductor.

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Semiconductor

A semiconductor is a solid that has electrical conductivity in between that of a

Preparation of semiconductor materials

The two types of extrinsic semiconductor

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