Through, and The Recycling of Nutrients Within The Ecosystem
Through, and The Recycling of Nutrients Within The Ecosystem
Through, and The Recycling of Nutrients Within The Ecosystem
The two major functions within an ecosystem are the transfer of energy
through, and the recycling of nutrients within the ecosystem.
ENERGY FLOWS IN ECOSYSTEMS PHOTOSYNTHESIS
Photosynthesis (or phototrophism) is the process by which light energy from the
sun(insolation), is absorbed by plants, blue-green algae and certain bacteria. It is then usedto produce
new plant cell material, which forms the food source for plant eating animals(herbivores).Plants which
are able, through the process of photosynthesis, to convert lightenergy and inorganic
substances (carbon dioxide, water and various mineral
nutrients)i n t o o r g a n i c ( c a r b o n b a s e d ) m o l e c u l e s , a r e c a l l e d p h o t o t r o p h s o r a u t o t r
o p h s ( s e l f - feeders).In a plant, most photosynthesis is carried out by the leaves, and in
order for the p r o c e s s t o o c c u r t h e y m u s t c o n t a i n c h l o r p h yl l , w h i c h i s a b l e t o
a b s o r b e n e r f y f r o m sunlight. The plant also requires carbon dioxide, from the
atmosphere, and water fromthe soil. As a result of the process, and carbohydrates are produced.6CO
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Energy transfer between trophic levels is inefficient. Only 10% of the net
productivity of one level ends up as net productivity at the next level.
Herbivoresanimals that feed solely on plantsmake up the second trophic level. Predators
that eat herbivores comprise the third trophic level; if larger predators are present, they
represent still higher trophic levels. Organisms that feed at several trophic levels (for example,
grizzly bears that eat berries and salmon) are classified at the highest of the trophic levels at
which they feed. Decomposers, which include bacteria, fungi, molds, worms, and insects, break
down wastes and dead organisms and return nutrients to the soil.
On average about 10 percent of net energy production at one trophic level is passed on to the
next level. Processes that reduce the energy transferred between trophic levels include
respiration, growth and reproduction, defecation, and nonpredatory death (organisms
that die but are not eaten by consumers). The nutritional quality of material that is consumed
also influences how efficiently energy is transferred, because consumers can convert high-
quality food sources into new living tissue more efficiently than low-quality food sources.
The low rate of energy transfer between trophic levels makes decomposers generally more
important than producers in terms of energy flow. Decomposers process large amounts of
organic material and return nutrients to the ecosystem in inorganic form, which are then taken
up again by primary producers. Energy is not recycled during decomposition, but rather is
released, mostly as heat (this is what makes compost piles and fresh garden mulch warm).
Figure 6 shows the flow of energy (dark arrows) and nutrients (light arrows) through
ecosystems.
Figure 6. Energy and nutrient transfer through ecosystems
See larger image
An ecosystem's gross primary productivity (GPP) is the total amount of organic matter that it
produces through photosynthesis.
Net primary productivity (NPP) describes the amount of energy that remains available for
plant growth after subtracting the fraction that plants use for respiration. Productivity in land
ecosystems generally rises with temperature up to about 30C, after which it declines, and is
positively correlated with moisture. On land primary productivity thus is highest in warm, wet
zones in the tropics where tropical forest biomes are located. In contrast, desert scrub
ecosystems have the lowest productivity because their climates are extremely hot and dry (Fig.
7).
In the oceans, light and nutrients are important controlling factors for productivity. As noted in
Unit 3, "Oceans," light penetrates only into the uppermost level of the oceans, so
photosynthesis occurs in surface and near-surface waters. Marine primary productivity is high
near coastlines and other areas where upwelling brings nutrients to the surface, promoting
plankton blooms. Runoff from land is also a source of nutrients in estuaries and along the
continental shelves. Among aquatic ecosystems, algal beds and coral reefs have the highest net
primary production, while the lowest rates occur in the open due to a lack of nutrients in the
illuminated surface layers (Fig. 8).
Figure 8. Ocean net primary productivity, 1997-2002
See larger image
How many trophic levels can an ecosystem support? The answer depends on several factors,
including the amount of energy entering the ecosystem, energy loss between trophic levels, and
the form, structure, and physiology of organisms at each level. At higher trophic levels,
predators generally are physically larger and are able to utilize a fraction of the energy that was
produced at the level beneath them, so they have to forage over increasingly large areas to
meet their caloric needs.
Because of these energy losses, most terrestrial ecosystems have no more than five trophic
levels, and marine ecosystems generally have no more than seven. This difference between
terrestrial and marine ecosystems is likely due to differences in the fundamental characteristics
of land and marine primary organisms. In marine ecosystems, microscopic phytoplankton carry
out most of the photosynthesis that occurs, while plants do most of this work on land.
Phytoplankton are small organisms with extremely simple structures, so most of their primary
production is consumed and used for energy by grazing organisms that feed on them. In
contrast, a large fraction of the biomass that land plants produce, such as roots, trunks, and
branches, cannot be used by herbivores for food, so proportionately less of the energy fixed
through primary production travels up the food chain.
Growth rates may also be a factor. Phytoplankton are extremely small but grow very rapidly, so
they support large populations of herbivores even though there may be fewer algae than
herbivores at any given moment. In contrast, land plants may take years to reach maturity, so
an average carbon atom spends a longer residence time at the primary producer level on land
than it does in a marine ecosystem. In addition, locomotion costs are generally higher for
terrestrial organisms compared to those in aquatic environments.
The simplest way to describe the flux of energy through ecosystems is as a food chain in which
energy passes from one trophic level to the next, without factoring in more complex
relationships between individual species. Some very simple ecosystems may consist of a food
chain with only a few trophic levels. For example, the ecosystem of the remote wind-swept
Taylor Valley in Antarctica consists mainly of bacteria and algae that are eaten by nematode
worms (footnote 2). More commonly, however, producers and consumers are connected in
intricate food webs with some consumers feeding at several trophic levels (Fig. 9).
Source: Courtesy of NOAA Great Lakes Environmental Research Laboratory and the Great
Lakes Fishery Commission.
An important consequence of the loss of energy between trophic levels is that contaminants
collect in animal tissuesa process called bioaccumulation. As contaminants bioaccumulate up
the food web, organisms at higher trophic levels can be threatened even if the pollutant is
introduced to the environment in very small quantities.
The insecticide DDT, which was widely used in the United States from the 1940s through the
1960s, is a famous case of bioaccumulation. DDT built up in eagles and other raptors to levels
high enough to affect their reproduction, causing the birds to lay thin-shelled eggs that broke in
their nests. Fortunately, populations have rebounded over several decades since the pesticide
was banned in the United States. However, problems persist in some developing countries
where toxic bioaccumulating pesticides are still used.
Bioaccumulation can threaten humans as well as animals. For example, in the United States
many federal and state agencies currently warn consumers to avoid or limit their consumption of
large predatory fish that contain high levels of mercury, such as shark, swordfish, tilefish, and
king mackerel, to avoid risking neurological damage and birth defects.
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Energy Flow in an Ecosystem (With Diagram)
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Energy has been defined as the capacity to do work. Energy exists in two forms potential and
kinetic.
Potential energy is the energy at rest {i.e., stored energy) capable of performing work. Kinetic
energy is the energy of motion (free energy).
It results in work performance at the expense of potential energy. Conversion of potential energy
into kinetic energy involves the imparting of motion.
The source of energy required by all living organisms is the chemical energy of their food. The
chemical energy is obtained by the conversion of the radiant energy of sun.
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The radiant energy is in the form of electromagnetic waves which are released from the sun
during the transmutation of hydrogen to helium. The chemical energy stored in the food of
living organisms is converted into potential energy by the arrangement of the constituent atoms
of food in a particular manner. In any ecosystem there should be unidirectional flow of energy.
This energy flow is based on two important Laws of Thermodynamics which are as
follows:
(1) The first law of Thermodynamics:
It states that the amount of energy in the universe is constant. It may change from one form to
another, but it can neither be created nor destroyed. Light energy can be neither created nor
destroyed as it passes through the atmosphere. It may, however, be transformed into another
type of energy, such as chemical energy or heat energy. These forms of energy cannot be
transformed into electromagnetic radiation.
Nearly all of the energy that drives ecosystems ultimately comes from the sun. Solar energy,
which is an abiotic factor, by the way, enters the ecosystem through the process
of photosynthesis. You can learn more than you want to know about this process in the unit on
photosynthesis. Or, you could just chat with your local botanist. Everyone has one, right? The
organisms in an ecosystem that capture the suns electromagnetic energy and convert it
into chemical energy are called producers. Not to be confused with these Producers.
The name is appropriate because producers make the carbon-based molecules, usually
carbohydrates, that the rest of the organisms in the ecosystem, including you, consume.
Producers include all of the greenplants and some bacteria and algae. Every living thing on
Earth literally owes its life to the producers. The next time you see a plant, it wouldnt be a bad
idea for you to thank it for its services...which, as you will learn in other units, go way beyond
just supplying you with food.
After a producer has captured the suns energy and used it to grow yummy plant parts, other
organisms come along and greedily gobble it up. These primary consumers, as they are
called, exclusively feed on producers. If these consumers are human, we call
them vegetarians. Otherwise, they are known as herbivores.
Primary consumers only obtain a fraction of the total solar energyabout 10%captured by
the producers they eat. The other 90% is used by the producer for growth, reproduction, and
survival, or it is lost as heat. You can probably see where this is going. Primary consumers are
eaten by secondary consumers. An example would be birds that eat bugs that eat
leaves. Secondary consumers are eaten by tertiary consumers. Cats that eat birds that eat
bugs that eat leaves, for instance.
At each level, called a trophic level, about 90% of the energy is lost. What a shame. So, if a
plant captures 1000 calories of solar energy, a bug that eats the plant will only obtain 100
calories of energy. A chicken that eats the bug will only obtain 10 calories, and a human that
eats the chicken will only obtain 1 calorie of the original 1000 calories of solar energy captured
by the plant. When you think about this way, it would take 100 1000-calorie plantsthose would
be enormo plants, by the wayto produce a single 100-calorie piece of free-range chicken. You
are now recalling all of the plants you have ever forgotten to water in your life and feeling really,
really terrible about it, aren't you?
This is the answer to the great mystery as to why there are so many plants on Earth. We will
even spell it out for you because it is so important to understand: there are so many plants on
Earth because energy flowthrough ecosystems is inefficient. Only 10% of the energy in one
trophic level is ever passed to the next. So, there you have it. We hope you feel fulfilled.
In addition to energy pyramid diagrams, ecosystem ecologists sometimes depict the relationship
between trophic groups in a linear way, with arrows pointing from one organism to another. If
there is only one producer, one primary consumer, one secondary consumer, and one tertiary
consumer, this linear diagram is called a food chain. Food chains help ecologists and students
visualize the interactions between organisms in an ecosystem. As always seems to be the case,
it isnt ever that simple. In fact, trophic interactions among organisms in an ecosystem are often
really complex. Its rare that an ecosystem only has one species at each trophic level. Usually,
there are multiple producers that are eaten by multiple primary consumers. Some consumers
eat different kinds of producers. Likewise, secondary consumers sometimes eat producers as
well as primary consumers. These are known as omnivores.
These complex relationships are often depictedif they can be figured out, that isin a
diagram called a food web. These diagrams can become messy indeed, depending on the size
of the ecosystem and the number of interactions among trophic groups. If you like puzzles and
biology, though, ecosystem ecology is the field for you.
Ecologists use food webs to better understand the intricate workings of the ecosystems they
study. Understanding exactly who is eating whom can provide valuable information for
conservation biologists as well. Such knowledge can aid in restoration efforts, species recovery
projects, and preservation efforts, just to name a few instances. In any case, uncovering food
webs goes a long way to understanding the first half of an ecosystem, the community.
Brain Snack
Most of our energy comes from domesticated animals and plants, but we are not the only
organisms on the planet that farm. Insects, such as the fungal ants, feeding leaf clippings to a
special symbiotic fungus and protect it from invasive pathogens. The ants tendto their fungus
just as humans tend to their gardens. You can watch an ant colony tend to their fungus in real
time here.
Recognize that the routes by which the flow of energy and the
recycling of matter through the ecosystem occur are called food
chains.
The ultimate source of energy for life on Earth is the sun. Solar energy is
trapped during the process of photosynthesis and converted into a
chemical form that we normally call food. Food contains both materials
(the elements carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, and the other essential
elements) as well as stored energy. The materials within the food are
recycled. They pass from the producers to the consumers and finally are
recycled back to the producers by the action of the decomposers. Energy,
unlike the materials, is not recycled. As the food is passed through the
food web, energy is lost. In general terms, only 10% of the energy stored
in one trophic level (such as producers) is actually transferred t the next
trophic level (for example the herbivores). This is known as the pyramid
of energy. Eventually there is so liitle energy remaining in the top trophic
level that no highr trophic level can be supported. This is why there are
few if any fourth order consumers in any ecosystem.
Explain how autotrophs are the basis of energy flow in all food chains
(and food webs) by capturing solar energy and making it available to
consumers.
Autotrophs are organisms that are able to make their own food using
carbon dioxide. Most autotrophs carry on photosynthesis. Photosnythesis
is the process by which organic compunds are synthesized from inorganic
carbon, in the presence of light or solar energy. Autotrophs provide food
for the primary consumers, which are heterotrophs. heterotrophs such as
herbivores, omnivores, saprobes feed on autotrophs. The heterotrophs
are in turn eaten by the secondary consumers, which are carnivores.
Autotrophs are organisms that are able to make their own food using
carbon dioxide, they can also be called producers. Most autotrophs carry
on photosynthesis. Photosnythesis is the process by which organic
compunds are synthesized from inorganic carbon, in the presence of light
or solar energy. Autotrophs provide food for the primary consumers,
which are heterotrophs. heterotrophs such as herbivores, and
omnivores,feed on autotrophs. The heterotrophs are in turn eaten by the
secondary consumers, which are carnivores.
Producers are eaten by the primary consumers which are eaten by the
secondary consumers, when all of these die the saprobes break down
their reamins which then can be reused by other members in the cycle.
Key points:
Producers, or autotrophs, make their own organic
molecules. Consumers, or heterotrophs, get organic
molecules by eating other organisms.
A food chain is a linear sequence of organisms through
which nutrients and energy pass as one organism eats
another.
In a food chain, each organism occupies a
different trophic level, defined by how many energy
transfers separate it from the basic input of the chain.
Food webs consist of many interconnected food chains
and are more realistic representation of consumption
relationships in ecosystems.
Energy transfer between trophic levels is inefficient
with a typical efficiency around 10%. This inefficiency limits
the length of food chains.
Introduction
Organisms of different species can interact in many ways.
They can compete, or they can be symbiontslongterm
partners with a close association. Or, of course, they can do
what we so often see in nature programs: one of them can
eat the otherchomp! That is, they can form one of the links
in a food chain.
Food chains
Now, we can take a look at how energy and nutrients move
through a ecological community. Let's start by considering
just a few who-eats-who relationships by looking at a food
chain.
Decomposers
One other group of consumers deserves mention, although it
does not always appear in drawings of food chains. This
group consists of decomposers, organisms that break down
dead organic material and wastes.
Food webs
Food chains give us a clear-cut picture of who eats whom.
However, some problems come up when we try and use them
to describe whole ecological communities.
Why does so much energy exit the food web between one
trophic level and the next? Here are a few of the main
reasons for inefficient energy transfer^{1,2}1,2start
superscript, 1, comma, 2, end superscript:
Pyramid of Numbers
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The pyramid of numbers depicts the relationship in terms of the number of producers, herbivores and the
carnivores at their successive trophic levels. There is a decrease in the number of individuals from the
lower to the higher trophic levels. The number pyramid varies from ecosystem to ecosystem. There are
three of pyramid of numbers:
yramid of Biomass
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The pyramid of biomass is more fundamental, they represent the quantitative relationships of the standing
crops. In this pyramid there is a gradual decrease in the biomass from the producers to the higher trophic
levels. The biomass here the net organisms collected from each feeding level and are then dried and
weighed. This dry weight is the biomass and it represents the amount of energy available in the form of
organic matter of the organisms. In this pyramid the net dry weight is plotted to that of the producers,
herbivores, carnivores, etc.
There are two types of pyramid of biomass, they are: