GL-2051: SEDIMENTOLOGI & STRATIGRAFI

INTRODUCTION
SEDIMENTARY ROCKS CLASSIFICATION
SEDIMENTARY PROCESSES
DEPOSITIONAL ENVIRONMENT
PRINCIPLES OF STRATIGRAPHY
Konsep Dasar Stratigrafi
Unsur Stratigrafi
Satuan Stratigrafi
Dynamic Stratigraphy

1
 Sediment transport and deposition
Transport media

Water
Overland flow, channel flow
Waves, tides, ocean currents
Air
Ice
Gravity
Rock falls (no transport medium involved)
Debris flows, turbidity currents (water involved)

2
3
4
Unidirectional Flow and
Sediment Transport
 Discharge
volume of water flowing through a cross-
section of channel per unit time
Q=wdU
w is width of flow
d is mean flow depth
U is mean flow velocity
X-S area of flow, a, is width x depth
Q=aU

6
 Some flow terminology
flow characteristics (depth, width, velocity)
do not change with time steady flow
flow characteristics (depth, width, velocity)
do not change from place to place: uniform
flow
streamline -- imaginary line drawn parallel
to local mean flow direction

7
 Consider a steady, non-uniform flow

Plan View
a1
a2
streamlines

Streamlines -- visualization
of flow velocity -- show flow
direction and speed (spacing of
streamlines is closer where
flow is faster) 8
9
 Conservation of mass
Consider a steady, non-uniform flow
because no fluid is lost or gained between x-
sections 1 and 2, discharge is constant: a1U1
= a2U2 = Q
This equation is the continuity equation
Tells us that where a is small, U is large, and
vice-versa.

10
 Conservation of energy
Consider the energy of a fluid mass that
moves between 2 streamlines (see next
slide)
Fluid is ideal -- incompressible, frictionless
(no viscosity)
Steady, non-uniform flow

11
12
Fluid viscosity
 Fluid viscosity
Viscosity = internal resistance to flow
Water viscosity results in friction between
water and bed/banks
Friction from bed/banks is transmitted
through fluid
Result: velocity increases with distance
from bed/banks

14
 Bernoulli Equation
In a closed system the total energy does not
change
u1 2
u 2 2
p1 + gy1 + = p2 + gy2 +
2 2
Real water is not ideal; there is friction so
total head decreases downstream
In some cases, friction is small so this
equation works well.

15
 u
=
y

Velocity gradient, the rate of change of velocity with distance from

aboundary, can be written u/y
Shear stress within the fluid, , is proportional to the velocity
gradient. Viscosity, , is the proportionality constant
16
Definition diagram for spatially-averaged bed
shear stress in steady, uniform flow

flow

d
Fd
Fd
0 =
A
bed

W
Consider column of water with unit area (A=1)
17
 Bed shear stress (for steady,
uniform flow)
Fd=Vgsin
V is volume; V=A x d;
is water density;
g is acc. due to gravity

0 = gdsin
0 is bed shear stress
For small , sin=S, the water surface slope
0 = gdS DuBoys Equation

18
 Sediment transport and deposition
The Bernouilli effect is the reduction of pressure, proportional to
the increase of flow velocity as the flow encounters an obstacle
(sediment particle), leading to a lift force and entrainment of the
particle
Drag forces and lift forces act together to cause entrainment of
sediment grains

The boundary layer is that part of the flow influenced by frictional

effects

19
 Sediment transport and deposition
A widely used parameter in the context of sediment transport is the
shear stress, expressed in N m-2, which can be determined
anywhere in a flow or at the bed

du
0 = gdS =
dd

=fluid density; d=flow depth; S=slope; =dynamic viscosity;

u=flow velocity

Bed shear stress (0) must be higher than the critical shear stress
(c) to enable sediment grains to be transported

20
 Two types of flow:
Laminar & Turbulent
 Reynolds Number

Ud
Re =

is fluid density
U is mean flow velocity
d is mean flow depth
is fluid viscosity

22
 Sediment transport and deposition
Reynolds number (laminar vs. turbulent flow)
ul
Re =

u=flow velocity; l=characteristic length (flow depth); =kinematic
viscosity (dynamic viscosity/fluid density)

Turbulence is promoted by high flow velocities and flow depths, and

low viscosities (Re>2000); laminar flow occurs when the reverse is
the case (Re<500)
Air and water are nearly always turbulent

23
 Re = Ul/
U = velocity of flow
L = depth or pipe diameter
= density of fluid
= viscosity of fluid
Re< 500 is laminar, Re > 2000 turbulent

24
 25
Allen, Earth Surface Processes, Blackwell Science
 Laminar flow
Streamlines nearly parallel
Think of flow as composed of layers of fluid
sliding over each other
There is friction between layers (bcs. fluid
has viscosity)
Momentum transferred over very small
distances

26
 Turbulent Flow
Flow is NOT smooth layers.
Turbulent eddies can transfer momentum
over much of flow depth.
High speed fluid can sweep down to bed
and increase amount of sediment moved.
River flow is almost always turbulent

27
 What determines whether flow
laminar or turbulent?
Laminar flow occurs at low flow velocities
and depths.
Turbulent flow occurs at higher velocities
and depths.
Reynolds number (Re) is used to determine
whether flow is laminar or turbulent.

28
Newtons Law of Viscosity for laminar
flows

Viscosity dominates in a laminar flow

= u/y
is shear stress in fluid
is fluid viscosity; dynamic viscosity

29
Velocity Profile - Graph of velocity increase
with distance from bed

30
Allen, Principles of Physical Sedimentology, George Allen & Unwin
 Laminar Velocity Profile

o y
2
u( y) = y
2d
u(y) is velocity, u, at height y above bed
o is shear stress
d is flow depth
is fluid viscosity
mean velocity is at height above bed = 0.4d

31
 Turbulent flow

Turbulence results in transfer of

momentum over entire flow depth in
turbulent eddys
Generates higher shear stresses
Therefore, for turbulent flows,
= (+) du/dy

32
Velocity Profile - Graph of velocity increase
with distance from bed

33
Allen, Principles of Physical Sedimentology, George Allen & Unwin
 Turbulent Velocity Profile
Flow near bed obeys theLaw of the
Wall
u* y
u( y) = ln
yo
u is the velocity at height y above the bed
is von Karmans constant
u* is the shear velocity
yo is the height above bed where velocity = 0
34
 Critical vs. Supercritical Flow
As flow velocity increases, flow can exhibit
standing waves --> critical flow.
When flow shallow and fast, can see
chutes and pools (rapids) --> supercritical
flow

35
 Froude Number, Fr
Dimensionless number used to
determine whether flow is subcritical or
supercritical.
U
Fr =
gd
If Fr>1, flow is supercritical
If Fr<1, flow is subcritical
Fr=1 for critical flow

36
 Sediment transport and deposition
Froude number (subcritical vs. supercritical flow)
u
Fr =
gd

u=flow velocity; d=flow depth; gd=celerity (wave velocity)

Flow velocities exceeding wave propagation velocities (Fr>1) yield

supercritical flow, lower velocities (Fr<1) cause subcritical flow
A spatial transition from subcritical to supercritical flow (or vice
versa) is characterized by a hydraulic jump

37
38
39
 Sediment transport and deposition
Stokes Law (settling velocity in a static fluid)

gD2 (g f )
vg =
18
vg=settling velocity; D=grain diameter; g=grain density;
f=fluid density; =dynamic viscosity

Stokes Law only applies to fine (<100 m), quartz-density grains in

water

40
 Sediment transport and deposition
Transport modes in a turbulent fluid

Traction (rolling over the bed surface)

Saltation (jumping over the bed surface)
Suspension (permanent transport within the fluid)
Solution (chemical transport)

41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
 Sediment transport and deposition
Critical velocities are different for sediment entrainment and
deposition, especially in the finer fractions
Fluid density and viscosity play a key role in determining which
particle sizes can be transported
The amount of sediment transport is not only related to flow
velocity (or bed shear stress) and grain size, but also to:
Grain density
Grain shape

49
 Sediment transport and deposition
Current ripples

Once movement of sand grains (<0.7 mm) occurs, current ripples

are formed as a result of boundary layer separation, commonly
accompanied by a separation vortex
Current ripples have a stoss side (erosion and transport) and lee
side (deposition), the latter with a slope of ~30 (angle of repose)
Current ripples only form under moderate flow velocities, with a
grain size <0.7 mm
Height: 0.53 cm; wavelength: 540 cm

50
 Sediment transport and deposition
Dunes

Dunes are distinctly larger than current ripples

There is a relationship between boundary-layer thickness ( flow
depth in rivers) and the dimension of dunes
Dunes only form in grain sizes >0.2 mm
Low flow velocities (bed shear stresses) yield straight-crested
bedforms (valid for both dunes and current ripples); higher shear
stresses result in sinuous to linguoid crest lines
Sand waves constitute the largest category of subaqueous dunes

51
 Sediment transport and deposition
Plane beds and antidunes

In coarse sands (>0.7 mm) lower-stage plane beds develop

instead of current ripples
At high (but still subcritical) flow velocities upper-stage plane
beds are formed in all sand grain sizes
Supercritical flow conditions (Fr1 or higher) enable the formation
of antidunes, characterized by bedform accretion in an upstream
direction

52
 Sediment transport and deposition

Waves

Waves are wind-generated oscillatory motions of water

Wave height is dependent on wind strength and fetch
The depth to which the oscillatory motion due to wave
action extends is known as the wave base; shallow
water leads to breaking waves
Wave ripples are distinct from current ripples due to
their symmetry, and include low-energy rolling grain
ripples and high-energy vortex ripples

53
 Sediment transport and deposition
Tides

Tides are formed by the gravitational attraction of the Moon and

Sun on the Earth, combined with the centrifugal force caused by
movement of the Earth around the center of mass of the Earth-
Moon system
Semi-diurnal or diurnal tidal cycles
Neap-spring tidal cycles
Annual tidal cycles

54
 Sediment transport and deposition
Ocean currents

The circulation of sea water in the worlds oceans is driven by wind

and contrasts in density due to variable temperature and salinity
(thermohaline circulation), combined with the Coriolis effect
Ocean currents transport clay and silt in suspension, and sand as
bed load, and their effects are especially important in deep waters,
where storms and tides are less important

55
 Sediment transport and deposition
Gravity flows

Debris flows have a high (>50%) proportion of sediment to water

and can be both subaerial and subaqueous
Low Reynolds numbers
Turbidity currents have a higher proportion of water, are always
subaqueous, and move due to density contrasts
Higher Reynolds numbers

56
 Sedimentology concepts

Fluid flow and bedforms

Unidirectional flow leads predominantly to asymmetric bedforms

(two- or three-dimensional) or plane beds
Current ripples
Dunes
Plane beds
Antidunes
Oscillatory flow due to waves causes predominantly symmetric
bedforms (wave ripples)
Combined flow involves both modes of sediment transport and
causes low-relief mounds and swales

57
 Sedimentary structures
Lower plane beds (planar laminae)
Ripples
Dunes
Upper plane beds (also planar laminae)
Antidunes
See your handout

58
 Lower plane beds
Fine to coarse sand, low flow velocity
Sand grains like to make ripples
So this means a really slow velocity!

59
Lower plane beds

60
 Ripple marks
Fine silt to fine sand
Slow to fast flow velocity

61
Ripple
marks

62
 Dunes
Fine to coarse sand
Medium to high flow velocities
Sand loves to make dunes!

63
Modern Dunes

64
Ancient Dunes

65
 Upper planar beds (laminae)
Fine silt
High flow velocity
Hard to tell apart from lower planar beds
Use grain size

66
 Antidunes
Fine silt to coarse sand
High flow velocity
Rarely seen in rocks!

67
Antidunes

68
 Flow direction
You can tell which way the water was
flowing by looking at the structures,
even if the rock is millions of years old!

69
 Flow directions

You can also tell when water flow has

changed direction!
These structures are called crossbeds

70
Crossbeds

71
Crossbeds

72
 Sedimentology concepts

Sedimentary structures

Planar stratification is primarily the product of aggrading plane

beds
Cross stratification is formed by aggrading bedforms
Planar and trough cross stratification are the result of straight-
crested (2D) and linguoid (3D) bedforms, respectively
Small-scale cross stratification (current ripples)
Large-scale cross stratification (dunes)
Wave cross stratification (wave ripples)
Hummocky cross stratification (mounds and swales)
A single unit of cross-stratified material is known as a set; multiple
stacked sets of similar nature form co-sets

73