Hormones/Chemical Coordination

Hormones/Chemical Coordination
HORMONES/CHEMICAL COORDINATION
2.1 Types of hormonal glands and functions.
Q : Complete the following table
Gland Hormone Function

Inhibitory and Regulate the anterior
Releasing pituitary
Hormone
Released from
posterior pituitary
Oxytocin, Stimulates
contraction of uterus
ADH Promotes retention

of water
GH Growth and
metabolic function
Prolactin, Milk production
FSH Stimulates
production of ova
LH and sperm
Stimulates ovaries
1 HMM/SCM 1424, CFS, IIUM

and testes
TSH
Stimulate thyroid
ACTH gland
Stimulate adrenal
cortex to secrete
glucocorticoids
T3 and T4 Stimulate and
maintain metabolic
process
Calcitonin
Lowers blood
calcium level
PTH Raises blood calcium
level
Insulin Lowers blood

glucose level
Glucagon Raises blood glucose

level
Epinephrine & Raise blood glucose
Norepinephrine level,
Increase metabolic
activities, constrict
certain blood vessels
Glucocorticoids Raise blood glucose

level

Mineralocorticoids Promote
reabsorption of
sodium ion and
excretion of
potassium ion in
kidneys
2.1.1 Types of Hormones
 Hormones
 Diffuse into capillaries and transported by
the blood to target cells.
 e.g: insulin, glucagons
 Neurohormones
 Produced by neuroendocrine cells
 Diffuse into capillaries and transported by
the blood to the target cells.
 e.g: oxytocin and ADH
 Local regulators
 signaling molecule that diffuses through the
interstitial fluid and acts on nearby cells
Q: Name the two types of local regulators

regulation and explain with the aid of
diagrams.
• autocrine regulation
 hormone diffuses through the
interstitial fluid and acts on the very
cells that produce it

 e.g: female hormone estrogen
• paracrine regulation
 hormone diffuses through interstitial
fluid and act on nearby target cells
 e.g: prostaglandin
Q : List the three major classes of

molecules that function as hormones in
vertebrates.
 Protein (peptide) hormones : short chains

such as oxytocin and ADH and longer
chains such as growth hormone, TSH, and
neuropeptides.
 Amino acid derivatives :

Thyroid hormones, epinephrine, and
norepinephrine are amines

 Steroid hormones : cortisol, testosterone,

estrogens and progestone
Q: Compare and contrast the lipid soluble

molecule and water soluble.
Lipid soluble Water soluble

- hydrophobic - hydrophilic
- enter target cell - do not enter target
cell, only bind to cell-
surface receptors.
- E.g: steroid hormones - E.g: peptide hormones
2.2 Hormonal mechanisms
 Signaling by all hormones involves : reception,

signal transduction, and response.
 Reception - the signal molecule binds to a
specific receptor protein in or on the target cell.
 Binding of a signal molecule to a receptor
protein triggers signal transduction.
2.2.1 Non steroid hormones via activation of cyclic

AMP
 The receptors - embedded in the plasma

membrane.
 Cannot cross the plasma membrane  G
protein-linked receptors

Figure 45.3 (a)
 The hormone serves as the first messenger

and relays information to a second messenger.
 E.g of 2nd messenger: cAMP, DAG & IP3
Q: Discuss the water soluble

hormone mechanism

G protein-linked receptors
 G protein-linked receptors initiate signal

transduction
 G protein-linked receptors activate G
proteins in the plasma membrane.
 The activated G protein binds GTP; inactive
G protein binds GDP.
 The activated G protein activates adenylyl
cyclase.
 Adenylyl cyclase then catalyzes the
conversion of ATP to Cyclic AMP-

cAMP(common 2nd messenger).
 cAMP activates protein kinases.
 Protein kinases catalyze the
phosphorylation of a specific protein

 cAMP is rapidly inactivated and converted

to AMP
2.2.2 Mechanism of hormone action via gene

activation
 Eg. steroids, thyroid hormones, and the

hormonal form of vitamin D enter target cells
 Bind to protein receptors in the cytoplasm or
nucleus.
 All these hormones are small, nonpolar
molecules
 Transcription of specific genes
 mRNA produced in response to hormone
stimulation is translated into new protein

Figure 45.3 (b)

2.3 Invertebrate regulatory system
 Invertebrates produce a variety of hormones in

endocrine and neurosecretory cells.
 Some invertebrate hormones have homeostatic
functions, such as regulation of water balance.
 Others function in reproduction and
development.
Q: State the names of hormones involved

in the invertebrate regulatory system and
describe their functions.

Brain
Neurosecretory
cells
Brain Corpus
hormone (BH) cardiacum
Corpus
allatum
Low
Prothoracic JH
gland
Ecdysone Juvenile
hormone
(JH)
EARLY LATER
LARVA LARVA PUPA ADULT
Figure 45.15, pg : 960
 Brain hormone stimulates the release of

ecdysone from the prothoracic gland.
 Ecdysone promotes molting and the
development of adult characteristics.
 Juvenile hormone promotes the retention of
larval (juvenile) characteristics.

Q : What happens when the level of juvenile

hormone : (i) increases?
(ii) declines?
(i)High level of juvenile hormone -ecdysone

still stimulates molting, but the product is
simply a larger larva.
(ii) When the level of juvenile hormone declines
–ecdysone induced molting and produce a
pupa.
-Within the pupa, metamorphosis produces the
adult form.
Q : State the usage of synthetic juvenile

hormone.
 Synthetic juvenile hormone is used as
insecticide to prevent insects from maturing to
reproductive adults.
2.4 Plant Hormones
 Plant hormones help coordinate growth,

development, and responses to environmental
stimuli.
 Some of the major classes of plant hormones
include auxin, cytokinins, gibberellins,
brassinosteroids, abscisic acid, and ethylene.

2.4.1 Examples of plant hormones and

functions
Figure 39.1, pg : 794

Auxin
 The natural auxin occurring in plants is

indoleacetic acid, or IAA.
Q : Discuss the role of auxin in cell

elongation.
 The Role of Auxin in Cell Elongation (Refer

Figure 39.8, pg:795)
Figure 39.8
 Lateral and Adventitious Root Formation

 Auxin is involved in root formation and
branching

 Auxins as Herbicides
 An overdose of auxins can kill eudicots (flowering
plants/angiosperm)
Other Effects of Auxin

• Fruit growth and development
 Synthetic auxin used commercially for
development of fruit.
 Normally fruit will not develop without
fertilisation.
 After fertilization: ovule develops into
seeds, mature ovary becomes fruit.
 In certain plants, ovary has enough auxin
to promote partenocarpy (development of
fruit without fertilization) e.g. grapes,
pineapples.
Q: How does Auxin affects secondary growth ?

(i) inducing cell division in the vascular
cambium
(ii) influencing differentiation of
secondary xylem
Cytokinins
 Cytokinins are so named because they

stimulate cytokinesis (cell division)
Control of Cell Division and
Differentiation

 Produced in actively growing tissues such

as roots, embryos, and fruits
 Works together with auxin
Q : Discuss the function of cytokinin in

controlling of apical dominance.
 Cytokinins, auxin, and other factors
interact in the control of apical dominance
(a terminal bud’s ability to suppress
development of axillary buds)
(Refer Figure 39.9 (a) , (b), pg : 796)
 If the terminal bud is removed, plants
become bushier
Axillary buds “Stump” after

removal of
apical bud
Lateral branches
Intact plant Plant with apical bud removed

Figure 39.9
 Anti-Aging Effects
 Inhibiting protein breakdown
 Stimulating RNA and protein synthesis
 Mobilizing nutrients from surrounding
tissues
Gibberellins
 Gibberellins have a variety of effects : stem

elongation, fruit growth, and seed germination
 Stem Elongation
 Stimulate growth of leaves and stems
 In stems: stimulate cell elongation and cell
division
 Fruit Growth
 In many plants, both auxin and gibberellins
must be present for fruit to set
 Spraying of gibberellin during fruit
development - make the individual grapes
grow larger and the internodes of the
grape bunch elongate. (Refer Figure
39.10, pg : 797, The effect of gibberellin
treatment on Thompson seedless grapes)

• Enhances air circulation between the

grapes
• Harder for yeast/ other
microorganisms to infect the fruits.
Figure 39.10
 Germination
 Signals the seed to break dormancy and
germinate.
Brassinosteroids
 Chemically similar to cholesterol and the sex

hormones of animals.
 Induce cell elongation and cell division in stem
segments/seedlings at concentrations as low as
10−12 M.
 Retard leaf abscission and promote xylem
differentiation.
 Effects are quite similar to auxin

Abscisic Acid (ABA)
 Among its many effects are:

 Seed dormancy
 Drought tolerance
 Seed Dormancy
 Ensures that the seed will germinate only
in optimal conditions
 Precocious germination is observed in
maize mutants that whose effect of ABA is
blocked
 Drought Tolerance
 ABA - primary internal signal that enables
plants to withstand drought/accumulation
causes stomatal closure
Ethylene
 Plants produce ethylene in response to

stresses such as drought, flooding, mechanical
pressure, injury, and infection.

Q : With the aid of diagram in figure 39.13

below, briefly describe the triple response
of ethylene to mechanical stress.
Figure 39.13
 Ethylene induces the triple response,

which allows a growing shoot to avoid
obstacles
 The triple response consists of a slowing
of stem elongation, a thickening of the
stem, and horizontal growth
 Ethylene-insensitive mutants fail to

undergo the triple response after exposure
to ethylene

Fruit Ripening
 Burst of ethylene in a fruit triggers the
ripening process
 Enzymatic breakdown of cell wall
components softens the fruit/ conversion

of starches and acids to sugars makes the
fruit sweet.
 Production of new scents and colors -
advertise fruits’ ripeness to animals - eat

the fruits - disperse the seeds.
 Ethylene (gas) spreads from fruit to fruit.
 Fruits ripen quickly by storing the fruit in a

plastic bag- accumulating ethylene gas/
enhancing ethylene levels in commercial
production.
 Alternatively, to prevent premature
ripening, apples are stored in bins flushed

with carbon dioxide - prevents ethylene
from accumulating, inhibits the synthesis
of new ethylene.
 Apoptosis: Programmed Cell Death

 A burst of ethylene is associated with
apoptosis- programmed destruction of
cells, organs, or whole plants

 Leaf Abscission(loss of leaves)

 A change in the balance of auxin and
ethylene controls leaf abscission, the
process that occurs in autumn when a leaf
falls
2.4.2 Interaction between hormones
 For example, flooding of deepwater rice leads

to a 50-fold increase in internal ethylene and a
rapid increase in stem elongation.
 Flooding also leads to an increase in
sensitivity to GA (Gibbberellic acid) that is

mediated by a decrease in ABA levels.
Q : Explain the terms synergism and

antagonism in hormones interaction.Give
examples of the hormones involved.
Interaction between different hormone:

 Synergism
• Occurs when two or more plant
hormones interact to give a greater effect than the
sum of their individual actions.
• E.g: Auxin and Cytokinin
 Antagonism

• Two or more plant hormones may

interact to reduce each other’s effect
• E.g: ABA causes dormancy in bud,
Gibberellins breaks the dormancy
 Effect depend on:

 its concentration
 on the tissue being acted on
 on the developmental stage of the plant
2.4.3 Phytochromes and effect of light on flowering
 Phytochromes function as photoreceptors in many

plant responses to light.
 It consists of a protein covalently bonded to a
nonprotein part that functions as a chromophore,
the light-absorbing part of the molecule. (Refer
Figure 39.19, pg : 804, structure of a
phytochrome)

Figure 39.19
 The chromophore is photoreversible and

reverts back and forth between two isomeric forms
with one (Pr) absorbing red light and becoming (Pfr),
and the other (Pfr) absorbing far-red light and
becoming (Pr). (Refer Figure 39.20,pg : 804, a
molecular switching mechanism)
Pr Pfr
Red light
Responses:
Synthesis seed germination,
control of
flowering, etc.
Far-red
light
Slow conversion
in darkness Enzymatic
(some plants) destruction
Figure 39.20

 This interconversion between isomers acts as

a switching mechanism that controls various light-
induced events in the life of the plant.
Q : Phytochrome has 2 forms; Pr and Pfr.

Briefly explain the differences between
these two phytochrome in terms of the light
absorption capability.
 Phytochrome has 2 forms;

• Pr = red light-absorbing phytochrome,
strongly absorbs light with a relatively
short red wavelength (660 nm)
• Pfr = far-red light phytochrome, absorbs
light with a relatively long red wavelength
(730 nm)
(Refer Figure 36-5 page: 691, Solomon)
 The Pfr form triggers many of the plant’s

developmental responses to light.
 In darkness, the phytochrome ratio shifts
gradually in favor of the Pr form, in part from
synthesis of new Pr molecules and, in some

species, by slow biochemical conversion of Pfr to

Pr.
 When the sun rises, the Pfr level suddenly
increases by rapid photoconversion of Pr.
 This sudden increase in Pfr each day at dawn
resets the biological clock.
 A physiological response to photoperiod, such
as flowering, is called photoperiodism.
 A short-day plant, requires a dark period longer
than a critical period to flower.
 Examples include chrysanthemums,
poinsettias, and some soybean
varieties.
 Long-day plants will only flower when the dark
period is shorter than a critical period.
 Examples include spinach, iris, and
many cereals.
 Day-neutral plants will flower when they reach
a certain stage of maturity, regardless of day
length/night length
 Examples include tomatoes, rice, and
dandelions.
 It is night length, not day length, that controls
flowering and other responses to photoperiod.

Q : Figure 39.22 (a and b) shows the

photoperiodic control of flowering in
different plant types.
Darkness
Flash of
light
24 hours
Critical
dark
period
Light
“Short-day” plants “Long-day” plants
Figure 39.22, pg : 807

(i) Are plants in (a) and (b), a long day

(short night) plant or a short day
(long night) plant?
(a) : ___________________________
(b) : ___________________________
(ii) Explain your answers in (a) and (b).
Note : (a) – “Short-day” plants flowered only if

a period of continuous darkness was longer
than a critical dark period for that particular
species (13 hours in this example). A period of
darkness can be ended by a brief exposure to
light.
(b) – “Long-day” plants flowered only if a
period of continuous darkness was shorter
than a critical period for that particular
species (13 hours in this example)
 If a flash of red light during the dark period is

followed immediately by a flash of far-red light,
then the plant detects no interruption of night
length, demonstrating red/far-red
photoreversibility. (Refer Figure 39.23, pg : 807)

Figure 39.23
 The flowering signal, not yet chemically

identified, is called florigen, and it may be a
hormone or some change in the relative
concentrations of two or more hormones.
Verily! In the creation of the heavens and the earth, and in the alternation of night)
and day, and the ships which sail through the sea with that which is of use to
mankind, and the water( rain) which Allah sends down from the sky and makes the
earth alive therewith after its death, and the moving ( living) creatures of all kinds that
He has scattered therein, and in the veering of winds and clouds which are held
between the sky and the earth, are indeed (Ayat(proofs) evidences, signs,etc for
(people of understanding


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Hormones/Chemical Coordination

2.1 Types of hormonal glands and functions.

Q : Complete the following table

Gland Hormone Function

ADH Promotes retention

Prolactin, Milk production

1 HMM/SCM 1424, CFS, IIUM

Insulin Lowers blood

Glucagon Raises blood glucose

Glucocorticoids Raise blood glucose

2 HMM/SCM 1424, CFS, IIUM

2.1.1 Types of Hormones

Q: Name the two types of local regulators

3 HMM/SCM 1424, CFS, IIUM

 e.g: female hormone estrogen

Q : List the three major classes of

 Protein (peptide) hormones : short chains

 Amino acid derivatives :

4 HMM/SCM 1424, CFS, IIUM

 Steroid hormones : cortisol, testosterone,

Q: Compare and contrast the lipid soluble

Lipid soluble Water soluble

2.2 Hormonal mechanisms

 Signaling by all hormones involves : reception,

2.2.1 Non steroid hormones via activation of cyclic

 The receptors - embedded in the plasma

5 HMM/SCM 1424, CFS, IIUM

Figure 45.3 (a)

 The hormone serves as the first messenger

Q: Discuss the water soluble

6 HMM/SCM 1424, CFS, IIUM

 G protein-linked receptors initiate signal

conversion of ATP to Cyclic AMP-

phosphorylation of a specific protein

7 HMM/SCM 1424, CFS, IIUM

 cAMP is rapidly inactivated and converted

2.2.2 Mechanism of hormone action via gene

 Eg. steroids, thyroid hormones, and the

8 HMM/SCM 1424, CFS, IIUM

Figure 45.3 (b)

9 HMM/SCM 1424, CFS, IIUM

2.3 Invertebrate regulatory system

 Invertebrates produce a variety of hormones in

Q: State the names of hormones involved

10 HMM/SCM 1424, CFS, IIUM

Figure 45.15, pg : 960

 Brain hormone stimulates the release of

11 HMM/SCM 1424, CFS, IIUM

Q : What happens when the level of juvenile

(i)High level of juvenile hormone -ecdysone

Q : State the usage of synthetic juvenile

2.4 Plant Hormones

 Plant hormones help coordinate growth,

12 HMM/SCM 1424, CFS, IIUM

2.4.1 Examples of plant hormones and

Figure 39.1, pg : 794

13 HMM/SCM 1424, CFS, IIUM

 The natural auxin occurring in plants is

Q : Discuss the role of auxin in cell

 The Role of Auxin in Cell Elongation (Refer