Graphical Thermodynamics and Ideal Gas Power Cycles

GRAPHICAL
THERMODYNAMICS
AND IDEAL GAS
POWER CYCLES
GRAPHICAL
THERMODYNAMICS
AND IDEAL GAS
POWER CYCLES
IDEAL GAS THERMODYNAMICS IN BRIEF
MOUFID I. HELAL
Graphical Thermodynamics and Ideal Gas Power Cycles: Ideal Gas
Thermodynamics in Brief
Copyright Momentum Press, LLC, 2017.
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

in a retrieval system, or transmitted in any form or by any means
electronic, mechanical, photocopy, recording, or any otherexcept for
brief quotations, not to exceed 250 words, without the prior permission of
the publisher.
First published in 2017 by

Momentum Press, LLC
222 East 46th Street, New York, NY 10017
www.momentumpress.net
ISBN-13: 978-1-60650-506-9 (print)

ISBN-13: 978-1-60650-507-6 (e-book)
Momentum Press Thermal Science and Energy Engineering Collection
Cover and interior design by S4Carlisle Publishing Service Private Ltd.

Chennai, India
10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1
Printed in the United States of America

ABSTRACT
In this book, an almost new approach to modern thermodynamics has been

applied. One or more useful qualitative discussion statements have been
extracted from each equation. These and other important statements were
numbered and their titles were situated in an index entitled Helal and
Others statements, definitions and rules. This ensures very quick obtain-
ing of the required (for discussing and solving problems) statements, rules,
definitions, equations, and their theoretical base that much eases readers
qualitative discussions and calculations. Almost all ideal gas closed
system thermodynamic topics are either discussed in depth or deeply
abbreviated. The topics discussed in depth are either new original ones or
valuable classical ones that increase readers ability for better understand-
ing but are overlooked or deeply abbreviated in modern thermodynamic
books. In both cases, they are significantly improved. The main five new
ideas that are discussed in depth in this book are: (1) The ideal gas
polytropic process for Cv = f(T) and its analysis (Chapter 6, Part I), (2) The
theoretical realization of reversible gas state change processes ( 5-10),
(3) Helal cycle (s 7-5-2), (4) Helal graphical method for comparing and
discussing power cycles ( 7-5-4), and (5) the imperfection in the classical
proof of Carnots efficiency (theorem) and its exclusion (Chapter 7, final
section). The deeply abbreviated topics are rigorously discussed in depth
in the majority of modern thermodynamic books. To dissipate any misun-
derstanding, the equations and statements that can be misunderstood are
followed by explanatory sentences (see equation 1-38 and the paragraph
following it).
KEYWORDS
absolutely reversible cycle; Carnot; Carnots efficiency; closed thermody-

namic system; cycles ability for heat regeneration; the equivalent
vi ABSTRACT
thermodynamic cycles; Ericsson and Dual cycles; Helal air standard cycle;
Helal method; heat regeneration; ideal gas property tables; the imperfec-
tion in the classical proof of Carnots efficiency (theorem) and its exclu-
sion; a new, polytropic ideal gas state change process; polytropic state
change process; the regeneratability condition; reversible cycle recogniz-
ing thermodynamic properties; second law of thermodynamics; Stirling
cycle; the theoretical realization of reversible gas state change processes;
thermal efficiency.
CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES XV
LIST OF TABLES XIX
PREFACE XXI
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS XXV
NOMENCLATURE XXVII
1. BASIC CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS 1

1.1 Unit Systems 1
1.1.1 Introduction 1
1.1.2 The International System of Units 2
1.1.2.1 Deriving some secondary units from
the primary ones 5
1.1.3 The U.S. customary system (also known as
the English system) 6
1.1.4 The technical unit system 6
1.1.5 Force and mass main units conversions 7
1.1.6 Weight of a body 8
1.1.7 Pressure units 8
1.1.8 Others definitions 9
1.1.9 Energy units 10
1.1.10 Temperature units 12
1.1.11 About dimensions units in the calculating
equations 15
1.2 Calculations and Discussions in Thermodynamics 17
1.2.1 Calculating the area under a plane curve 20
1.2.1.1 Graphical calculation of the area
under y = f(x) curve 34
viii CONTENTS
1.2.1.2 Analytical calculation of the

area under y = f(x) curve 38
1.2.1.3 Tabular calculation of the
area under y = f(x) curve 39
1.2.2 Tabular determination of y-value versus a
given x-value 40
1.2.3 Difference between two functions of the
same variable 42
1.3 Summary 48
Chapter Endnotes 49
2. THE WORKING FLUID AND ITS BASIC PROPERTIES 51
2.1 Energy and Its Transformations 51
2.1.2 Types of energy 51
2.1.3 Energy transformation 52
2.2 The Heat Engine 52
2.3 The Process of Transforming Thermal Energy into
Mechanical in Heat Engines 55
2.3.1 Internal combustion engines (in the broad sense) 56
2.3.2 External combustion engines 58
2.4 Basic Concepts and Definitions 58
2.4.2 The pure substance and its molecules 58
2.4.3 Intermolecular Forces 65
2.4.4 The ideal and real gas subphases 65
2.4.5 The thermodynamic system (the system) 67
2.4.5.1 Introduction 67
2.4.5.2 Types of thermodynamic systems 67
2.4.6 Introduction to the kinetic-molecular theory 69
2.4.7 The state of a gas 70
2.4.7.1 The definition of the state of a system 71
2.4.7.2 The equilibrium state 74
2.4.7.3 Some state properties 75
2.4.8 Modes of Work 78
CONTENTS ix
2.4.9 The Simple Compressible Substance and

the Simple Compressible System 78
2.4.10 The State Change Processes of a System (Gas) 80
2.4.11 The thermodynamic cycle 80
2.4.12 The equilibrium process and the conditions
to realize it 81
2.4.12.1 The equilibrium process 81
2.4.12.2 The conditions for achieving
an equilibrium (quasi-equilibrium)
process 82
2.4.12.3 The minimum required number of
MRs to achieve an equilibrium
(quasi-equilibrium) WF state
change process 84
2.4.13 The reversible process and the conditions
to realize it 85
2.4.13.1 The definitions of the reversible
process 85
2.4.13.2 The practiced in thermodynamics
conditions for achieving a reversible
process 86
2.4.13.3 Irreversible processes 87
2.4.13.4 The internally reversible processes 88
2.5 Ideal-Gas Laws 89
2.5.2 Ideal-gas equation of state
(Clapeyron equation) ABR 90
2.5.3 Avogadros law 92
2.5.3.1 Others statements (OSs) 92
2.6 Ideal-Gas Mixtures 94
2.6.1 The laws of ideal-gas mixtures that can
be derived on the basis of the kinetic
molecular theory 95
2.6.1.1 Daltons law 96
2.6.1.2 Amagats law 96
2.6.2 Gas mixture composition 96
x CONTENTS
2.7 The Boundary Work Calculation 99

2.8 Recognizing Thermodynamic Properties 101
2.9 A Brief Overview of the Properties of Real Gases 103
Conclusions 104
2.10 Summary 104
Chapter Endnotes 106
3. THE FIRST LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 109
3.1 Heat Transfer Calculations During Gas State
Change Processes 109
3.1.1 The specific transferred heat and the
specific heat 109
3.1.1.1 Basic definitions and relations 109
3.1.2 The caloric intensive properties 113
3.1.2.1 Internal energy 114
3.1.2.2 Enthalpy 120
3.1.2.3 Ideal gas entropy 121
3.1.3 The graphical representation of the gas state
and of the gas state change processes) 129
3.1.4 General form equations for calculating the
boundary work and transferred heat 130
3.1.5 Some of the rules, definitions, and notes,
mainly used in this book, that simplify the
graphical calculations and discussions 131
3.1.6 The determination of the specific heats of gases 139
3.1.6.1 The experimental determination
of the specific heats of ideal gases 139
3.1.6.2 The theoretical determination of the
specific heats of ideal gases 141
3.1.7 Calculating the transferred heat during
physical ideal gas state change processes 144
3.1.7.1 The pure analytical calculations
of the transferred heat during physical
ideal gas state change processes 146
CONTENTS xi
3.1.7.2 About the bad effect of abbreviating

the calculating equations by cutting
off their higher-degree terms 150
3.1.7.3 Some additional analyses on
Equations (3-36) 152
3.1.7.4 The tabular calculations of the
transferred heat during physical
3.1.7.5 The almost exact (highly accurate)
calculation of the transferred heat 156
3.1.7.6 The approximate calculations of
the transferred heat during physical
3.1.8 The specific heat of a mixture 161
3.2 About Heat Transfer Calculations for Chemical State
Change Processes of a Gas 162
3.3 The zeroth law of thermodynamics 164
3.4 The conservation of energy principle. The first law
of thermodynamics 165
3.4.2 The first law forms 165
3.5 The analytical expression for the first law of
thermodynamics 166
3.6 Summary 168
4. CALCULATIONS OF IDEAL GAS PHYSICAL STATE CHANGE
PROCESSES IN CLOSED SYSTEMS (PART I) 173
4.1 Introduction 173
4.2 The Special Cases of the Gas State Change Processes and
Their Representation on Property Diagrams 173
4.3 The Special Cases of the First Law of Thermodynamics
for Any Gas 177
4.3.1 The first law of thermodynamics for the
isochoric process 177
isobaric process 178
xii CONTENTS
4.3.3 The first law of thermodynamics for the adiabatic

process 179
isothermal process 179
4.3.5 The first law of thermodynamics for the closed
process 180
4.4 Calculating the Ideal Gas Internal Energy and
Enthalpy Changes 181
4.4.1 Calculating the ideal gas internal energy change 181
4.4.2 Calculating the ideal gas enthalpy change 182
4.5 The First Law of Thermodynamics for Ideal Gases 184
4.5.1 The first law of thermodynamics for ideal
gas isothermal process 185
4.6 The Meyer Equation 186
4.7 Summary 187
5. THE SECOND LAW OF THERMODYNAMICS 189
5.1 Introduction 189
5.2 The Observed Phenomena Associated with the Thermal
Mechanical Transformations 190
5.2.1 Phenomena associated with the transformation
of heat energy into mechanical energy 190
5.2.1.1 Types of heat engines in terms of
their ability to operate continuously 190
5.2.1.2 The cyclic (periodical) operating
engine 191
5.2.1.3 The no-COE 191
5.2.2 Phenomena associated with the transformation
of mechanical energy into thermal energy 192
5.2.3 Phenomena associated with the heat transfer
when two objects (hot and cold) are contacted 192
5.3 The Second Law of Thermodynamics 192
5.4 The Thermodynamic Cycle 196
5.4.1 The direct thermodynamic (power) cycle 197
5.4.2 The reverse thermodynamic cycle 199
5.4.3 Notes about thermodynamic cycles and
cyclic operating machines 200
CONTENTS xiii
5.4.4 Evaluating thermodynamic cycles 204

5.4.4.1 Evaluating engine cycles
(the direct cycles) 206
5.4.5 The equipollent thermodynamic cycles 211
5.5 The Carnot Cycle 212
5.6 The Reverse Carnot Cycle 217
5.7 Introduction to Carnot Theorem (Existing
Formulations of Carnot Theory) 224
5.8 Entropy 225
5.9 Heat Regeneration 236
5.9.1 Basic Concepts and Definitions 237
5.9.1.1 The regeneratable cycle 237
5.9.1.2 The fully reversible regeneratable
cycle 237
5.9.1.3 The regenerative cycle 238
5.9.1.4 The nonregenerative cycle 238
5.9.1.5 The nonregeneratable cycle 238
5.9.2 The heat regenerator 238
5.9.3 About cycles ability for heat regeneration 240
5.9.3.1 The regeneratability condition 240
5.9.3.2 Discussing the regeneratability of some
direct thermodynamic cycles 240
5.10 About the Theoretical Realization of Reversible
Gas State Change Processes: In brief (The full
analysis in the second volume) 243
5.10.2 About the imaginary models in
thermodynamics 244
5.10.3 The traditional/classical model/method for
realizing a reversible process 244
5.11 Summary 252
ABOUT THE AUTHOR 257
INDEX 261
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1. Multiequation curves 19

Figure 1.1a. A smooth triequation curve 19
Figure 1.2. The open smooth curve (1-a-2), closed (1'-b-2'),
and more than closed (1"-c-2") simple curves 20
Figure 1.3. A schematic for calculating the area under a curve 21
Figure 1.4. A schematic for determining the areas under curves 25
Figure 1.5. Curves points 1, 3, 5, 7, 10, 12, 17, and 15 are
specified by both (y = o) and (dx = o) 27
Figure 1.6. 1) Transforming the no compact graph into a
compact one. 2) Approximating the unnumbered,
smooth, and dotted curve by a numbered refract-
ed line that consists of continuous straight line
segments 34
Figure 1.7. The graphical interpolation and extrapolation of
the tabular data of a plane curve. 40
Figure 1.8. The twin curves 43
Figure 2.1. The working principle of a heat engine 54
Figure 2.2. Types of heat engines 56
Figure 2.3. Nomenclature for the pistoncylinder arrange-
ment of the internal combustion engine 57
Figure 2.3A. A schematic for the relationship between the IF
and the ID in a pure substance. Curves part that
located above ID axis is characterized by RTF>0
belongs to the repulsive IF, whereas the other
part that characterized by RTF<0 belongs to the
attractive IF and therefore, the minimum of the
IF/RIF curve is the maximum of the AIF one 64
xvi LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 2.4. A schematic for a system (gas) and its boundary 67

Figure 2.5. The classification on the basis of the properties
of system boundaries 68
Figure 2.6. The CG of the system (Gas) superposes with
the centre (C) of the double-pistoncylinder
arrangement regardless of pistons movement 69
Figure 2.7. Numbering the distinguished points of a
process path 80
Figure 2.8. Executing an equilibrium/quasi-equilibrium dual-
directional WF heat exchange process 1234
5, using heat insulations and one MR. Partial
processes 123 and 345 (in sub-figure C) are
WF heat exporting and
importing ones, respectively 83
Figure 2.9. A schematic of four different temperatures
isotherms/for the same real gas in pv_p diagram.
All isotherms of any ideal gas in pv_p diagram
are straight horizontal lines 104
Figure 3.1. The equilibrium gas state change
process in the space coordinate system p_v_T 129
Figure 3.2. Expansion processes in p_v plane coordinates 130
Figure 3.3. Compression processes in p_v plane coordinates 130
Figure 3.4. The two figures represented here do not belong
to the same process 132
Figure 3.5. Some cycles characteristic points in T_s dia-
gram 138
Figure 3.6. The experimental SH curve (A_B_C), its linear
(3_4), and c=constant (line 1_2)
approximations 150
Figure 3.7. Deriving Equation (3-53) 166
Figure 4.1. Representing the isochoric process on diagrams.
Diagrams (A and B) are valid for all cases 174
Figure 4.2. Representing the isobaric process on diagrams.
LIST OF FIGURES xvii
Figure 4.3. Representing the isothermal process on diagrams.

Figure 4.4. Representing the isentropic process on diagrams.
Figure 5.1. Direct and indirect thermodynamic cycles in p_v
and T_s diagrams 198
Figure 5.2. The volumetric specific work 199
Figure 5.3. A schematic showing all kinds of bodies that can
participate in executing a thermodynamic cycle 200
Figure 5.3a. A schematic showing all kinds of bodies that can
participate in executing a thermodynamic cycle 209
Figure 5.4. The Carnot cycle 213
Figure 5.5. The Carnot cycle in T_s diagram 216
Figure 5.6. The reverse Carnot cycle 218
Figure 5.7. The reverse Carnot cycle In T_s diagram 220
Figure 5.7A. Carnot cycles that share the same temperature
extremes (Tmax and Tmin). JIV is the only reverse
cycle 223
Figure 5.8. The set of partial cycles resulted from slicing a
reversible cycle using reversible adiabates is
equivalent to the original cycle. If the number of
the slicing adiabates is huge, the slices become
elementary Carnot cycles 227
Figure 5.9. Two reversible cycles sharing the process 2-3-1 233
Figure 5.10. A common case closed equilibrium (reversible)
cycle in T_s diagram 235
Figure 5.11. The ideal heat regenerator 239
Figure 5.12. Cycles ability for heat regeneration 241
Figure 5.13. Replacing smooth process (cycles) curve by/for
a similar to stairs refracted line consisting of dif-
ferential/nondifferential isotherms and isentrops 245
Figure 5.14. The heavy-weight lines are used for the perime-
ters of the original and replacing cycles and the
medium-weight ones for the common borders
between elementary Carnot cycles 248
xviii LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 5.15. Some possible sketches (AD) for understanding

and deriving the heat balance RHB of heat reser-
Tij
voir RTij that serves the complicated dual mini-

part ij of a complicated AR cycle (see HD5-1 and
HD5-5). The sketches are drawn for the case
when the cycle consists of one dual mini-part,
otherwise the upper (45) and lower (89, 1213
and 161) heavy-weight lines must disappear 249
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1.1. Standard prefixes in SI and technical units 2

Table 1.2. Comparison of temperature scales 13
Table 2.1. Obtaining equation (A) using cross-multiplication 71
Table 3.1. The experimental function Mcp = f(T) for the carbon
monoxide 139
Table 3.2. kmole
The values C = MR ( / T ) e/T
2
(e/T 1)
kJ K
2
145
Table 3.3. The average volumetric SHs (the nonlinear rela-
tionship) at constant pressure
b e
c ' pavg = a + t + t 2
2 3 153
Table 3.4. The average SHs for gases (from 0 to 1,500C)
and the linear relationship 159
Table 3.5. Molar specific heats at constant volume and at con-
stant pressure for gases (according to the KMT) 161
Table 3.6. Molar specific heats at constant volume and at
constant pressure for gases. (The experimental
constant specific 161
Table 3.7. Some higher and lower heating values 163
Table 5.1. The current equivalents for the new symbols of
the introduced new cycles heats 203
PREFACE
This book Graphical Thermodynamics and Ideal Gas Power Cycles is

based on authors book in Arabic Technical Thermodynamics, Volume 1,
Third Edition, Second Revision, Published in 2006 by Damascus Univer-
sity Press-Damascus University in Damascus-Syrian Arab Republic. We
will refer to this book as the base book.
The base book discusses in depth many topics including the following
five original topics in addition to a number of traditional topics that are
useful for better understanding thermodynamics and that are rarely met in
modern thermodynamics:
1. The analysis of the ideal gas polytropic process for Cv = f (T ):

A new analysis making possible executing exact solutions of the
polytropic process problems by using the already existing ideal gas
property tables.
2. The theoretical realization of reversible gas state change processes:
This topic consists of two parts: (1) the first part is traditional, but
it was not successfully explained, and it does not exist in modern
books. This part enables better understanding of concepts relating
to equilibrium and reversibility. (2) The second part is new and
original. It enables best understanding of concepts relating to equi-
librium, reversibility, irreversibility, ability for heat regeneration,
and so on.
3. Helal graphical method for comparing heat engine cycles. This
method is more flexible and inclusive than the previous methods.
It allows to examine qualitatively the influence of cycles charac-
teristics (r, rp, and rc) on the thermal efficiency of the dual cycle
and enables additionally better understanding of T_s diagram.
4. Helal cycle (a new common case ideal gas ideal thermodynamic
cycle): Five of its seven special case cycles have counterparts in
reality. These are the Carnot, Otto, Brayton, Stirling, and Ericsson
cycles.
xxii PREFACE
5. Detecting and excluding the imperfection in the classical proof of

Carnots efficiency (theorem): The classical proof of the Carnot
efficiency (theorem) is imperfect. It did not prove that the arbitrary
reversible cycle used in the proof represents all ever possible
engine cycles.
In the base book and especially in its new original topics, an almost
new approach was applied. One or more statements, which are useful for
qualitative discussions, were extracted from each equation. These state-
ments were numbered as rules or definitions, and their titles were situated
in a special index entitled Helal definitions and rules. This ensured the
quick finding of the required (for discussing and solving problems) rules,
definitions, equations, and their theoretical base. The reduction in the
required time and efforts to find the necessary tools for discussing and
solving problems comforts the readers and eases their efforts. In this book:
1. The new approach that is partially applied in the base book is ap-
plied in the whole book. One or more statements, which are useful
for qualitative discussions, were extracted from each equation.
These and other important statements were numbered as rules or
definitions, and their titles were situated in a special index entitled
Helal and Others statements, definitions, and rules. This will
ensure the very quick finding of the required (for discussing and
solving problems) statements, rules, definitions, equations, and
their theoretical base. The reduction in the required time and
efforts to find the necessary tools for discussing and solving prob-
lems comforts the readers and eases their efforts. According to my
experience, it will be much easier to the reader to use the rules
instead of relations in qualitative discussions. Readers will benefit
from the following: (1) Helal and others statements, definitions,
and rules, which will be included in the appendix, (2) the new
topics, and (3) some traditional topics that are unusually explained.
2. Almost all ideal gas closed system thermodynamic topics are
either discussed in depth or deeply abbreviated. (1) The topics dis-
cussed in depth are either new original ones that are based on the
base book or valuable classical ones that increase readers ability
for better understanding but are overlooked or deeply abbreviated
in modern thermodynamic books. And in both cases, they are
significantly/gregariously improved. (2) The deeply abbreviated
topics are significantly/gregariously discussed in depth in the ma-
jority of modern thermodynamic books. The following main new
PREFACE xxiii
ideas that were discussed in the base book are discussed here in
depth: (1) the analysis of the ideal gas polytropic process for
Cv = f(T), (2) the theoretical realization of reversible gas state
change processes, (3) Helal graphical method for comparing heat
engines cycles, (4) Helal cycle, and (5) detecting and excluding
the imperfection in the classical proof of Carnots efficiency
(theorem).
3. The equation editor was used for writing equations and some other
symbols. This forced the author to change some symbols by oth-
ers. For example:
The short dash (-) does not exist in the equation editor and the
trail to write (1 foot-pound force = 1 ft-lbf) gave
(1 foot pound force = 1 ft lbf ). Therefore, the short dash
that appeared as minus sign was replaced by the multiplying
sign () and the former equation appeared as
(1 foot pound force = 1 ft lbf ), which is much logical and
never be wrongly understood. The ftlbf is a perfect abbrevia-
tion for the foot-pound force because it shows (see Equation
1-25) that this unit is the product of multiplying one foot (ft)
by one pound force (lbf). Thus, in this book (see Equations 1-19
and 1-25), the sign ( ) is used as (1) a multiplying sign and
(2) a connection in the abbreviations of compound units'
names.
To uniform the abbreviations of all compound units through-
out this book, the usage of () sign as mentioned above is also
applied on SI units.
4. The following six signs are used as multiplication (, *, ) and di-

vision (, /, & ) signs:
Two signs ( and ) are mostly used as multiplication signs.

The first sign () is used only between a symbol and a digit
number (see Equation 1-14), while the other one () is used
between words or between symbols (see Equation 1-12). An-
other example is the Newton meter that is usually abbreviated
as Nm. It is abbreviated here as Nm. The Newton meter is the
product of multiplying one Newton by one meter (see the last
side of Equation 1-25).
Three signs (, /, and ) can be used for division. The first two
ones provide that each of the numerator and denominator must
xxiv PREFACE
be either simple or included between one or more types of

brackets. No requirements are needed when using the third
sign and when it is used in units no space or brackets (see
Equations B and 1-37), but they usually occupy more place.
(They are higher and shorter than the former ones, the thing
which is absent in the former equations.)
5. To dissipate any misunderstanding, the equations and statements

that can be misunderstood are followed by explanatory sentences
(see Equation 1-38 and the paragraph following it).
6. If a multi-subfigures figure is mainly used within a paragraph, we, at
the beginning of the paragraph, remind that in this paragraph this fig-
ure is the main reference and then we refer to its subfigures directly.
7. It has been practiced in many references to differentiate between
dimensions (or their numerical values) and their units by any
type of brackets such as T [ R ] = 1.8 T [ K ], separating by a space
such as T R = 1.8 T K , or skipping the temperature symbol
such as R = 1.8 K . We mostly use the separation by a space
(see Equation 1-8).
8. The equations in this book are of three categories: (1) Equations to
which you never need to refer to (they are unnumbered), (2) equa-
tions, which are locally (in a particular paragraph or example) used
and are unexpected to be referred to in other parts of the book or
outside it (their numbers do not denote to the paragraph or chapter
numbers), and (3) equations to be referred to anytime. With ignoring
the existence of the unnumbered and locally numbered equations,
the equations of each chapter are sequentially numbered (the number
of each equation of this category is composed of chapters number
followed by the sequential number of the equation within the chapter
e.g., the numbers of the equations of the first chapter of this book
starting from the first numbered equations upto paragraph (1-2) are
(A, B, B1, C, D and D) that belong to example (1-1) and its notes
followed by equations (1-1 through 1-8, 1-8a, 1-8b, 1-8c, 1-9
through 1-17, 1-17a, 1-18 through 1-30, 1-30a, 1-31, 1-32, 1-33, (A,
B, C, A', B', C', D), that belong to paragraph (1-1-11) and example
(1-2). To refer to a locally numbered equation we need to denote
each of its number and the number of the paragraph or example to
which it belongs. For example, (see equation B of 1-1-11).
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
I thank (1) The University of Damascus for providing the fellowship for
the research and for the circumstances that allowed writing my books; (2)
my daughter Rana and her husband Dr. Hanna Habash, for the hospitality
and for providing and securing all the requirements for preparing the
manuscript of this book; (3) The Momentum press team and especially Mr.
Joel Stein, for his support and patience; (4) my former student in the
University of Damascus, and todays friend, Dikran Babikian, PhD, for
his help in finding the publisher and for his continuous help and support;
(5) my wife Amira, who looked after me and let me concentrate on creat-
ing the manuscript of this book.
NOMENCLATURE
Symbol Name Unit

a Acceleration m/s2
A Area, the heat equivalent of work m2
Ar The relative atomic mass (atomic
weight)
B Barometric or absolute pressure Pa = N/m2
C Heat capacity, tabulated in Table kJ/K
3-4 function
c, Mc or c , c' Specific heat, molar specific heat, kJ/(kg K),
volumetric specific heat kJ/(kmol K),
kJ/(m3 K)
c p , Mcp or Constant-pressure specific heats kJ/(kg K),
cp ,
(mass, kilomolar and volumetric) kJ/(kmol K),
c'p kJ/(m3 K)
cv , Mcv or c , Constant-volume specific heats kJ/(kg K),
v
(mass and kilomolar and volu- kJ/(kmol K),
cv' metric) kJ/(m3 K)
cv 0 and c p 0 Zero-pressure (ideal-gas) con- kJ/(kg K)
stant-volume and constant-
pressure specific heats
cn Polytropic-process specific heat kJ/(kg K)
ct Constant-temperature specific heat
C The mean squared speed of the m/s2
straight movement of the mole-
cules
Da Daltonthe unified atomic mass
unit
F Force N
G Weight N
xxviii NOMENCLATURE
Symbol Name Unit

g, g n , g k Gravitational acceleration, normal m/s , m/s2, ---
2
gravitational acceleration, mass

portion
H, h, Mh, or h Enthalpy (total, specific, kilomo- kJ, kJ/kg,
lar/per kilomole) kJ/kmol
E, e, Me, or Energy (total, specific, kilomo- J, J/(kg, J/\mol
lar/per kilomole) or J/m3)
KE , ke, ke Kinetic energy (total, specific, J, J/(kg, J/\mol
kilomolar) or J/m3)
K The number of kilomoles of the kmole1
total quantity, Kelvin
k Specific heat ratio (isentropic ex- No unit; N/m2
ponent) k = (c p / c v) ; Boltz-
mann constant
M, m The mass (molar, total) kg/kmol, kg
Mr The relative molar mass -
Mu The molar mass constant g/mol,
kg/kmol
mm The molecular mass Da
NA Avogadro's number/constant Mole1
n Polytropic exponent; normal con-

ditions
p Pressure (absolute pressure) Pa = N/m2
pabs, pg Absolute pressure, gage pressure N/m2
pk , pmix , pv Partial pressure, mixtures pres- N/m2
sure, VACUUM pressure
Q, q, ( or q ) Transferred heat (total, specific, kJ, kJ/kg, and
kilomolar) kJ/kmol
Mr (M.W. or The relative molar mass (molecu-
F.W.) lar weight or formula weight)
MR or R or Universal gas constant, gas con- kJ/kg K,
stant kJ/kmol K
Ru, R
r, rc , rk and The compression ratio, the com-
rp pression ratio, the volumetric
portion, and the pressure ratio
NOMENCLATURE xxix
Symbol Name Unit

S, s, Ms Specific entropy (total, specific, kJ/K, kJ/(kg K)
kilomolar)
sv, sp, s Standard entropies (tabular entro- kJ/(kg K)
py temperature functions )
T, t absolute temperature, nonabsolute K, C
temperature
U, u, Mu or Internal energy (total, specific, J, J/kg
kilomolar)
V, v, Mv or Volume (total, specific, and kilo- m3, m3/kg,
molar) m3/kmol
Velocity
W, w, Mw Work, specific work J, J/(kg, J/\mol
or J/m3)
Wb, wb Boundary work (total, specific) J, J/(kg, J/\mol
or J/m3)
zk The molar portion
The inexact differential sign
Heat portion spent to change the
internal energy of gas in the
polytropic process
Specific weight N/m3
Density kg/m3
The regeneration ratio (or the
regenerator effectiveness )
= Q R / Q Rmax =
Angular speed/velocity 1/s
, ', The lower heating value (specific MJ/kg, MJ/m3,
per unit mass, volumetric per MJ/kmole
unit volume, kilomolar per
kmole)
o
Lo , 'oL , L The lower heating value opera- MJ/kg, MJ/m3,
tive mass (per unit mass, per MJ/kmole
unit volume, per kmole)
t
Thermal efficiency
xxx NOMENCLATURE
SUBSCRIPTS
AvgAverage
CtCarnot cycle
igideal gas
kpartial
mixmixture
nnormal
rgreal gas
tottotal
ABBREVIATIONS
AR cycleAbsolutely reversible cycle

CPThe constant part
cycleDPPEDivided into pure processes exclusively
HTSHeat transfer surface
ID or rIntermolecular distance
IFIntermolecular force
IPEIntermolecular potential energy
DPPEcycleDivided into pure processes exclusively
KSKnown/fixed state
MCMaster/configuration curve
MKEMolecular kinetic (thermal) energy
MRmini heat reservoir
NPIGPNew-polytropic ideal gas state change process
NTPNormal temperature and pressure also known as normal
conditions
RCReversible thermodynamic cycle
RDCCsReversible differential Carnot cycles
SHCThe specific heat capacity
SNPSame number points
STHThe specific transferred heat
TDTsTemperature-dependent terms
TITTemperature-independent (constant) term
WFWorking fluid
CHAPTER 1
BASIC CONCEPTS AND

DEFINITIONS
1.1 UNIT SYSTEMS
1.1.1 INTRODUCTION
In physics, we deal with so-called dimensions. According to Others Defi-

nitions (ODs):
OD1-1: A dimension (physical characteristic), such as length, time, or

mass, has certain measurement units that are related to each other in
one way or another. The expression of a dimension must include its
numerical and unit parts. Therefore, we can say
this pencil is about 15 centimeters (cm) or 6 inches (in.) length,
L 15 cm 6 in., or
the length of this pencil in centimeters is about 15 and in inches
about 6 Lcm = L [cm] 15 or Lin. = L [in.] 6.
The first (direct) expression is most common, but the second (indi-
rect) expression is used especially in temperature conversions.
Some of dimensions units (a unit for each dimension) are represented
in the unit system and belong to the unit system, whereas others do not.
Note number 1-1 (Nt1-1): The expressions as used above are nonalgebraic
ones because they include two equality signs each. They are equations
with double equal signs. To ease referring to similar to them equations, the
following terms are used in this book (1) the side of the equation for each
of equations expression that bordered by one or two equality sign(s),
2 GRAPHICAL THERMODYNAMICS
(2) the multi equal-sign/side equation abbreviation multi equation or

simply equation for the whole equation and (3) the kth side of the equa-
tion for the side No k, where k is sides sequential number from the left.
The extreme sides keep additionally their traditional names (left and right
sides). Thus, if the total number of equations sides is n, we can refer to its
left side as equations first or left side and to its right side as equations
right, last, or nth side.
Table 1.1. Standard prefixes in SI and technical units
Multiple Prefix and its Multiple Prefix and its

abbreviation abbreviation
101 Deci (d) 1012 Tera (T)
102 Centi (c) 109 Giga (G)
103 Milli (m) 106 Mega (M)
106 Micro () 103 Kilo (k)
109 Nano (n) 102 Hecto (h)
1012 Pico (p) 10 Deka (da)
1.1.2 THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS
It is also known as metric SI (from Le Systme International d Units)

and is the unit system that agreed to be applied all over the world. SI is the
system that is used in this book. Its dimensions are classified into two
groups: (1) the primary (fundamental) dimensions and (2) the secondary
dimensions. It is most important to know the units of the primary dimen-
sions because, as we shall see later, any secondary unit can be derived
from the primary ones, but we cannot name and symbolize it. The current
fundamental units of the metric SI are meter (m) for length (l), kilogram
(kg) for mass (m), second (s) for time (t), ampere (A) for electric current,
the kelvin (K) for temperature (T), candela (cd) for luminous intensity
(amount of light), and mole (mol) for the amount of matter. The multiples
and divisors of SI units form the major part of the units that do not
belong to it (they are outside it or relative to it).
The metric SI is simple and logical because the relationship between
any of SI units and its standard multiples (or divisibles) is a decimal (see
Table 1-1).
To simplify extracting notes and rules at the end of 1.1, the follow-
ing unit conversions are explained in detail. Let us first solve and discuss
the following example.
BASIC CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS 3
Example 1-1
Calculate the uniform velocity (in two different units SI and another
unit) of an object that displaced for 5 hectometers (hm) during
2 minutes. Determine also the conversion factor between these two units.
Solution
The uniform velocity ( ) equation is
= ( X ) / t = X / t (A)
Where X is the displacement and t is the elapsed time.
1) Substituting the given values in Equation (A) and considering Table

1-1, we obtain
X 5 hm 5 hm 5 hm hm
= = = = = 2.5
t 2 min 2 min 2 min min
5 100 m 500 m m
= = 4.1667 (B)
2 60 s 120 s s
Or = 2.5 hm/ min 4.1667 m/s. (B1)
2) From the second and third sides of Equation (B1), we obtain the
conversion factor between hm/min and m/s
1 hm/min 1.667m/s (C)
The extracted from Example (1-1) notes (Nt) and rules (OR) or (HR)
are stated below have been provided in the following.
Nt1-1A: The unit hm/min is not practiced and does not belong to any
of existing unit systems.
Nt1-2: The unit m/s belongs to each of the metric SI and to the intro-
duced later technical system of units.
Nt1-3: During calculations, we dealt with the given dimensions as if a
multiplication sign () existed between (1) the numerical and unit parts
of each dimension and (2) the base unit and its prefix (see Equation B).
These signs always exist, but they are not visualized. If we denote
dimension A by A and its numerical and unit parts by AN and AU,
respectively, then we can write
A = AN AU (D)
Applying Equation (D) in Equation (A), we obtain
N U = X N X U / (t N t U ) (E)
This equation can be considered as the product of the following two

functions
N = X N / t N and U = X U / t U (1-1)
These functions/equations can be considered as the result of substitut-

ing each dimension, in Equation (A), by its (1) numerical part to produce
the first equation and (2) unit part to produce the second equation and can
be read as follows.
OR1-1: All equations, which are valid for calculating (not converting)
a certain dimension (Y), are also valid for determining each of its unit
(YU) and its numerical (YN) parts. Simply substitute each dimensions
symbol (e.g., Y) by its unit symbol (e.g., YU) and you obtain, from the
dimensions equation, the equation for determining the dimensions
unit. Also, to obtain the equation for determining dimensions (Y) nu-
merical part, substitute each dimensions symbol, in dimensions equa-
tion, by the symbol of the dimensions numerical part (e.g., If Equation
A is dimension s determining equation, then the first part of Equa-
tion 1-1 can be used for determining dimension s numerical part N
and the second part of Equation 1-1 can be used for determining dimen-
sion s unit part U . ).
This leads to the following rules.

OR1-2: To calculate a dimension, when one knows in advance its unit
(e.g., the calculating equation is appropriate for the system of units)
and when one is sure that the equation one applies is correct, one is
requested to substitute each given dimensions symbol by its numerical
value and it will not be wrong if the mentioned symbol is substituted by
the whole dimensions value. In the case of not substituting the units
from the beginning, the answers unit must be added as soon as the an-
swers numerical calculation is fulfilled (see Equation D of Nt1-3).
OR1-3: To derive (calculate) the unit (AU) of a dimension (A), (1)
select an equation or more of those, which are appropriate for calcu-
lating this dimension, and (2) replace in any of the selected equations
(the simplest one), each dimensions symbol by its unit (in this case di-
mension As symbol is replaced by AU). Such calculated AU value is the
derived dimensions (A) unit.
OR1-4: If the dimensions used in calculating a dimension are ex-

pressed in units that belong (not relatives; see the bolded text in 1.1.2)
to a certain unit system (SI or technical), then the unit of the calculated
dimension belongs to the same certain unit system. Starting from the
seventh side of Equation (B), the given dimensions (X and t) were
expressed in SI primary units (m and s) and the unit of calculated
velocity (see the last sides of Equations B and B1) was expressed in the
SI secondary unit (m/s).
OR1-5: Inducing a multiplication sign ( or ) between the two
(numerical and unit) parts of a dimension and also after the prefix of
the unit symbol (see Equation B) is not practiced, but it is not wrong.
OR1-6: If two neighboring sub (simple) units of a compound unit are
not interconnected by any algebraic sign (+, , or /, multiplication
sign), then it is allowed to interconnect these neighboring subunits with
a multiplication sign ( or ).
1.1.2.1 Deriving some secondary units from the primary ones
In this book, as we till now got acquainted with only the metric SI units,
we shall derive some secondary SI units. This derivation (see OR1-1) re-
quires applying any valid equation for calculating the dimension that is
related to the required unit. Therefore, we shall use the simplest equations
in these derivations:
1) To derive the acceleration unit, we chose the constant acceleration

equation: a = ( ) / t, where represents the velocity change
and t the elapsed time. According to this equation and OR1-3, the
SI acceleration unit is the result of dividing the SI velocity unit
(m/s) by the SI time unit (s). Thus, the SI acceleration unit is
m m 1
( m / s) / s = s = = m / s 2 .
s s s
2) Similar to the acceleration unit, the SI force (F) unit can be found
from the other SI units (the mass m unit kg and acceleration
(a) unit m/s2) by applying Newtons second law
F = ma (1-2)
Thus,
SI force unit = SI mass unit (kg) SI acceleration unit (m/s 2 ) = kg m/s2
This unit (kg m/s 2 ) is named the newton (N) after Sir Isaac Newton
(16421727).1
1.1.3 THE U.S. CUSTOMARY SYSTEM (ALSO KNOWN AS THE

ENGLISH SYSTEM)
It is the second unit system that is used commonly in the United States
today.
The developed from English units U.S. customary system was in use
in the British Empire before American independence. Consequently, most
U.S. units are virtually identical to the British imperial units. Several dif-
ferences exist between the two systems.
The majority of U.S. customary units were redefined in terms of

meters and kilograms with the Mendenhall Order of 1893 and, in
practice, many years before. These definitions were refined by the
international yard and pound agreement of 1959. The United
States primarily uses customary units in its commercial activities,
whereas science, medicine, government, and many sectors of indus-
try use metric units.2
In the English system, the length is measured by yards (yd), the force
by pound-force (lbf), and the time by seconds (s). The multiple of the yard
is miles (mi), and its divisible are the feet (ft) and the inches (in.), where
1 mi = 5280 yd, 1 in. = 1" = 25.4 mm,

(1-3)
1 yd = 3 ft = 36 in. = 0.9144 meters
The divisible of the pound (lb) is the ounce (oz), where 1 lb = 16 oz

The English system has no apparent systematic numerical base,
and various units in this system are related to each other arbitrarily
(12 in. = 1 ft, 1 mile = 5,280 ft, 4 qt = 1gal, etc.), which makes it con-
fusing and difficult to learn. The United States is the only industrialized
country that has not yet fully converted to the metric system.3
1.1.4 THE TECHNICAL UNIT SYSTEM
Before 1960 (the date of producing the SI by the General Conference of

Weights and Measures), the technical unit system was in common use. It
was based on three fundamental quantities: meters (m) for length, kilo-
gram-force (kgf) or kiloponds (kp, from Latin pounds meaning weight)4
for force, and seconds (s) for time. It was prevalent in some countries,
such as France, the former Soviet Union, and Germany. Similar to the
metric SI, the relationship between any of the technical system units and
its standard multiples (or divisibles) is a decimal. This eased and acceler-
ated the transformation of countries that used the technical system to the
metric system.
Although the technical system of units is already not in common use,
we may encounter valuable old books that used this system and can be our
favorite references it we can effectively use them. For such occasions, we
need some brief knowledge about the conversion factors between the main
units of the previously stated three unit systems.
1.1.5 FORCE AND MASS MAIN UNITS CONVERSIONS
By definition
1pound-mass = 1 lbm = 0.45359237 kg 0.454 kg (1-4)
1 pound-force = 1 lbf = 0.45359237 kgf 0.454 kgf (1-5)
1 kgf = 1 kp = 9.80665 N 9.807 N

(1-6)
or 1 N = 1 kgf 9.80665 0.102 kgf
From these equations, we obtain the exact value of the conversion

factor between the newton N and the kgf (CFNK),
CFNK = 9.80665 N / kgf (1-7)
On the other hand, the exact value of the nominal (or standard) gravi-
tational acceleration of the earth ( g n ), which is the gravitational accelera-
tion at sea level and 45 latitude, is5
gn = 9.80665 m/s 2 32.174 ft/s 2 9.807 m/s 2 (1-8)
Thus, the two different quantities CFNK and g n have the same
numerical value.
1.1.6 WEIGHT OF A BODY
The weight of a body (G) can be found from Newtons second law (see
Equation 1-2)
G = m g N = (m g / 9.80665) kp (1-8a)
where g is the local gravitational acceleration6 that depends on the

geographical location and altitude, m the mass measured by weighbridg-
es,A and 9.80665 N/kp the CFNK.
A. Weighbridges eliminate the effect of the local gravitational

acceleration on the measurement result, since each of the stand-
ard weight and the object to be weighed are affected by the same
local gravitational acceleration. This fits the concept of mass that
is independent of the geographical location and altitude7.
For approximate calculations of bodys weight on earth and its

surrounding atmosphere up to 10 km above sea level, and with a 0.6%
tolerance, g in Equation (1-8a) can be replaced by gn and Equation (1-8a)
becomes
G kp m kg (1-8b)
For English units, this equation becomes

G lbf m lbm (1-8c)
1.1.7 PRESSURE UNITS
In all unit systems, the pressure (p) is a secondary dimension. As the pres-
sure is defined as the force (F) acting normally on a unit of area (A) or
p = F/A, the pressure unit is the result of dividing the force unit by the area
unit, which is the squared length unit. The pressure unit in the metric SI is
the newton per square meter (N/m2) and is named the Pascal (Pa). As this
unit is too small for practical use, its multiple (the bar, 1 bar = 105 Pa) is
used instead. Thus,
1 bar = 105 N / m2 = 105 Pa = 105 N / (102 cm)2 = 1 daN / cm2 (1-9)
The pressure unit in the technical system is the kiloponds (or kgf) per
square meter (kp/m2) or (kgf/m2). As this unit is too small for practical
use, its multiple (the technical atmosphere at) is used instead. Thus,
1 at = 104 kp / m2 = 104 kp / (102 cm)2 = 1 kp / cm2 (1-10)
The pressure unit in the English system is the pounds (lbf) per square
inch [lbf/in.2 (see Nt1-6) or psi]. It is the pressure resulting from a force of
1 pound-force applied normally to an area of 1 square inch. Thus,
1 lbf 4.448 N, 1psi 6895 N/m 2 ,

(1-11)
1atm 14.696 psi 14.7 psi
Today, pressure gauges are scaled in bars (bar), technical atmospheres

(at), and pounds per square inch (psi).
The pressure (p) applied by a liquid column, with height (H) and den-
sity (), is calculated by
p = H g (1-12)
The liquid density is temperature dependent, = f(t), and the gravita-

tional acceleration is geographical location dependent. Therefore, the fluid
column height corresponding to a pressure is a function of the fluid type,
temperature, and geographical location. This means that,
When the pressure is expressed by units (mmH2O or cmH2O or
mmHg = Torr, etc.), it implies
g = g n = 9.80665 m/s 2 , Hg = Hg( t = 0o C) = 13,595.1 kg/m 3

And H2 O = H O( t = 4o C) = 1000 kg/m3
2
1.1.8 OTHERS DEFINITIONS
OD1-2: The standard atmosphere (atm) is an international reference

pressure defined as 1,01,325 Pa. It is the mean atmospheric pressure at
sea level and at 0C. First, it was named as the physical atmosphere
and later the normal pressure.
OD1-2A: The normal temperature and pressure (NTP), also known as
normal conditions, is the normal temperature (abbreviation NT and
Symbol Tn) Tn = 273.15 K = 0 o C, and the normal pressure, which is
also known as the standard atmosphere.
pn = 1 atm = 760 Torr = 760 mm Hg [0 o C]

= 10.33256 m H2O [4o C] = 101,325 (kPa) (1-13)
Earlier the normal conditions represented the standard ambient tem-

perature and pressure (SATP), but today, they are discontinued and we are
supposed to avoid using them. However, many valuable traditional refer-
ences are not renewed and are still in use. Therefore, we shall continue
using these terms in parallel with the new terms.
The existing SATP temperatures today are 15o C = 268.15K = 59o F,
20o C = 293.15K = 68o F, and 25o C = 298.15K = 77o F. We shall refer to
the last temperature as the new normal temperature (symbol Tnn). Thus,
Tnn = 25o C = 298.15K = 77o F.
1.1.9 ENERGY UNITS
As we will see later (see the first law of thermodynamics), the thermal,
mechanical, electrical, and other energies are different forms of energy.
This means that work, mechanical energy, thermal energy, and other ener-
gies must be measured by the same units, and therefore, let us derive the
units of work in the three unit systems using the equation of the work (W)
done by a constant force (F) on a point that moves a displacement (s) in
the direction of the force, W = Fs. According to OR1-1 and 1.1.2.1, the
work unit = the force unit the displacement (length) unit. This means
that the work units in the three systems are (1) the newton-meter that was
named later (joule) in the SI system, (2) the kilopond-meter kp-m or
kpm (the kilogram-force-meter kgf-m or kgfm) in the technical sys-
tem, and (3) the foot-pound force (ft-lbf or ftlbf) in the English system.
The joule is defined by the equation
1 J = 1 N 1 m = 1 N m = 1 (kg m / s2 ) m = 1 kg m2 / s 2 (1-14)
The units of heat energy used in the technical and English systems are
renewed. The new (international) calorie (cal) is defined as
1 cal = 4.1868 J (1-15)
Todays British thermal unit (Btu) equals
1 Btu = 1.055056 kJ = 0.2522 kcal (1-16)
The numerical relationship between the calorie and the kilopond (the
mechanical equivalent of heat J) was found experimentally by Joule. It
assigns the quantity of work in kpm (kgfm) that can be done at the
expense of the disappearance of 1 kcal of heat, which can be calculated

from Equations (1-6), (1-11), and (1-12)
1 cal = 4.1868 J = 4.1868 N m = 4.1868 (1 kgf / 9.80665) m

= 0.426935 kgf m (1-17)
or 1 kcal = 426.935 kgf m 427 kgf m (1-17a)
Relation (1-17a) allows determining the value of the mechanical

equivalent of heat J and its reverse value A
kp m kp m
J = 426.935 427
kcal kcal
(1-18)
1 kcal 1 kcal
and A=
426.953 kp m 427 kp m
One of English units of work is the foot-pound force (ft-lbf or ftlbf):
1 ft lbf = 1 ft 1 lbf = 0.001285 Btu = 1.3558 J (1-19)
Other units of energy (work) can be extracted from power units. As

power (P) is defined as the amount of energy generated per unit time, the
power unit is energy-unit/time-unit; thus, the SI power unit (J/s) is named
watt (W). This means that
1 W =1 J /s (1-20)
This unit and the power units of the English system (ft-lbf/s) and the
technical system (kpm/s) are small and their multiples.
- The kilowatt (kW):
1 kW = 1 (1000) W = 1000 W (1-21)
- The horse power (hp):
1 hp = 1 (550) ft lbf / s = 550 ft lbf / s (1-22)
- The French chevaux (ch) or the metric horsepower (hpM)8:
1 hp(M) = 1 ch = 1 (75) kp m / s = 75 kp m / s (1-23)

These units interrelate as follows.
1 hp ( M ) = 1 ch = 75 kp m / s = 75 9.80665 N m / s
= 735.49875 W 735.5 W (1-24)
1 hp = 550 ft lbf / s = 550 in. lbf / s = 550 12 in. lbf / s

= 6600 in. lbf / s = 6600 0.0254 m 0.4536 kp / s
= 76.04 kp m / s = 76.04 / 75 ch = 1.0139 735.49875 W
745.7 W 746 W 746 N m / s (1-25)
From Equations (1-24) and (1-25), we conclude that
1 ch = 1 hp(M) 1 hp; 1hp = 1.0139 ch

(1-26)
and 1 ch = (1 / 1.0139) hp = 0.9863 hp
The small difference between the metric and the English horse pow-
ers causes nonrecognition between them.
As the work equals the product of power and time, the following
energy units are in common use:
The kilowatt-hour (kW-h or kWh), which is the work produced by
an engine of 1 kW power during 1 hour:
1 kW h = 1 [kJ / s] 3600 s = 3600 kJ (1-27)
The metric horsepower-hour (hpM-h), which is the work pro-

duced by an engine of 1 hp(M) power during 1 hour:
1 hp(M) h = 1 ch h = 75 [kp m/s] 3600 s

= 270000 kp.m (1-28)
The horsepower-hour (hph), which is the work produced by an

engine of 1 hp power during 1 hour:
1 hp h = 0.7068 [Btu / s] 3600 s = 2544.48 Btu (1-29)
1.1.10 TEMPERATURE UNITS
The following definitions are necessary to understand this paragraph.
OD1-3: The absolute zero is the lowest conceivable temperature.

OD1-3A: The temperature of the ice point is defined as the tempera-

ture of a mixture of ice and water that is in equilibrium with saturated
air at a pressure of 1 atm (see OD1-2 and Equation 1-13).
OD1-3B: The temperature of the steam point is the temperature of
water and steam, which are in equilibrium at a pressure of 1 atm.
OD1-3C: The triple point of water is the state in which the solid, liq-
uid, and vapor phases of water exist together in equilibrium. This point
is assigned the value of 0.01C. On the Celsius scale, the steam point is
experimentally found to be 100.00C.
Four temperature scales are still in common use today: (1) The
Celsius scale (unit degree Celsius C), (2) The Fahrenheit scale
(unit degree Fahrenheit F), (3) The Kelvin scale (unit kelvin K),
and (4) The Rankine scale (unit rankine R).
The Celsius scale was formerly called the centigrade scale, but it
is now designated the Celsius scale9 and its symbol includes the degree
symbol since the letter C alone denotes Coulomb, the unit of electrical
charge in the SI system of units.10
Table 1.2. Comparison of temperature scales
Temperature Temperature symbol and its unit

abbreviation
T [K ] T [o C ] T [R] T [o F ]
Reference point
Water boiling at 1 atm (see 373.15 100 671.67 212
OD1-3B) or the steam point
Water triple point (see OD1-3C) 273.16 0.01
Water freezing at 1 atm or the 273.15 0 491.67 32
ice point (see OD1-3A)
The zero Fahrenheit (T0F) 459.67 0
The absolute zero (AZ) 0 273.15 0 459.67
OD1-3D: Temperature scales whose zeros coincide with the absolute

zero are absolute temperature scales, and those whose zeros do not
coincide with the absolute zero are relative temperature scales. There-
fore (see Table 1-2), The Kelvin and Rankine scales are absolute tem-
perature scales, while the Celsius and Fahrenheit scales are relative
temperature scales. Todays temperature scales and former absolute
ones (see OD1-3D) are symbolized as T, while the former symbol of
relative temperature scales was t. Therefore, both symbols are used in
this book, which includes many old tables and diagrams. This means
that in addition to existing temperature relations used in other modern
thermodynamic books, the following relations are used. C
T K = T C = (T2 T1 ) C = (t 2 t1 ) C = t C;

T R = T F = (T2 T1 ) F = (t 2 t1 ) F = t F; (1-30)

dT K = dT C = dt C And dT R = dT F = dt F
The values of some reference temperatures in several units are listed

in Table 1-2.
Although the relations between the four scales are well known, they
can be derived from Table 1-2 because of the constancy of the magnitude
of the degree of each scale that insures the linearity of these relations.
Using the data of Table 1-2, we can obtain many relations for temper-
ature conversions from one scale to another. The temperatures of these
relations are expressed indirectly (see OD1-1), and we represent from
them the following main ones:
T [K] = T [ o C] + 273.15
1) (1-30a)
or T [ o C] = T [K] 273.15
This is read as the temperature in kelvins equals the sum of the

temperature in degrees Celsius and 273.15. Thus, if T = 50 C then
o
T [o C] = 50 and T [K] = 50 + 273.15 = 323.15, so T = 323.15 K.
2) T [R] = 1.8 T [K] or T [K] = (5 / 9) T [R] (1-31)
For T = 323.15 K: T [R] = 1.8 323.15 = 581.67 or T = 581.67R.
T [R] = T [F] + 459.67

3) (1-32)
or T [F] = T [R] 459.67
For T [ R] = 581.67 :
T [F] = T [R] 459.67 = 581.67 459.67 = 122 so T = 122 F.
Any set of three equations those obtained/selected from the three

pairs of Equations (1-30A) through (1-32) each is enough to (1) execute
any temperature conversion from any of the previously represented tem-
perature scales to another and (2) obtain other calculating equations such as
T o C = (5 / 9) (T F 32), T F = 1.8 T o C + 32,

(1-33)
1 K = 1 o C = 1 deg and 1 R=1F
The underlined equations in the last three items are some of the direct
expressions of temperature or temperature difference (see OD1-1). They
can be read as follows: The temperature equals 50 degrees Celsius,
323.15 kelvins, 323.15 kelvins, 581.67 rankines, and 122 degrees Fahren-
heit. The total result of the calculations of the previous three items is
50 o C = 323.15 K = 581.67 R = 122 F
Nt1-4: The deg or degree symbol in Equation (1-33) was used for the unit
of the temperature difference between each of Kelvin and Celsius scales.
Nt1-5: No distance exists between the abbreviations of the prefix and the
unit to which it belongs.
Nt1-6: The pound-force, pound-mass, pound-mole, and kilogram-force
are fundamental units; therefore, their abbreviations are lbf, lbm, lbmole,
and kgf, respectively.
Nt1-7: The recent abbreviation of inch is (in.) not (in).
Nt1-8: Assuming that a multiplication sign between the numerical part of
a dimension and its unit eases unit conversions. The reader can apply this
point to understand the operations (procedures and processes) in Equa-
tions (1-17), (1-27), (1-28), and (1-29).
Nt1-9: One of the purposes of the former equations was showing the be-
ginners in detail how to deal with unit converting. In practice, calculating
dimensions is much simpler, especially when the answer is required in SI
units (or in their standard multiples or divisibles).
Let us explain the methods of solving problems in practice through

the following paragraph and example.
1.1.11 ABOUT DIMENSIONS UNITS IN THE CALCULATING

EQUATIONS
Today, two types of calculating equations are in common use (1) the
free of conversion factors equations. They consist of only dimensions
symbols and no information about dimensions units exist in these equations
or in accompanying them captions/legends. And (2) Equations with con-
version factor(s), those include dimensions symbols and are equipped
with information about dimensions units, which exist either in the equa-
tions themselves or in accompanying them captions/legends. For example,
The equation for calculating the shaft power (P) can be written as any
of the following three equations:
Power = torque angular speed (A)11
torque( lbf ft) angularspeed(rpm)

Power(hp) = (B)
5252
Horsepower = Torque RPM / 5252 (C)12
Where torque in (lbf ft)

These unusual for thermodynamics and many other branches of sci-
ence equations can be rewritten in the usual form as:
P = T (A')
Where T is the torque and is the angular velocity
T ( lbf ft ) n(rpm)
P ( hp ) = (B')
5252
Where T is the torque and n is the rotational speed. Or
T n
P= hp (C')
5252
Where T is the torque in lbf-ft and N is the rotational speed in rpm.

The free of conversion factors equations (see Equations A and A') are
mostly used and can be used with all systems of units. Once the user has
chosen the system of units to be used with a particular free of conversion
factors equation, all its dimensions units are considered belonging to this
particular chosen system.
Equations B, C, B' and C' above represent the versions of writing the
equation with a conversion factor. The user of such equations is obliged to
use dimensions units as provided in each equation and its explanation
(caption/legend).
Example 1-2
Using the ideal gas equation of state (p V = m R T), calculate the
volume (V) of a mass (m = 3 kg) of air that exists at a pressure p=1
bar and temperature T = 350 K. The gas constant for air is R = 287
J/kg-K.
Solution
Let us firstly note that (1) this equation is free of conversion factors, (2)
the units of its given dimensions are either metric SI ones (m = 3 kg,
T = 350 K, and R = 287 J/kg-K), or multiples of the same metric SI
units (p = 1 bar), and (3) the only un given dimension is the required
one (V). This means that although the given equation can be used with
any system of units, the less time consuming solution of this example
will be when we chose using the metric SI system of units in solving
this example. Therefore, we rewrite the given equation in the form
V = m R T / p that is appropriate for calculating the required vol-
ume, substitute in it the values of all given dimensions in metric SI
units, and perform the calculations:
m R T 3 kg 287 J 350 K
pV = mR T V = =
p kg K 10 5 Pa
3 287 J 350 J
= = 3.0135
10 Pa
5
Pa
Nm
= 3.0135 = 3.0135 m 3 (D)
N m 2
Since we know in advance that the unit of the calculated volume will
be (m3), we do not need to apply and deal with the unit parts of the dimen-
sions in the Intermediate sides of equation D. Therefore, calculating air
volume in this example will be limited in calculating the numerical part of
air volume, and equation D become,
p V = m R T V = m R T / p = 3 287 350 / 105 = 3.0135 m3 (E)
1.2 CALCULATIONS AND DISCUSSIONS IN

THERMODYNAMICS
All three ways of calculations and discussions (the graphical, the analytical,
and the tabular) are used in thermodynamics. The analytical way gives high
accuracy and is usually used everywhere where other ways cannot be used.
The graphical way is simple for understanding and discussions, but it
is not that accurate; therefore, it is mostly used in discussions and in those
circumstances where high accuracy is not required. However, using large-
scale diagrams in calculations is acceptable for thermodynamic accuracy.
The tabular way is used (1) when a high accuracy is required, while
the analytical solution is almost not available or time-consuming, and (2)
for approximate calculations in some circumstances.
Before starting the analysis, let us introduce some important defini-

tions and notes.
OD1-4: A plane curve is a curve that lies in a single plane. A plane

curve may be closed or open.13
OR1-7: Two neighboring points of a plane y = f(x) curve cannot have
the same two coordinates. This means that very neighboring points
(1 and 2) of a plane y = f(x) curve can have (1) x2x1 = dx = 0 and y2y1
= dy 0, (2) x2x1 = dx 0, and y2y1 = dy = 0, or 3) x2x1 = dx 0
and y2y1 = dy 0. For these three conditions, the distance between
the two points (1 and 2) is L1_ 2 = ( dx ) 2 + ( dx ) 2 0. If the two points
are characterized by x = y = 0 or dx = dy = 0, then the exact
distance between them is zero and they are congruent (not neighbors).
Defining two very neighboring points (1 and 2) of a curve by x2 x1 =
dx = 0 and y2 y1 = dy 0 means that the slope of the curve at point 1
is .
OD1-4A: An equation has two sides (left and right) that are separated
by an equal sign.
Helal Definition 1-1 (HD1-1): A dual-side equation (abbreviation
equation) consists of two sides (left and right) that are separated by an
equal sign.
HD1-2: A multiside equation consists of more than two sides that are
separated by equal signs.
HD1-3: A single-equation curve is the curve that can be expressed/defined
by a single equation. A multiequation curve is the curve that cannot be ex-
pressed by a single equation. It requires more than one equation (a set of
equations) to be expressed. Refracted curves (see curve 1a2a3a4a5a in
Figure 1.1) are invariably multiequation curves.
OD1-5: A smooth curve is a continuous curve (no gaps or discontinui-
ties) with no corners (no abrupt changes in the slope such as a point
that you would get from the intersection of two lines).14 The continuous
plane line (1234, Figure 1.1a) is a smooth curve. It consists of
three-plane smooth curves, which are (1) line 12 (a part of an ellipse
that is expressed by f1(x)), (2) straight line 23 that is expressed by
f2(x), and (3) line 34 (a part of another ellipse that is expressed by
f3(x)). Line (23) is the common tangent of ellipses f1(x) and f3(x) at
points 2 and 3. This means that to define an n-equation smooth curve,
its two extreme points should be given in addition to its (n 1) points,
which interconnect its single-equation curves. Curve 1b2b3b4b5b
in Figure 1.1 is also a multiequation smooth curve.
Figure 1.1. Multiequation curves
OD1-6: A plane closed curve is a curve with no endpoints and com-

pletely encloses an area.15 In other words, it is the curve in which the
start (st, 1 or I) and end (ed, 2 or II) points coincide.
OD1-7: A plane simple closed curve is a connected curve that does
not cross itself and ends at the same point where it begins (e.g., circles,
ellipses, and polygons). Note that despite the name curve, a simple
closed curve does not actually have to curve.16 Curve (1'-b-2') in Figure
1.2 is a simple closed curve.
Figure 1.1a. A smooth triequation curve
OD1-8: The directional curve is the one that has a direction. It has a
start (st, 1 or I) and an end (ed, 2 or II) point, and unless the curve is
closed, the start and end points are enough to determine its direction.
This means that (1) the direction of the closed curve should be defined
through other means such as at least two additional points (3, 4, ) or
through arrows, (2) calculations belonging to the whole closed curve

must start from the curves start point (if it does not exist, then the cal-
culator adds it), passing successively through all additional curves
points (3, 4, ), and ending exactly at the curves end point, which is
the same start point. If the start and end points of a plane simple closed
curve are not congruent, then the curve is more than plane simple
closed curve (see the following new definition).
ND1-2: The more than simple closed curve (1"-c-2", Figure 1.2) is the
curve that is composed of two parts: (1) the first part (1"-c-1") is a sim-
ple closed curve and (2) the second part (1"-2") is an additional open
curve that coincides/superposes with the beginning of the first part.
Therefore, the calculations result for the more than simple closed curve
will be the algebraic sum of that for the closed curve and that for the
additional curve. The only difference in the view between the simple
closed curve and the more than simple closed curve is that the start and
end points of the simple closed curve are congruent, whereas they are
not for the more than simple closed curve.
Figure 1.2. The open smooth curve (1-a-2), closed (1'-b-2'), and more
than closed (1"-c-2") simple curves.
Nt1-10: The order of numbering a curves points is mostly sequential

because it allows writing multiterm equations in the abbreviated form
(see Equation 1-64).
OD1-9: A planimeter is a mechanical integrating instrument for measur-
ing the area of an irregular plane figure, such as the area under a curve,
by moving a point attached to an arm around the perimeter of the figure.17
1.2.1 CALCULATING THE AREA UNDER A PLANE CURVE
t2 s2 t2
Thermodynamic equations such as q = C dt = T ds, w = p dv ,
t1 s1 t1
x2
and W = F dx are similar to
x1
x2
A = y dx (1-34)
x1
This equation (see Figure 1.3) is used in calculating the area (A1-2-2'-1'-1)
under curve (12) governed by equation y = f ( x) . For x-increasing or
x-decreasing curves, this area is bordered by the curve (12) itself, its
x-projection (1'2'), x1-constant, and x2-constant lines. Rectangle (bc2'
1'b) shares with curved leg right-angled trapezoid (122'1'1) each of
the side/base/width (1'2') and area, and has the average height:
yavg = A122' 1' 1 / ( x2 x1 ) (1-35)
Figure 1.3. A schematic for calculating the area under a curve
In this equation, the symbol of the average height of the area under a
curve is abbreviated to yavg, and it could be abbreviated sometimes to y,
because it is multiplied by (x2 x1), which defines the x-limits of the area
to which the average height belongs. In Figure 1.3, the average heights
appear alone (they are not multiplied by t); therefore, their symbols must
be denoted additionally by the x-limits of the area to which each average
x2
x2
height belongs (the symbols can be yavg or yavg x1
and so on).
x1
Also, area (122'1'1) can be calculated as the difference between

areas (a22'0a) and (a11'0a). This and Equations (1-34) and
(1-35) lead to
x2 x1
Aunder 12 = A122'1'1 = Aa22'0a Aa11'0a = y dx y dx
0 0
x2
= y dx = yavg (x2 x1 ) = yavg (x2 0) yavg (x1 0) (1-36)
x1
Nt1-11: Function y = f ( x) is represented schematically in Figure 1.3.

This means that we can use this representation in discussing and explain-
ing several items, but we cannot use it in calculations. To use the graph in
calculations, it should be created in scale and the user must take this scale
into consideration.
Nt1-12: It is unnecessary for point a to be located on y-axis, where
xa = 0, but it is much important to keep its position on curve (12) or its
extent throughout a full calculation.
Nt1-13: The three yavg in Equation (1-36) are not the same. The first be-
longs to the x1_x2 limits, the second to xa_x2 limits, and the third to xa_x1
limits.
Nt1-14: The expression y dx (symbol A) is the inexact differential of
area A because unless the function y = f (x) is defined (graphically, ana-
x2
lytically, or tabular) integral, A = y dx cannot be calculated. Symbol-
x1
izing the expression y dx by dA (instead of A) is not rigorous (it does

not remind the reader that the differential is inexact), but is not wrong,
because it does not lead to any errors in the calculation.
Equation (1-34) assumes that (1) area A is sliced by an extremely

large number of x-constant lines into extremely large number of right-
angled trapezoidal slices of dx width, where the upper borders/legs of
these trapezoids are differential straight lines, and (2) the original calculat-
ing equation for the differential of area A (see Figure 1.3) is
dA = 0.5[(y + dy) + y] dx = y dx + 0.5(dy dx) = y dx. In this equation,
the second term ( dy dx / 2 ) of the third side, which is the product of two
differential terms, is much less than the first term ( y dx ), and therefore it
was ignored.
The equation for calculating the area under the straight line 2a_3a
(the area of a no-differential right-angled trapezoidal slice cut by two
x-constant lines x2a and x3a with upper straight-line border, 2a_3a, see
Figure 1.1) is
A 2a 3a 3a ' 2a ' 2a = A 2a d 3a ' 2a ' 2a A 2a d 3a 2a
= A c 3a 3a ' 2a ' c + A 2a 3a c 2a (1-37)
Here, it is not allowed to ignore any of the equal triangle areas
A2ad 3a2a and A2a3a c 2a because each of them is not too small com-
pared with the rectangle to/from which it is added/subtracted.
Nt1-15: (1) Line 1_2 in Figure 1.3 is monotony x-increasing because the
x-projection (dx) of any of its differential parts is positive (dx > 0), while
(2) line (I_II) that coincides with line (1_2) is monotony
x-decreasing because the x-projection (dx) of any of its differential parts is
negative (dx < 0). In addition, the special case directional y = f(x) curve
can be (3) a constant-x straight line (dx = 0) if all its points are de-
scribed by dx = 0, (4) a constant-y straight line (dy = 0) if all its points
are described by dy = 0 , (5) a gradual x-increasing curve (dx 0) if it
consists of at least one x-increasing curve and one x-constant line or point
and does not include any x-decreasing line, (6) a gradual x-decreasing
curve (dx 0) if it consists of at least one x-decreasing line and one
x-constant line or point and does not include any x-increasing line, (7) an
x-increasing curve (dx 0) if it does not contain/include any differential
curve that is described by dx < 0 , and (8) an x-decreasing curve (dx 0)
if it does not contain/include any differential curve that is described
by dx > 0 .
It is clear from the previous paragraph that the x-increasing curve
(dx 0) is a common case for both the monotony and the gradual
x-increasing curves, and the x-decreasing curve (dx 0) is a common
case for both the monotony and the gradual x-decreasing curves.
ND1-4: The pure positive/negative area is the area, which does not
include any negative/positive subareas. Therefore:
For positive (y), the area under (1') the monotony x-increasing curve
(dx > 0) is called absolutely pure positive area ( A > 0), (2') the
monotony x-decreasing curve (dx < 0) is called absolutely pure negative
area ( A < 0), (3') the constant-x straight line (dx = 0) equals zero
because A = y 0 = 0 and the definite integral of zero equals zero
2
( A = 0 = 0), (4') y = 0 straight line equals zero (A = ydx = 0 dx = 0
1
A = 0), (5') the gradual x-increasing curve (dx 0) is pure positive

area ( A 0), (6') the gradual x-decreasing curve (dx 0) is pure nega-
tive area ( A < 0), (7') the x-increasing curve (dx 0) is pure positive
area ( A 0), and (8') the x-decreasing curve (dx 0) is pure negative
area ( A 0) .
For negative (y), the names of the previous curves must be inverted.
Taking into consideration items (3') and (4'), we conclude the
following.
NR1-1: Areas under zero-y and constant-x straight lines are zero ones,
and therefore, they do not affect areas calculations under curve y = f(x).
NR1-2: The sum of the absolutely pure positive/negative areas under a
y = f(x) curve exactly equals the sum of the pure positive/negative areas
under the same curve. Therefore, we shall refer to both (the absolutely
pure and pure) positive/negative areas as the pure positive/negative areas
under a y = f(x) curve.
Let us introduce the following HDs.
HD1-4: The pure area is the area under the y = f (x) curve that is de-
scribed by any of the following two conditions throughout: (1)
( A = y dx 0) or (2) ( A = y dx 0) . Its upper boarder is the pure
areas curve. The pure area is a right-angled trapezoid that is based (by
its right-angled leg) on the x-axis. Its other leg (mostly curved and/or
not-right-angled) is the pure areas curve. Areas A1-2-2'-1'-1 and A1-1'-2'-2-1 in
Figure 1.3 are pure positive and negative ones, respectively.
HD1-5: A y = f ( x) curve that is characterized by y dx 0 is called
the pure (homogenous) positive areas curve. The condition y dx 0
abbreviates the two pairs of conditions: (1) ( y 0 and dx 0) and (2)
( y 0 and dx 0) those can be expressed additionally as the algebra-
ic signs of y and dx are identical through the pure positive areas
curve. Also, the area under a pure positive areas curve is characterized
by A = y dx 0 and is called the pure positive area. Pure positive
areas curves do not include any (differential/integral) curves slices,
characterized by A = y dx 0 and/or A = y dx < 0. Pure positive
areas do not include any negative (differential/integral) areas slices.
HD1-6: A curve that is characterized by y dx 0 is called the pure
(homogenous) negative areas curve. The condition ( y dx 0) abbre-
viates the two pairs of conditions: (3) ( y 0 and dx 0) and (4)
( y 0 and dx 0). These two pairs of conditions can be expressed
additionally as the algebraic signs 0 or 0 of y and dx are,
for the pure negative areas curve, opposite to each other. Also, the
area under a pure negative areas curve is characterized by
A = y dx 0 and is called the pure negative area. Pure negative
areas curves do not include any positive (differential/integral) curves
slices, characterized by A = y dx 0 and/or A = y dx > 0. Pure
negative areas do not include any positive (differential/integral) areas
slices.
Nt1-16: Thermodynamics is much interest-

ed in three kinds of areas under curves (the
total, pure positive, and pure negative; see
HD1-5 and HD1-6). Therefore, thermody-
namic analysis requires dealing with these
areas as algebraic values. This means that
NR1-1 and NR1-2 are much useful in dis-
cussing and determining these three kinds
of areas under curves. The three relations
previously described ( dx > 0, dx < 0,
and dx = 0) are usually reduced (in ther-
modynamics) into two inequalityequality
relations ( A 0 and A 0) , and we
shall refer to the signs used in them as the
inequalityequality signs.
HD1-7: For a particular plane curve y =
f(x), Curves characteristic points are the
points those are vital/important for its full
analysis. Such analysis includes curves
creation and all related to it calculations
and discussions.
The full set of Curves characteristic
Figure 1.4. A schematic
points can be divided into the following
for determining the areas
sub-sets: under curves
1) points at which the curve starts, ends, or changes its mathematical

expression (equation). These points can be additionally expressed/
defined as the points that limit the validity of the relations charac-
terizing the curve and/or its parts. For a continuous monoequation
curve (see Figure 1.2 elliptical curve 1-a-2), these points are two
(points 1 and 2), whereas for the triequation smooth curve 1-2-3-4
(see Figure 1.1a) these points are four (1, 2, 3, and 4) and for the
miltiequation continuous refracted curve 1a-2a-3a-4a-5a (see Figure
1.1) these points are at least four (1a, 2a, 3a, and 5a) since we are
not sure about the required number of equations to describe its two
curves (1a-2a and 3a-4a-5a).
2) Points those ease dealing-with (expressing, creating, calculating
and discussing) the curve under study. These points are basic for
the curve although they may not lie on it (e.g., circles center does
not lie on circular curves line, but it with another circles point al-
lows creating the circle, whereas we need three circles points to
create the same circle. Also the simplest expression of a circle is

that written for the case when its centre superposes with/on the
origin of Cartesian coordinates).
3) Points at which property sign inversions occur/may-occurA on some
properties of the curve such as curves tangentB and of the related to
the curve properties such as the area under it.
A. May-occur (instead of occur) eases the discussions for de-

termining some characteristic points on the expense of in-
creasing their number
B. The tangents of the curve at both sides of the refraction point
are not the same slope.
The sign inversion of the differential A = ydx of the area (A)

under the smooth curve y = f (x) proceeds smoothly. Therefore,
the necessary and insufficient condition for such inversion is
A = ydx = 0, which can be replaced by any of the conditions
y = 0, dx = 0 and y = dx = 0 . This means that: any point of Curve
y = f(x) that comply with any of the conditions ydx = 0, y = 0, dx = 0
and y = dx = 0 can be Curves sign inversion point/straight-line-
segment if the algebraic signs of dA at both sides of this
point/straight-line-segment are opposite (dA at one side is negative
whereas at the other side is positive).
The above means that the calculating equation for the area
under a curves y = f (x) point/differential-part is A = ydx. For
the points at which curves tangent is either x = const line (dx=0) or
x-axis (y=0) A = ydx equals zero.
Curves characteristic points at which the differential of the
area under the curve y = f (x) equals zero ( A = ydx = 0 ) and in-
verts its sign are (1) curves intersecting points with x-axis (y = o),
at which dx does not invert its sign (see Figures 1.4 point 4 and
1-5 points 10 and 12, where dx before, at, and after the men-
tioned points is positive. See also Figure 1.5 points 15 and 17,
where dx before, at, and after the mentioned points is negative). (2)
Not lying-on/belonging-to x-axis (y = o), curves points, at which
dx inverts its sine (see Figure 1.4 points 5, 6, 7, 8 and 11, at
which dx=0 and inverts its algebraic sine whereas y o).
Curves points at which the differential of the area under
the curve y = f (x) equals zero ( A = ydx = 0 ) and inverts its sign
(see Figure 1.5 points 1, 3, 5, and 7, at which dx=0 and inverts its
algebraic sine whereas y = o) do not belong to Curves characteris-

tic points. At points 1, 3, 5, and 7, each of dx and y inverts its alge-
braic sign, therefore, the product ydx at each of the mentioned
points A = ydx = 0 does not invert its algebraic sine.
Figure 1.5. Curves points 1, 3, 5, 7, 10, 12, 17, and 15 are specified by both
(y = o) and (dx = o)
Nt1-17: If the complete curve (12, III, or st ed, see Figure 1.4,
where the numbers of the points are different from one subfigure A, B,
and C to another) or its components suffer from heterogeneity in the
sign of y and/or dx, then it is preferable to divide it (curve 12, III, or
sted) into partial curves. The start and end points of the partial curves
in the three illustrations in Figure 1.4 curves are (1) the intersection
points of the curve with x-axis (point 4 y4 = 0), (2) points 3, 5, 6, 7, 8,
and 11, where dx = 0, and (3) the start and end points (1, 2, I, II, st, and
ed) of the complete curve. Each of these partial curves belongs to one
of the following four categories:
A. The first category curves comply with the conditions

( y 0 and dx 0) . These curves are located on and over x-axis
( y 0) and are x-increasing ( dx 0 , see Nt1-15, item 7). To this
category belong partial curves (45), (67), (811), and their parts
B. The second category curves comply with the conditions
( y 0 and dx 0) . These curves are located on and under x-axis
( y 0) and are x-decreasing ( dx 0, see Nt1-15, item 8). To this
category belong partial curve (13) and its parts.
C. The third category curves comply with the conditions
( y 0 and dx 0). These curves are located on and over x-axis
( y 0) and are x-decreasing ( dx 0). To this category belong
partial curves (52), (I6), (7II), (st8), (11ed), and their parts.
D. The fourth category curves comply with the conditions
( y 0 and dx 0). These curves are located on and under x-axis
( y 0) and are x-increasing ( dx 0). To this category belong
partial curve (34) and its parts.
The first and second categories curves are pure positive areas
curves (see HD1-5), whereas the third and fourth categories curves are
pure negative areas curves (see HD1-6).
Nt1-18: Equality signs in the y and dx relations mentioned previ-

ously mean that each of lines y = 0 and x = const can belong to any
category of curves.
Nt1-19: Curve categories A and C lie in the upper part of the diagram,
while categories B and D lie in the lower part of the diagram. Catego-
ries A and C, which are characterized by ( y 0), are the most com-
mon in thermodynamic calculations.
Nt1-20: Curve categories A and B are characterized by
( A = y dx 0), which means that areas (133'1'1, 455'4, 6
77'6'6, 89101111'8'8, 89st-8'8, 910ed'st'9, and 10
1111'ed'10) under curves (13, 45, 67, 891011, 89, 910,
and 1011) are pure positive areas (see HD1-5). On the other hand,
curve categories C and D are characterized by A = y dx 0 , which
means that areas (343'3, 522'5'5, I66'I'I, 7IIII'7'7, st
88'st-st, and 11eded'11'11) under curves (34, 52, I6, 7II,
st8, and 11ed) are pure negative areas (see HD1-6). Actually, areas
(133'1'1 and 343'3) are over curves (13 and 34) not under
them.
Nt1-21: Calculations of areas under a straight line segment are the
simplest because its start and end points are enough to fully character-
ize the line.
Below some relations and rules for a straight line segment (st_ed),
whose some arbitrarily chosen no-extreme points are sequentially
numbered (2, 3,, i+1,, n1 and n), where i is integer number that
can be 1, n1 or any integer number between them, whereas n1 is the
number of the parts of the straight line segment (st_ed) that partitioned
by/with (n2) arbitrarily chosen no-extreme points (such numbering
makes st stands for point1 and n for ed):
If xed xst = 0 xi +1 xi = 0, dx = 0 (1-38)
If xed xst > 0 xi +1 xi > 0, dx > 0 and vice versa (1-39)
If yed > 0 and yst > 0 yi +1 > 0, yi > 0 & y > 0

(1-40)
and vice versa
If yed > 0 & yst = 0 yi +1 > 0, yi 0 & y 0

(1-41)
and vice versa
If yed > 0 & yst < 0 or yed < 0 & yst > 0,
(1-42)
then the straight line segment intersects x axis.
OR1-8: The slope of any (integral or differential) part of a straight line

equals its own slope:
y i +1 y i y ed y st
= (1-43)
x i +1 x i x ed x st
which can be positive, negative, null, or . Here (ed) stands for the
end point of the straight line and (st) for its start point. Also (i+1)
stands for the end point of the straight lines part and (i) for its start
point.
OR1-9: If the algebraic x-value of an imaginary point that moves
along a straight line starting from its start point to its end one (1) in-
creases, then the line is called x-increasing (dx > 0) straight line and
(2) decreases, then the line is called x-decreasing (dx < 0). This rule is
also applicable for y-axis and leads to the following.
OR1-10: For straight lines, Point with x = 0 cannot lie between two
points with positive x-values or with negative ones, but it surely lies
between a point with positive (x) and another with negative (x). This
rule is also applicable for y-axis and leads to the following.
OR1-11: If yst and yed are not zero and both are either positive or negative,
then straight line segment (st_ed) does not intersect x-axis ( ysegment 0; see
Equation 1-40), but for opposite signs of yst and yed, the straight line
segment surely intersects x-axis (see Equation 1-42). This rule is also
applicable for y-axis.
As mentioned previously, calculations of areas under a linear par-
tial line are the simplest. Let us have a look at straight lines illustration
on y_x plane (or on the coordinates of start and end points of a straight
line segment) and determine its characteristics: (1) is it x-increasing (xed
> xst), x-decreasing (xed < xst), or constant-x? (2) Whether its dx_sign is
the same as ( xed xst ) _ sign, and (3) whether the straight line segment
intersects x-axis (yst and yed have different/opposite signs) or not, and if
not, (4) does it coincide/superpose with x-axis (if both yst and yed are
equal to zero) or contacts it in one point (if only one of yst and yed
equals zero). If you decide to continue, apply the following equation

for pure straight line segments that may touch, but do not intersect
x-axis
A under (st _ ed) streight line = (y ed + yst ) (x ed xst ) / 2 (1-44)
For lines those intersect x-axis, you first need to determine the
abscissa (xy=0) of the intersection point between the line under consid-
eration and x-axis, and then apply the equation
yed (xed x y = 0 ) yst (x y = 0 xst )

A under (st_ed) streight line = + (1-45)
2 2
where items in baskets are the areas under the parts of the straight line
that are located above and below the x-axis. These areas are pure ones.
One of them is pure positive and the other is pure negative; therefore,
when we need to deal with pure areas, this area must be divided into
two positive and negative pure areas.
Nt1-22: We shall refer to the expression type Z 0 as the pure posi-

tive Z-function and to Z 0 as the pure negative Z-function, where Z
is a variable or a function. Also we shall refer to the set of expressions
type (1) Z1 0, Z 2 0, Z3 0, etc. as the pure positive Zi-functions,
(2) Z1 0, Z 2 0, Z3 0, etc. as the pure negative Zi-functions, and
(3) Z1 0, Z 2 0, Z3 0, Z 4 0, Z5 0, etc. as the pure
Zi-functions, where index i is a positive integer number and Zi is a var-
iable or a function.
Using HD1-5 and HD1-6, the relations (1-49 through 1-55), and
the available data concerning the coordinates of the extreme points (st
and ed) of a straight line, we obtain the following new and other au-
thors rules:
NR1-3: If the algebraic signs of [ yed , yst , and ( xed xst )] -functions
are identical, then the area under the straight line segment (st_ed) is
pure positive (see HD1-5). Also, the area under the straight line seg-
ment (i_i+1) will be pure positive when [ yi +1 , yi , and ( xi +1 xi )] have
identical algebraic signs.
NR1-4: If the algebraic signs of ( y ed and yst ) are identical, while the
algebraic sign of the difference ( xed xdt ) is opposite to their sign, then
the area under the straight line segment (st_ed) is pure negative (see
HD1-6). Also, the area under the straight line segment (i_i+1) will be
pure negative when the algebraic signs of ( y i +1 and yi ) are identical,
while the sign of ( xi +1 xi ) is opposite to their sign.
NR1-5: If the algebraic signs of ( y ed and yst ) are opposite to each
other, then the area under the straight line segment (st_ed) is not pure.
It consists of two parts (a pure positive part and a pure negative one;
see HD1-5 and HD1-6). Also, the area under the straight line segment
(i_i+1) will not be pure when the algebraic signs of ( y i +1 and yi ) are
opposite to each other.
NR1-6: If ( yed = yst = 0 ), then the area under the straight line segment
(st_ed) is null (see Equation 1-44). Also, if ( yi +1 = yi = 0 ), then the ar-
ea under the straight line segment (i_i+1) is null. As any curve can be
divided into partial parts, which are defined by ( A = y dx 0)
and/or ( A = y dx 0) each, then the area under the total curve
(Atot) will be calculated using the equation
Atot = in=1 Ai (1-46)
where Ai is the algebraic value of the area under curves partial

part number (i) and n the total number of curve's partial parts.
Let us determine the areas under curves (12, III, and sted, in
Figure 1.4):
From Nt1-19, we obtain Aunder Aunder67 = A677' 6' 6 > 0, AunderI 6
= AI 66' I ' I < 0, and Aunder7II = A7 II II ' 7' 7 < 0 . Therefore:
A under67 = A 6 7 7 ' 6 ' 6 = A under67 = A 6 7 7' 6 ' 6

A under 7II = A 7 II II ' 7 ' 7 = A under 7II = A 7 II II ' 7' 7 (1-47)

A under I6 = A I 6 6 ' I ' I = A under I6 = A I 6 6 ' I ' I

It is obvious from Figure 1.4 that curve ( I 6 7 II ) consists of

the three curves ( I 6), (6 7), and (7 II ) exclusively; therefore,
taking into consideration Equation (1-47), we obtain
A under I 67II = A under I6 + A under67 + A under 7II

= A I 6 6 ' I ' I + A 6 7 7 ' 6 ' 6 A 7 II II ' 7 ' 7 (1-48)
It is clear from subfigure 1.4(B) that the absolute value of area

(6 7 7 ' 6 ' 6) is much bigger than the sum of the absolute values
of the two areas ( I 6 6 ' I ' I ) and (7 II II ' 7 ' 7), which
leads to conclude that the right side of Equation (1-48) is positive and
equals AI 6 7 II II ' I ' I , and therefore, Equation (1-48) becomes
A underI 6 7 II = A I 6 7 II II ' I ' I = A I 6 6 ' I ' I +

+ A 6 7 7 ' 6 ' 6 A 7 II II ' 7 ' 7
= A I 6 7 II II ' I ' I = A 6 7 7 ' 6 ' 6 +
+ A I 6 6 ' I ' I + A 7 II II ' 7 ' 7 > 0 (1-49)
Similarly, we obtain for the other curves in subfigure 1.4(A) the

following equations
A under 134 = A 133' 1' 1 A 3 4 3' 3 = A 13 4 1' 1 > 0 (1-50)
A under4a52 = A 4 a 55' 4 A 5 2 2' 5' 5 = A 4 a 5 2 2' 4 > 0 (1-51)
A under 12 = A 13 4 1' 1 + A 4 a 5 2 2' 4 = A 13 4 a 5 2 2' 1' 1> 0 (1-52)
And, for subfigure 1.4(C):
A st-8-9-10-11-ed-ed ' -st ' -st = (A st-8-8' -st ' -st + A 8-8-st ' -8' -8 ) + A 9-10-ed ' -st ' -9 +
+ (A 10-11-11' -ed ' -10 + A 11-ed-ed ' -11' -11 )
= A st-8-9-st + A 9-10-ed ' -st ' -9 + A 10-11-ed-10
= A st-8-9-st + A 9-10-ed ' -st ' -9 A 10-11-ed-10 (1-53)
Nt1-22A: The first and third/fourth sides of Equation (1-53) insure that
in the contrary with the areas under curves (12) and (III), the area
under curve ( st 8 9 10 11 ed ) in the same Figure 1.4 does not
consist of only one closed area, but it consists of a train of three closed
areas (the positive A 9 10 ed ' st ' 9 and the negative Ast 8 9 st and
A10 11 ed 10 ), each two of which are (as train wagons) interconnected
to each other by one point. This is because the plane closed curve that
surrounds this whole area is not simple (it intersects/crosses itself;
see OD1-7).
Nt1-23: The start and end points of a closed curve coincide and accord-
ingly their x-constant lines coincide, reducing the area between them to
zero, and the area under the curve reduces to the area inside it.
OR1-12: The area under a plane simple closed curve equals that sur-
rounded by it area.
NR1-7: The area under a more than plane simple closed curve equals
the sum of the area surrounded by the first closed part and that located
under its second open part (see ND1-2).
Nt1-24: Each of the previously discussed no-chain areas under curves
(whether it complies with any of (A = y dx 0) or (A = y dx 0)
conditions or not) and also each area that is a component (ring) of a
chain area under a curve have a fixed closed directional perimeter, the
direction of which is resulted from the direction of the curve that bor-
ders it and can be clockwise or anticlockwise. If an imaginary point
moves along the perimeter of the area under the curve so that its mo-
tion along the bordering curve coincides with the curves direction,
then its circulation along the areas perimeter can be either clockwise
or anticlockwise. All previously discussed positive areas under curves
(whether they were partial or not) have perimeters with clockwise di-
rection, and all previously discussed negative ones have perimeters
with anticlockwise direction.
NR1-8: The area under a curve or under a part of it is positive (not
pure positive) if its perimeter has a clockwise direction, else it is a
negative one.
From Equations (1-49) and (1-53), we conclude the following.
NR1-9: The algebraic sum of areas under neighboring curves is a

new-closed area/new-chain-of-closed areas Ast ed ed ' st ' st (st stands
for the curves start point 1, I, or st and ed stands for its end point
2, II, or ed) that is bordered by (1) the total curve (sted) that results
from interconnecting these neighboring curves, (2) the x = constant
line sector that connects the end point (ed) of the total curve with its
x-projection (ed'), (3) the straight-line sector that interconnects the
x-projections of the end and start points (ed' and st') of the total curve,
and (4) the x = constant line sector that connects the start point (st) of
the total curve with its x-projection (st').
The way of calculating areas under curves (the graphical, analyti-
cal, and tabular) depends usually on the available data.
1.2.1.1 Graphical calculation of the area under y = f(x) curve
For this paragraph: 1) we shall number the projections of curves points on

the coordinate axes with/by their own numbers subscripted with/by the
label/name of the coordinate axes (e.g., point 2x' is the projection of point
2 on x'-axis), 2) our reference is Figure 1.6 that consists of five subfigures
(I through V). We shall refer to
any of these 5 subfigures within
this paragraph directly without
naming their figures number
If the relation y = f ( x) is
given graphically, then the prior-
ity will be given to the graphical
calculation.
Let us discuss the calcula-
tion of the area under the un-
numbered, smooth, and dotted
curve that illustrated in Subfig-
ure I It is clear from
Subfigure I that this curve is x-
increasing ( dx 0) one that is
located over x-axis ( y > 0), and
accordingly (see HD1-5) it is a
pure positive curve, so it does
not suffer from heterogeneity in
the sign of (y) and/or (dx), and
the area under it is a pure posi-
tive area. Therefore, there is no
need to divide it into partial
curves before measuring it (see
Nt1-16). The area under this
curve and under any of its parts
can be measured directly in a
single-step measurement from
Subfigure I using an existing Figure 1.6. 1) Transforming the no
planimeter (x-axis in Subfigure I compact graph into a compact one. 2)
is not displaced; it is congruent Approximating the unnumbered, smooth,
with y = 0 line). In the absence and dotted curve by a numbered refracted
of instruments for measuring line that consists of continuous straight
line segments.
areas, and since the analytical
equation of the mentioned curve is unknown, the graphical calculation of

the area under the dotted curve can be done as follows: 1) connect each two
neighboring points with a straight line (this transforms the dotted line that
consists of n points into a refracted one that consists of n-1 straight line
segments), 2) create from each lines point a vertical to x-axis line that ends
on it (on x-axis). In so doing the area under the dotted line divides into
(n-1) trapezoids (rectangles are special cases of trapezoids) and therefore
(see Equation 1-44),
n 1
y + yi n 1
A under dotted line = i +1 (x i +1 x i ) = ( y avgi +1 i x i +1 i ) (1-54)
i =1 2 i =1
In this equation, the point with number i = 1 is point 1, which

stands for the beginning of the replacing curve, and the point number i = n
+ 1 is point E, which stands for the end of the replacing curve. The coor-
dinates of lines points in this equation can be measured or read from
lines graph.
The consumed time in the above described graphical calculation of
the area under a dotted curve depends on the number of curves points (n)
that participate in calculations, the greater number of points (n) the longer
consumed time and accordingly the greater exactness. Therefore, and
since the dotted curve in Subfigure I consists of 45 points, it is impractical to
calculate the area under it according to the above description. One of the prac-
tical ways is as follows: (1) Without any calculations we graphically ap-
proximate the plane dotted smooth line with/by a plane refracted line that
consists of straight line segments to comply with the relation: AURLAUDL
that transforms for subfigure I into: Area (1-2-3-4-5-6-7-E)AUDL. The
indexes URL and UDL stand for under the refracted line and under the
dotted line respectively. (2) We shall refer to the dotted line by original
curve and to the refracted line by replacing curve. The start point of the
original curve may not coincide with point 1, but it lies on x-constant line (11x)
or on its extension. Also, the end point of the original curve may not coincide
with point E, but it lies on x-constant line (EEx) or on its extension. As can be
seen from Subfigure I, (3) the original and the replacing curves are in good
convergence, and (4) the replacing curve and the area under it are also pure
positive curve and area, respectively. The decrease in the number (n) of the
parts (straight-line segments) constituting the replacing curve eases the
calculation of the area under it and simultaneously decreases the accuracy
of the calculation. The calculation here will be executed according to
Equation (1-54).
The following discussions require introducing the following definitions

HD1-7A: We shall refer to: 1) the rectangle, whose vertices are the in-
tersection points of the closest to plane graphs curve(s) gridlines; those
may contact graphs curves without intersecting them as the main
graphs frame. Rectangle A-B-C-D-A in subfigures II through IV is
graphs 1-6 main frame, 2) the rectangular area that includes graphs
curves (the main graphs frame) and the coordinate axes as the plane
graphs range. This means that the sides of each of the plane graphs
range and the main graphs frame are parallel, whereas some of them
(these sides) are parallel to the horizontal and the others to the vertical
coordinate axes. 3) The graph, whose main and range frames are con-
gruent as the compact graph. A coordinate axis of the compact graph is
either a crosser or a tangent to its main frame. The graphs in subfigures
IV and V are compact; but that in subfigure V is a magnified copy of
subfigure IV to occupy the same width as subfigure I.
Let us transform the no compact graph in subfigure (I) into a compact

one (see Subfigure IV). To determine graphs 1-6 main frame we deter-
mine graphs gridlines that intersect curve 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-E. According to
the labels of x and y axes these gridlines are y=20 [y-units], y=25 [y-units]
and y=30 [y-units] that located between curves 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-E no inter-
secting gridlines y=15 [y-units] and y=35 [y-units] in addition to Gridlines
x=20 [x-units], x=25 [x-units], x=30 [x-units], x=35 [x-units], x=40
[x-units], x=45 [x-units], x=50 [x-units], x=55 [x-units], x=60 [x-units],
and x=65 [x-units], that located between curves 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-E no inter-
secting gridlines x=15 [x-units] and x=70 [x-units]. Thus the closest to
graphs 1-6 curve 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-E gridlines those may contact the curves
without intersecting them are grid lines y=35 [y-units], x=70 [x-units],
y=15 [y-units] and x=15 [x-units] and therefore, the graphs 1-6 main
frame is rectangle A-B-C-D-A.
To reach the compact graph (see subfigure IV), we cut-off/exclude
/eliminate the graphs areas that are outside rectangle A-B-C-D-A. As
seen from Subfigures II and IV the sum of these unnecessary areas is the
highlighted area in Subfigure II. The existing mathematical methods allow
eliminating this highlighted area without decreasing graphs calculating
effectiveness. This can be done by: (A) cutting off the highlighted area
under line y=15 [y-units] with deleting y-axis part that borders it. Such
cutting off results 1) disappearing each of the low part of y-axis and the
gridlines in the cut off area, 2) displacing vertically x-axis with its nota-
tions to superpose on/with gridline y=15 [y-units] (see subfigures II
and III) and 3) replacing each x in/on the displaced x-axis notations by x'
(x-axis notations that confuse the view of subfigure III were deleted from
it; because they can be restored any time from the label of the coordinate
axis e.g., x' and curves points numbers see the first lines of 1.2.1.1)
and (B) cutting off the highlighted area between the remaining of y-axis
and line A-B that superposes on/with gridline x=15 [x-units] (see Subfig-
ure IV). Such cutting off results 1) disappearing the gridlines in the cut off
area, 2) displacing horizontally the remaining of y-axis with its notations
to superpose on/with gridline x=15 [x-units] or line A-B (see Subfigures
III and IV) and 3) replacing y in the displaced y-axis label by y'. The re-
sulted compact graph in subfigure IV allows 1) reading the coordinates of
any point of the represented curve 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-E and 2) calculating ana-
lytically and graphically the areas between the represented curve and each
of the eliminated x-axis (Area 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-E-Ex-1x-1) and the displaced
x'-axis (Area 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-E-Ex'-1x'-1). Point 1x' exists in subfigure IV
without labeling; it is the projection of point 1 on x'-axis, whose ordinate
is (15 [y-units] or 15 [y'-units]).
In the following we shall prove that the compact graph in subfigure
IV fully replaces the full graph in subfigure I. The coordinates of any
point of the refracted line (1234567E) or of its original dotted line
can be easily read/obtained from any of the two subfigures, Therefore,
calculating area (Area 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-E-Ex-1x-1) that is the area between the
refracted line (1234567E) and the original x-axis can be done
using the same equation (1-54) for both subfigures. The measurement of
the mentioned area using an existing planimeter with taking in considera-
tion graphs scale does not need any other steps for subfigure I; but the
measurement of area 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-E-Ex-1x-1 using Subfigure IV and an
existing planimeter cannot be done in the absence of the relationship be-
tween the mentioned area and other areas, those exist in Subfigure IV.
From the comparison between Subfigures I and IV and taking in consider-
ation the creation of figure 1.6 we find that x'-axis superposes with/on
gridline y=y'=15 and therefore,
A1-2-3-4-5-6-7-E-Ex-1x-1 = A1-2-3-4-5-6-7-E-Ex'-1x'-1+yA (xE x1)
= A1-2-3-4-5-6-7-E-Ex'-1x'-1+yA (x'E x'1) (1-55)
All constituents of the right side of this equation can be obtained from
Subfigure IV and therefore we can measure area 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-E-Ex-1x-1
through: 1) Measuring the existing in Subfigure IV area 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-E-
Ex'-1x'-1 using an existing planimeter with taking in consideration graphs
scale. 2) Substituting in equation 1-55 the values of the measured area

1-2-3-4-5-6-7-E-Ex'-1x'-1 in y'x' units, y'A in y' units, x'E in x' units and x'1
in x' units we obtain the measured value of area 1-2-3-4-5-6-7-E-Ex-1x-1
Nt1-24A: No contradiction in equation (1-55). Ex is the label/name of

the point that is the x-projection of point E of the refracted curve,
whereas xE is the x-value of point E.
Nt1-24B: For closed curves the start and end points (1 and E) are con-
gruent; therefore: xE x1 = x'E x'1 = x"E x"1 = 0,
yx" (x"E x"1 ) = yx' (x'E x'1 ) = yx (xE x1 ) = 0, and
A1234 567EE' 1' 1 = A123456 7Eba 1 = A1234567Eb' a ' 1 ,
which insures rules (OR1-12 and NR1-7).
Nt1-25: To increase the accuracy of the graphical calculation, the scale

of the graphs and diagrams is usually increased. Often, this procedure
is accompanied (associated) with transforming the no compact graph
into a compact one.
Nt1-25A: Although the readings of the coordinates of any of diagrams
point are the same, whether they were obtained using the original or the
displaced coordinate axes, the distance from a point in the diagram to
the axis changes with changing the displacement of the axis; therefore,
with the exception of obtaining the coordinates of graphs points and/or
calculating the areas of plane simple closed curves (see OR1-12), the
displacement of the coordinate axes must be taken into consideration in
graphical calculations.
Conclusion 1-1: Calculating the real area under function y = f (x) that
is represented in scale on a graph must be executed with taking into
consideration the scale of the graph (see Nt1-11) and the displacement
of the coordinate axes (see Nt1-25), see also (1.2.1).
1.2.1.2 Analytical calculation of the area under y = f(x) curve
If the function y = f ( x) is given analytically, then the priority for calcu-

lating the area under this curve will be the analytical one because it is
accurate and rarely difficult for execution (this depends on the complexity
of the y = f (x) function). To whatever extent the curve is complicated, the
given data divide, if necessary, the multiequation curve into single-
equation ones (parts) and almost completely defines each part by its
equation and limits, but the calculator will have to determine the points of
the inversion in the sign ( 0 or 0) of y or dx of a curve. Therefore, the
analytical calculation of the area under each part is often simple. The area
under the whole curve, which equals the algebraic sum of all partial areas
under it, is also simple. To calculate each of the sum of all positive differ-
ential areas and the sum of all negative differential areas under the whole
curve, we need to determine all points of the inversion in the sign of the
expression ydx.
Nt1-26: According to Nt1-19 (see the underlined), the function

y = f(x) is often positive in thermodynamic calculations; therefore, the
determination of the areas sign is often reduced to the determination of
dx_sign.
1.2.1.3 Tabular calculation of the area under y = f(x) curve
If the function y = f ( x) is given tabularly, then the priority for calculating

the area under this curve will be the tabular one. The order of numbering
each of the curves points and the tables lines must be sequential. There-
fore, the first line of the table (line no. 1) contains the two (x1 and y1)
coordinates of the first (start) point of the curve, the second contains x2
and y2 of the second point, line (i) contains xi and yi of point no. (i), and so
on. If the total number of the tabulated points is undefined, the last/end
point of the curve can be numbered/symbolized as E and the point be-
fore it is (E 1), The corresponding line to E-point can be numbered as
E-line and its coordinates symbols can be xE and yE. If we imaginarily
plot the points of the curve, which represents the tabular data, on a y_x
plane, number each point by the tables line number that includes its coor-
dinates, connect each neighboring two points by/with a straight line, and
create x = constant lines from each point until x-axis, then we obtain a
graph that is similar to the illustration in Figure 1.6. Obviously, the area
under the plotted, on the basis of the given, tabular refracted curve can be
calculated using Equation (1-54). This means that (1) the tabular calcula-
tion of the area under the given tabular curve does not require any graph-
ical creations, it requires only applying Equation (1-54). If the partial lines
(i_i+1) of the refracted tabular curve (12iE) are straight ones,
then Nt1-22 and NR1-3 through NR1-6 can be applied to execute the cal-
culations. There is no need here to determine the points at which dx in-
verts its sign as it keeps this sign throughout the straight-line sector. But
the inversion in the sign ( 0 or 0) of y is still needed (we need to find
the points with y = 0 that are situated between neighboring points with
different y-signs). Each y = 0 point divides the straight-line sector (to
which it belongs) into two pure (positive and negative) areas curves
(straight lines) (see HD1-5 and HD1-6).
Figure 1.7. The graphical interpolation and extrapolation of

the tabular data of a plane curve.
1.2.2 TABULAR DETERMINATION OF y-VALUE VERSUS A

GIVEN x-VALUE
From s 1.2.1.1 and 1.2.1.3 and Figure 1.7, whose symbolizing system is
the same as that explained in 1.2.1.3, we conclude the following:
1) The procedure of graphical determination of the value of y = f (x)

versus any x-value within graphs x-interval (x1 xE) is also time-
consuming and provide the same exactness value that depends on
the graphs scale (see the determination of yA in Figure 1.7).
2) Tabular determination of y-value versus any x-value that exists in the
lines of the table is exact, very comfortable, and least time-consuming.
Nt1-27: It is clear from Figure 1.7 that a small part (i_i+1) of the curve
(1_E), whose x-interval (xi_xi + 1) includes the given xA-value is enough
to determine the value of yA = f(xA). The creation of this small part
(i_i + 1) for exact/almost-exact calculating yA-value versus the given
xA-value requires (1) knowing the coordinates of points (i 1 through i
+ 2) and (2) creating a curve (i 1 through i + 2), to which we shall
refer as the interpolation line, in a large scale. Such partial graph crea-
tion warrantees obtaining yA-values exactness that is a little bit lower

than the exactness of points (i and i + 1). This procedure is called non-
linear interpolation (or simply interpolation). Thus, to be exact, the
nonlinear interpolation requires using at least three lines of the exact
table of function y = f (x), whose x-interval includes the given x-value
(whose xmax and xmin comply with the condition xmax > xgiven > xmin).
For the cases that allow considering linear relationship y = f(x) be-
tween any two tables successive lines (e.g., i and i + 1), functions
y = f(x) curve (1_E in Figure 1.7) becomes a refracted line whose re-
fraction points are defined by the tables lines and whose parts are the
straight line segments (i_i + 1) that interconnect each two successive
refraction points. We shall refer to this refracted line as the linear in-
terpolation line, and to the procedure applied to obtain y-value versus
a given x-value that uses the linear interpolation line or a part of it as
the linear interpolation. In this case, the equation of any of the straight
line segments (i_i + 1) is the well-known equation of the line passing
through the two different points i(xi, yi) and i(xi+1, yi+1), that is,
y yi x xi x xi
= from which y = y i + ( y i +1 y i ) (1-56)
y i +1 y i x i +1 x i x i +1 x i
where x is the given x-value that lies between xi and xi + 1.

This means that, when the tables data allow linear interpolation,
it is sufficient, for tabular determination of y-value versus any x-value
that included within the tables x-interval, to substitute tables succes-
sive lines (i and i + 1), whose x-interval includes the given x-value, with
the given x-value in Equation (1-56) and calculate the required y-value.
Nt1-28: If the given x-value is outside the x-interval (x1_xE) of the table
(this eliminates the possibility of using interpolation) and in the
absence other possibilities for calculations, we find ourselves obliged
to extend the tabular curve (1E) so that the given x-value is inside the
x-interval (xB_xC) of the extended curve BC (see Figure 1.7) and de-
termine the sought y-value through curve BC. This procedure is
known as extrapolation and has two disadvantages: (1) there is no war-
rantee that the extension of the tabular curve (1 E) is done correctly,
and (2) it is not practical to create the whole curve BC in a consid-
erably large scale to execute one relatively exact calculation; therefore,
the extrapolation that must be done only as a last resort must not
require (1) large extension of the tabular curve and (2) must not in-
volve all tabular lines. Thus, using at least three of the extreme lines of
the table that adjoin the given x-value, we create the side part of curve
1_E that is closer to the point under consideration/to be found (B or C;

see Figure 1.7) and somehow extend it so that it includes the point un-
der consideration. In other words, we magnify the appropriate of the
two dashed rectangles in Figure 1.7.
Note that the extrapolation can also be used as a last resort in the
case of presenting the function y = f (x) graphically.
The authors advice is creating the extensions (B_1 and/or E_C) as
straight tangents to curves (1_2_3 and/or E-2_E-1_E), respectively.
Using exact and comprehensive/detailed y-value versus x-value
tables with considering the linear relationship y = f (x) between any two
tables successive lines (e.g., i and i + 1) in calculating the areas under
y = f (x) curves gives almost exact results. Equation (1-54) is used here.
We remind here that Equation (1-56) is used in calculating almost exactly
the y-values versus given x-values from the same exact and comprehen-
sive tables.
Using exact and abbreviated/not-detailed y-value versus x-value
tables with Equations (1-54) and (1-56) or any of them in calculations
gives approximate results. Almost exact results can be reached when
using these tables to obtain the large scale graph of the nonlinear inter-
polation line y = f (x) or its part that will be the base to execute the
required calculations graphically as explained previously (see 1.2.1.1
and the underlined text in Nt1-25 and Nt1-27).
1.2.3 DIFFERENCE BETWEEN TWO FUNCTIONS OF THE SAME

VARIABLE
It is obvious that the sum/difference of two plane functions of the same

variable [y2 = f2(x) and y1 = f1(x)] equals/is a third plane function of the
same variable [y3 = f3(x)] or
y3 = y2 y1 = f3 (x) (1-56a)
Let us analyze Equation (1-56a) for the special case when each of the
resulted function y3 = f3 (x) and any of the two added/subtracted func-
tions [ y 2 = f 2 (x) or y1 = f1 (x) ] are linear [e.g., y3 = f3 (x) = C1 + C2 x and
y1 = f1 (x) = A1 + A 2 x ]. Equation (1-56a) becomes (here A1, A2, B1, B2,
and C1, C2 are the constants of functions y1, y2, and y3, respectively):
y 2 = y3 y1 = ( C1 + C2 x ) ( A1 + A2 x )
= ( C1 A1 ) + ( C2 A 2 ) x = B1 + B2 x (1-57)
which is a linear equation.

A similar analysis on the inverse functions [ x1 = f11 (y), x 2 = f 21 (y),
and x3 = f31 (y) ] of functions [ y1 = f1 (x), y 2 = f 2 (x), and y3 = f3 (x) ]
leads to
x2 = x3 x1 = ( C'1 + C'2 x ) ( A'1 + A'2 x )

= ( C'1 A'1 ) + ( C'2 A'2 ) x = B'1 + B'2 x (1-58)
where A'1, A'2, B'1, B'2, and C'1, C'2 are the constants of inverse
functions x1, x2, and x3, respectively.
Equations (1-57) and (1-58) can be read as follows.

HR1-1: If two of the three plane functions/inverse-functions of the
same variable that constitute a subtracting/summing equation type
[ y2 = y3 y1 or x2 = x3 x1 ] are linear functions, then the third func-
tion/equation will invariably be a linear one that is represented in the
y_x plane, when its second constant does not equal 0, by an inclined
straight line, and when it equals 0, by functions/inverse-functions
constant straight line. Or:
Figure 1.8. The twin curves

HR1-2: In the y_x plane, the horizontal distance between two no-
horizontal straight lines is (1) a linear function of x for different slope
lines and (2) an x-independent (x = constant) for identical slopes
(equal distanced in the horizontal direction) straight lines.
ND1-3: If a curve y = f(x) that is illustrated in scale in plane Cartesian
coordinates and denoted as (Or) (Original curve) is copied (with its
numbered main points) and its copies are pasted without deforming or
rotating on other places of the same graph (see Figure 1.8), then this
original curve (Or) and its copies (I, II, kn) are the twin curves, or
the Same Size, Configuration/shape, and Orientation (SSCO) curves.
We shall refer to a particular point (e.g., the start point 1) of a particu-
lar curve (e.g., curve II) as point (1II ) and to its coordinates in the Car-
tesian system, whose axes are ( x & y ), as ( x1II , y1II ). The creation of
a twin (e.g., curve I) to/of this curve (II) can be imagined (see the
above) as follows: we first copy curve (II) on site (the copy is now
congruent-with/superposed-on its original curve II) and starting from
this initial position, the copy of curve (II) is rigidly transformed (it is
straight displaced as a hard body without rotating or deforming) into
its position (I) on Figure 1.8). This means that the displacements of all
points of the copy of curve (II) are the same in value and direction, and
therefore the distance (LII _ I ) between curve (II) and its copy/twin (I) is
measured as the straight distance between any two Same-Number
/Counterpart Points (SNPs or CPs) of the two twin curves, or
LII _ I = ( LII _ I )SNP = L1II _1I = L2II _ 2I = L3II _ 3I

= L4II _ 4I = L5II _ 5I = L6II _ 6I = L7II _ 7I or
y II _ I = ( y II _ I )SNP = ( y II y I )SNP = y1II y1I

= y 2II y 2I = = y 6II y 6I = y 7II y 7I
(1-59)
x II _ I = ( x II _ I )SNP = ( x II x I )SNP = x1II x1I

= x 2II x 2I = = x 6II x 6I = x 7II x 7I
From which we obtain
yII _I = y1II y1I and xII _I = x1II x1I (1-60)

The creation of curve (II) in Figure 1.8 can be imagined as the result
of the rigid transformation of the original curve (Or) with its system of
coordinates vertically for y II _ Or = y1II y1Or and horizontally for
x II _ Or = x1II x1Or . After such transformation, curve (Or) superposes
on/with curve (II). Denoting the displaced axes as Y and X and the origin
of the displaced coordinates by O', we can say the following:
1) The equation of curve (II) in plane (Y_X) can be obtained from the
equation of curve (Or) in plane (y_x) by replacement (Or by II, y by
Y, and x by X). Thus, the equation of curve (II) in plane (Y_X) is
YII = f ( X II ) (1-61)
2) The coordinates of point (1II) in plane (Y_X) are

Y1II = y1II y o ' = y1Or 0 = y1Or and X1II = x1II x o ' = x1Or (1-62)
To obtain the equation of curve (II) in plane (y_x) from Equation

(1-61), we apply the mathematical method of translation of axes. For
this purpose, we replace (YII and XII) in Equation (1-61) by their
equivalents from Figure 1.8, where Y = y yo ' and X = x xo' , and
obtain
(
y II y O 'II = f x II x O 'II ) (1-63)
Taking into consideration Equations (1-60) and (1-62), we obtain
(
y II y1II + y1Or = f x II x1II + x1Or )
= y II y II _ Or = f ( x II x II _ Or ) (1-64)
And, for copy (k) that is not illustrated in Figure 1.8
(
y k y1k + y1Or = f x k x1k + x1Or )
= y k y k _ Or = f ( x k x k _ Or ) (1-64a)
If the original curve starts from the origin of coordinates (i.e., if

y1or = 0 and x1or = 0 ), the values of yII _ Or and xII _ Or will be y1II
and x1II , respectively, and Equation (1-64a) becomes
(y II ) (
y1II = f x II x1II ) (1-64b)
As yII and xII are the coordinates of the unfixed point of curve II
(they are variables), while y1II and x1II are the coordinates of the
start/initial fixed point 1II (they are the constants of curve II), we can
form an equation as
For curve (II) y y1 = f ( x x1

II II
) or
II
(
y y1 = f x x1 )
II II
or (
yII y1II = f xII x1II ) (1-65)
Following the same procedure mentioned previously, we can form

an equation for copy (k), regardless of the presence or absence of its il-
lustration in Figure 1.8
(
For curve (k): y y1k = f x x1k ) or
k
(
y y1 = f x x1
k
)
k or (
yk y1k = f xk x1k ) (1-66)
And for copy(I)
(
y y1I = f x x1I ) (1-66a)
From Equation 1-59, we conclude the following.
Conclusion 1-2: The general form equation of all twin curves that
have the same SSCO in Cartesian coordinates is see the second of
equations 1-66)
(
y y1k = f x x1k )
where k stands for twin curve no. k that can be any positive integer
number and y1k and x1k are the coordinates of the initial point of the
curve under consideration (k).
Nt1-29: From the beginning of ND1-3 till now, we used the symbol
f(), where (f) is free from indexes, subscripts, superscripts, and
primes to insist that, during this analysis, the structure of the function
is kept the same. Here, three different structure functions are delivered
to explain what we mean by the structure of a function:
( ) ( ) ( )
3
Functions f x x1k = A1 x x1k + A 3 x x1k and
f ( x ) = A1x + A 2 x3 are the same-structure functions.
Functions f ( x ) = A1 sin(x B) A 2 cos 2(x B) and
f ( x ) = A1 sin x A 2 cos 2x are the same-structure
functions.
(xx )
( ) ( )
Functions f x x1k = A1 x x1k + A 3 e 1k and
f ( x ) = A1x + A3e x are the same-structure functions.
The difference between any two same-structure functions is lim-

ited in the variables expression that may be a sum of the variable and
a constant that are included inside parentheses such as [x, XII,
(x II x O 'II ), and so on]. Therefore, a set of same-structure functions
can be expressed by one general-form equation. The terms same-
structure function and general-form equation are widely used in Chap-
ter 6 of this book.
Conclusion 1-3: The constituents of each pair of a set of twin curves are
equal distanced in the direction of any straight line that interconnects the
counterpart points of its constituents. And, it happens that the counterpart
(same code) points such as initial, final, and central points of more than
two twin curves lie on the same straight line.
In Chapter 6, we shall discuss two special cases of twin curves when
the constituents of each pair of curves are equal distanced in the vertical
direction (for the first special case) or in the horizontal direction (for the
second special case). For the first special case, X k _ Or = const k X = 0,
Equation (1-64a) becomes
yk yk _Or = f ( xk ) (1-67)
And, for the second special case, Yk _ Or = const k Y = 0, Equation
(1-64a) becomes y k = f ( x k x k _ Or ) . This direct function equation is not

appropriate for calculations and discussions; therefore, we use its inverse
f1 ( yk ) = xk xk _ Or = xk const kx (1-68)
For the case when the original curve starts from the origin of coordinates,
y1Or = x1Or = 0 y k _ Or = y1k and x k _ Or = x1k (see the text between
Equations (1-64a) and (1-65); therefore, Equation (1-67), for equal dis-
tanced in the vertical direction twin curves, becomes
yk y1k = f ( xk ) (1-69)
And, Equation (1-68), for equal distanced in the horizontal direction

twin curves, becomes
f1 ( yk ) = xk x1k (1-70)
HD1-8: In the common case, when the plane coordinate axes (y and x)
divide their graph into 4 quadrants (I through IV), a set of twin (SSCO)
curves that are expressed by equation y y1 = f ( x x1 ) or its in-
k k
verse x x1 = f1 ( y y1
k k
) includes only one curve, whose equation is
the simplestA among the equations of its twins and its characteristic
point to which we shall refer as main characteristic point superposes
on the origin of coordinates. We shall refer to this curve as the Mas-
ter/Configuration curve (MC-curve) of the set of twin (SSCO) curves.
The MC-curve is governed/expressed by the Master/Configuration
equation (MC equation) [ y = f ( x ) or its inverse x = f1 ( y )] that
equals zero for [ x = 0 or y = 0].
A. The circle whose equation is the simplest is the one whose centre
superposes on the origin of coordinates. Therefore, the graphs that
do not occupy all four quadrants of the coordinate plane do not in-
clude any twin circle whose equation is the simplest.
As seen previously, the condition the original curve starts from
the origin of coordinates simplifies twin curves equations, calcula-
tions, and accordingly creation.
1.3 SUMMARY
A dimension (physical characteristic), such as temperature, pressure, and

mass, is expressed by two interconnected measurements (parts), numerical
and unit. And, it is denoted by a symbol (e.g., T for temperature, p for
pressure, and m for mass). In the direct expression, the unit follows directly
the numerical part, for example, T = 65(F) = 65F, which is read as the
temperature is sixty-five degrees Fahrenheit. But in the indirect expres-
sion, the two parts of the dimension are separated (in this case, the unit
follows the dimensions symbol), for example, T [F ] = 65, (F) which is
read as the temperature in degrees Fahrenheit is sixty-five.
The main relations between temperature scales are as follows:
1) T[K] = T[C] + 273.15, which is read as the temperature in kelvins

equals the sum of the temperature in degrees Celsius and 273.15. Thus,
if T = 50C, then T = [C] = 50 and T[K] = 50 + 273.15 = 323.15, so
T = 323.15K.
2) T [R] = 1.8 T [K]. For T [K] = 323.15,
T [R] = 1.8 323.15 = 581.67, or T = 581.67 R.
3) T [R] = T [F] + 459.67. For T [R] = 581.67,
T [F] = T [R] 459.67 = 581.67 459.67 = 122, so T = 122 F.
A unit can be simple (its full name cannot be split into more than one
unit name) or complex (its full name cannot be split into more than one
unit name). The metric horsepower, hp(M), is a simple unit (the only unit
name that can be extracted through splitting this full name is horse-
power), whereas the Watt-hour is a complex unit (its full name can be split
into Watt a power unit and hour a time). The unit of dimension D
(see Equation 1-1) is a fraction in which each of the numerator and de-
nominator is a complex unit consisting of two simple units, and it can be
ch s2 ch s2
written as follows: , , (ch s2 ) / (K kgf ), [ch-s2/kgf-K],
K kgf K kgf
[ch s2/kgf K], ch-s2/kgf-K, and ch s2/kgf K. In addition, we note that when
the complex unit is inside brackets or parentheses, it can be written directly
(without a space) after the number preceding it, otherwise a space is
required.
CHAPTER ENDNOTES
1. Isaac NewtonWikipedia, the free encyclopedia, https://en.wikipedia

.org/wiki/Isaac_Newton
2. United States customary unitsWikipedia, the free encyclopedia,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/United_States_customary_units
3. Yunus A. Cengel, Michael A Boles Thermodynamics: An Engi-
neering Approach, 8th ed., McGraw-Hill Education, 2014, ISBN-
9814595292, 9789814595292, in English, p. 4.
4. Kilogram-forceWikipedia, the free encyclopedia,
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kilogram-force
5. Gravity of EarthWikipedia, the free encyclopedia, https://en
.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gravity_of_Earth
6. Helal M.I., 2006, TECHNICAL THERMODYNAMICS, 2nd ed.,

Damascus University Press, Damascus, Vol.1, in Arabic, p.25
7. Partially selected from Helal M.I. 2006, p.25
8. HorsepowerWikipedia, the free encyclopedia, https://en.wikipedia
.org/wiki/Horsepower
9. Claus Borgnakke, Richard E. Sonntag Fundamentals of Thermo-
dynamics, 8th ed., Wiley; 8 edition (December 26, 2012),
ISBN-13: 978-1118131992, in English, p. 23.
10. Ibid.
11. Energy, Power, and Torque - challengers101.com challengers101.com
/EnPwTq.html.
12. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN TORQUE AND POWER - ... www
.idc-online.com/technical_references/pdfs/mechanical...
13. Plane Curvefrom Wolfram MathWorld. mathworld.wolfram.com
General Plane Curves
14. What is a smooth curve? considering graphing (y=2x squared ...
answers.yahoo.com ... Education & Reference Homework Help
15. Closed Curvefrom Wolfram MathWorld. mathworld.wolfram
.com ... Curves General Curves
16. Mathwords: Simple Closed Curve. www.mathwords.com/s/simple_
closed_cu.
17. Planimeterdefinition of planimeter by the Free Online Dictionary
www.thefreedictionary.com/planimeter
INDEX
A B
Absolute pressure, 76 Barometer, 76
Absolute temperature scales, 13 Boltzmann constant, 77
Absolute zero, 12 Boundary work
Absolutely pure negative area, 23 calculation, 99101
Absolutely pure positive area, 23 equations for calculating,
Acceleration unit, 5 130131
Additive dimension, 71, 100 British thermal unit (Btu), 10
Adiabatic expansion process,
214 C
Adiabatic process, first law of Caloric intensive properties,
thermodynamics for any gas, 113128
179 enthalpy, 120121
Amagats law of partial volume, ideal gas entropy, as state
96 property, 121128
Analytical calculation, of area internal energy, 114
under y=f(x) curve, 3839 constituents of, 116118
AR cycle, 245246 introduction, 114
elementary isentrops and molecular kinetic energies,
isotherms, 248249 114116
Area under plane curve as state property, 118120
calculation of, 2033 Calorie (cal), definition of, 10
analytical, 3839 Carnot cycle, 212217
graphical, 3438 Carnot, Sadi, 212
tabular, 3940 Carnot theorem, introduction to,
Atomic energy, definition of, 52 224
Atomic Fission, 52 Celsius scale, 13
Atomic mass (ma), definition of, Centigrade scale. See Celsius scale
62 Chemical energy, definition of, 52
Automatic/spontaneous processes, Chemical state change processes
195 of gas, heat transfer
Avogadros law, 9294 calculations for, 162164
262 INDEX
Clapeyron equation. See Ideal-gas, E

laws Effectiveness, definition of, 204
Clausius, Rudolf, 69 Einsteins equation, 141
Closed curve, definition of, 20 Electrical energy, definition of, 52
Closed process, first law of Electromagnetic energy, definition
thermodynamics for any gas, of, 52
179180 Electrons, kinetic energy of, 115
Closed stationary systems, 69 Energy and its transformations
Cohesive forces, 119 energy transformation, 52
Committee on Data for Science introduction, 51
and Technology (CODATA), types of energy, 5152
60 Energy transformation
Compression ignition engines, effectiveness (ETE), 205
57 Energy units, definition of, 1012
Concept of mass, 8 English system. See also U.S.
Conservation of energy principle, customary system
165 power units of, 11
first law forms, 165166 pressure unit in, 9
introduction, 165 Enthalpy, 120121
Constant-x straight line, 23 changes, calculation of, 182183
Constant-y straight line, 23 Entropy-decreasing, temperature-
Conversion factor between the decreasing and compression
newton N and kgf (CFNK), 7 process, 133
Conversion factors Entropy, definition of, 176
equations with, 1516 Entropy-increasing, temperature-
free of, 1516 increasing and expansion
Coulomb, 13 process, 133
Cyclic operating heat engine Equation, definition of, 18
(COE), 190, 191 Equilibrium process, 8185
and thermodynamic cycle, Equilibrium state of system, 74
200204 Equipollent thermodynamic cycle,
211212
D Expansion process, definition of,
Daltons law of partial pressure, 173
96 Extensive property, 70
Dimension, definition of, 1 External combustion engines, 58
Direct thermodynamic (power) Extrapolation, definition of, 41
cycle, 197199
Directional curve, definition of, F
1920 Fahrenheit scale, 13
Dual-side contacting parts, 247 Figurative point, 129
Dual-side equation, definition First-class regeneratable cycle,
of, 18 237
INDEX 263
First law of thermodynamics Fowler, Ralph H., 164165

analytical expression for, French chevaux (ch), 1112
166168 Fuel, heating value of, 163
for any gas, 177180 Fullness factor of p_v diagram (),
for adiabatic process, 179 206
for closed process, 179180 Fully reversible regeneratable
for isobaric process, 178 cycle, 237
for isochoric process, 177178 Fusion energies, 52
for isothermal process, 179
chemical state change processes G
of gas, heat transfer Gas, 59
calculations for, 162164 curve, 129
conservation of energy principle, expansion curves, 130
165 Gas state change processes
first law forms, 165166 graphical representation of,
introduction, 165 129130
gas state change processes, heat heat transfer calculations during.
transfer calculations during, See Heat transfer calculations
109 physical ideal, transferred heat
boundary work and transferred during, 144161
heat, calculation of, 130131 Gas turbine engine, 57
caloric intensive properties, Gradual x-increasing and
113128 decreasing curve, 23
gas state change processes, Graphical calculation, of area
graphical representation of, under y=f(x) curve, 3438
129130
rules, definitions, and notes, H
131139 Heat capacity (C), 110
specific heat of mixture, Heat energy into mechanical
161162 energy, transformation of,
specific heats of gases, 190192
determination of, 139144 Heat engine, 5255
specific transferred heat and thermal energy into mechanical
specific heat, 109113 in, 55
transferred heat during external combustion engines,
physical ideal gas state 58
change processes, 144161 internal combustion engines,
for ideal gas, 183185 5657
isothermal process, 185 Heat regeneration, 208, 236237
zeroth law of thermodynamics, basic concepts and definitions,
164165 237238
Force and mass main units cycles ability for, 240243
conversions, 7 heat regenerator, 238240
264 INDEX
Heat regenerator, 208, 238240 Avogadros law, 9294

Heat reservoir, 53, 245 equation of state (Clapeyron
Heat transfer calculations equation) ABR, 9091
during chemical state change introduction, 89
processes of gas, 162164 mixture, 9495
during gas state change kinetic molecular theory
processes, 109 (KMT), 9599
boundary work and transferred physical state change processes
heat, calculation of, 130131 in closed systems, calculations
caloric intensive properties, of, 173
113128 enthalpy changes, calculation
gas state change processes, of, 182183
graphical representation of, first law of thermodynamics,
129130 177180, 183185
during physical ideal gas state internal energy, calculation of,
change processes, 144161 181182
rules, definitions, and notes, Meyer equation, 185187
131139 special cases of, 174177
specific heat of mixture, subphases, 6567
161162 Ideal heat regenerator, 238239
specific heats of gases, Inequalityequality signs, 25
determination of, 139144 Inflection point, 132
specific transferred heat and Intensive property, 70
specific heat, 109113 Intermolecular forces (IF), 65
Heating (caloric) value of fuel, Intermolecular MKEs, 115
163 Internal combustion engines,
High-temperature heat reservoir, 53 5657
Homogeneous gas, 94 Internal energy, 114
Homogeneous mixture, 94 change, calculation of, 181182
Horse power (hp), 1112 constituents of, 116118
Hydrogen, 94 introduction, 114
molecular kinetic energies,
I 114116
Ice point, 13 as state property, 118120
Ideal direct cycle, thermal International system of units, 2
efficiency of, 206211 deriving secondary units from
Ideal direct thermodynamic cycles, primary ones, 56
205 example of, 34
Ideal gas rules for, 45
entropy, as state property, Intramolecular MKEs, 115
121128 Irreversible processes, 8788
equation of state, 1617 Isentropic compression process,
laws 214215
INDEX 265
Isentropic process, 176177, Mean microscopic kinetic energy,

234 118
Isobaric process, first law of Mechanical energy, 51
thermodynamics for any gas, into thermal energy,
178 transformation of, 192
Isochoric process, first law of Mechanical equilibrium condition,
thermodynamics for any gas, 84
177178 Medial-temperature heat reservoir,
Isolated system, 68 53
Isothermal compression process, Mendenhall Order of 1893, 6
214 Metric horsepower (M). See
Isothermal expansion process, 214 French chevaux (ch)
Isothermal process, first law of Metric SI. See International
thermodynamics system of units
for any gas, 179 Meyer equation, 185187
for ideal gas, 183185 Microbodies, 58
Mini reservoir (MR), 53
J Molar mass (M), 62
Joule, definition of, 10 Molar portion, 98
Mole, 61
K Molecular kinetic energies
Kelvin scale, 13 (MKEs), 114116
KelvinPlanck statement, 193 Molecular mass (mm), 62
Kilomole, 61 Mono-side contacting lines, 247
Kilowatt (kW), 1112 Monodirectional boundary work
Kinetic-molecular theory, 6970 process, 135
ideal-gas mixture, 9599 Monodirectional heat transfer, 135
Monotony x-increasing and
L decreasing curves, 23
Lattice vibrational molecular More than simple closed curve,
energy, 115 definition of, 20
Linear interpolation line, 41 Moving boundary work (Wb), 78
Liquid, 59 Multiequation curve, definition
density of, 9 of, 18
Multiside equation, definition of,
M 18
Macrobodies, 58
Macrostate, 58 N
Mass specific volume, 75 No-cyclic operating heat engine
Master/Configuration curve (COE), 191192
(MC-curve), 48 Nonlinear interpolation, 4041
Max Planck description statement, Nonregeneratable cycle, 238
193 Nonregenerative cycle, 236, 238
266 INDEX
Normal conditions. See Normal properties of, 103104

temperature and pressure subphases, 6567
(NTP) Reciprocating (piston) engines,
Normal temperature and pressure 5657
(NTP), 910 Regeneratability condition,
240
O of some direct thermodynamic
Others statements (OSs), 9294 cycles, 240243
Regeneratable cycle, 237
P Regeneration ratio, 236237
Partial Carnot cycles, 230 Regenerative cycle, 238
Pascal (Pa), 8 Relative atomic mass, 62
Perpetuum Mobile, 166 Relative heat, 226227
Photovoltaic cell, 52 in any reversible cycle equals
Planck, Max, 193 zero, 232233
Plancks constant h, 142 Relative molar mass (Mr), 63
Plancks proposition, 193 Relative temperature scales, 13
Plane curve, definition of, 18 Reverse Carnot cycle, 217223,
Planimeter, definition of, 20 227228
Pound-mole, 61 Reverse thermodynamic cycle,
Power (P), definition of, 11 199200
Pressure, 7577 Reversible differential Carnot
Pressure units, 89 cycles (RDCCs), 231232
Process path. See Gas, curve Reversible elementary carnot,
Property, definition of, 70 247248
Pure (homogenous) negative Reversible gas state change
areas curve, 24 processes
Pure (homogenous) positive areas imaginary models in
curve, 24 thermodynamics, 244
Pure negative transferred heat introduction, 243244
process, 136 traditional/classical
Pure positive boundary work model/method for, 244252
process, 136 Reversible process, 8589
Pure substance and its molecules, definitions of, 8586
5864 internal, 8889
irreversible processes, 8788
Q thermodynamics conditions for
Quasi-equilibrium process, 8182 achieving, 8687
conditions for achieving, 8284 Reversible thermodynamic cycle
(RC), 231
R Rocket engines, 57
Rankine scale, 13 Rotary engines, 57
Real gas Rotational MKE, 114
INDEX 267
S Simple closed curve, definition of,

Same Size, Configuration/shape, 20
and Orientation (SSCO) Simple compressible substance,
curves, 44 7880
Second-class regeneratable cycle, Simple substance, 78
237 Simple thermodynamic systems,
Second law of thermodynamics 79
Carnot cycle, 212217 Simply interpolation. See
Carnot theorem, introduction to, Nonlinear interpolation
224 Single-equation curve, definition
entropy, 225236 of, 18
heat regeneration, 236237 Smooth curve, definition of, 1819
basic concepts and definitions, Solid, 59
237238 Spark ignition engines, 57
cycles ability for, 240243 Specific heat capacity (SHC),
heat regenerator, 238240 110112
introduction, 189190 Specific heats, 109113
reverse Carnot cycle, 217223 of gases
reversible gas state change experimental determination of,
processes 139141
imaginary models in theoretical determination of,
thermodynamics, 244 141144
introduction, 243244 of mixture, 161162
traditional/classical Specific transferred heat (STH),
model/method for, 244252 72, 109110
statements/formulations Spontaneous/automatic processes,
belonging to, 192196 195196
thermalmechanical Standard ambient temperature and
transformations pressure (SATP), 10
heat energy into mechanical Standard atmosphere (atm), 9
energy, 190192 State change processes of system
mechanical energy into (gas), 80
thermal energy, 192 State of gas, 7071
when two objects (hot and definition of, 7173
cold) are contacted, 192 equilibrium state, definition,
thermodynamic cycle, 196197 7475
and cyclic operating machines, properties, 75
200204 temperature, 77
direct, 197199 Stationary point, 132
equipollent, 211212 Steam point, 13
evaluation of, 204211 Stirling and Ericsson engines, 58
reverse, 199200 Successive approximation method,
Shaft power (P), 16 155
268 INDEX
T difference between two functions

Tabular calculation of same variable, 4248
of area under y=f(x) curve, properties of, 101103
3940 y-value versus x-value, tabular
y-value versus given x-value, determination of, 4042
4042 Third-class regeneratable cycle,
Technical unit system, 67 237
Temperature units, 1215 Thomson, William, 193
Thermal efficiency (t), 205 Transferred heat
Thermal energy into mechanical in additional analyses on, 152155
heat engines, 55 almost exact (highly accurate)
external combustion engines, calculation of, 156157
58 approximate calculations of, 157
internal combustion engines, using constant specific heats,
5657 158, 160161
Thermal equilibrium condition, 84 using linear specific heats,
Thermalmechanical 157158, 159
transformations and boundary work signs, 161
heat energy into mechanical calculating equations by cutting
energy, 190192 off higher-degree terms,
mechanical energy into thermal 150151
energy, 192 equations for calculating,
when two objects (hot and cold) 130131
are contacted, 192 during physical ideal gas state
Thermodynamic cycle, 80, change processes, 144146
196197 pure analytical calculations of,
and cyclic operating machines, 146150
200204 tabular calculations of, 155156
direct, 197199 Translational MKE, 114
equipollent, 211212 Triple phase states, 60
evaluation of, 204211 Triple point, 60
reverse, 199200 of water, 13
Thermodynamic system Turning point, 132
introduction, 67 Two functions of same variable,
types of, 6769 difference between, 4248
Thermodynamics
area under a plane curve, U
calculating, 2033 Unit systems
analytical calculation of, 3839 calculating equations, about
graphical calculation of, 3438 dimensions in, 1517
tabular calculation of, 3940 energy units, 1012
calculations and discussions in, force and mass main units
1721 conversions, 7
INDEX 269
international system of units, 25 reversible process, 8589

deriving secondary units from simple compressible substance
primary ones, 56 and system, 7880
introduction, 15 state change processes of
others definitions, 910 system (gas), 80
pressure units, 89 state of a gas, 7077
technical unit system, 67 thermodynamic cycle, 80
temperature units, 1215 thermodynamic system, 6769
U.S. customary system, 6 boundary work calculation,
weight of body, 8 99101
Universal gas constant, 90 energy and its transformations
U.S. customary system, 6 energy transformation, 52
introduction, 51
V types of energy, 5152
Vacuum meter, 76 heat engine, 5255
Valuable energy input (VEI), 205 ideal-gas laws
Valuable energy output (VEO), Avogadros law, 9294
205 equation of state (Clapeyron
Vibrational molecular energy, 114 equation) ABR, 9091
Volumetric specific work, 206 introduction, 89
ideal-gas mixture, 9495
W composition of, 9699
Weighbridges, 8 kinetic molecular theory
Weight of body, 8 (KMT), 9599
William Thomson (Lord Kelvin) real gases, properties of,
statement, 194 103104
Working fluid (WF) and basic thermal energy into mechanical
properties in heat engines, 55
basic concepts and definitions external combustion engines,
equilibrium process, 8185 58
ideal and real gas subphases, internal combustion engines,
6567 5657
intermolecular forces, 65 thermodynamic properties,
introduction, 58 101103
kinetic-molecular theory,
6970 Z
modes of work, 78 Zeroth law of thermodynamics,
pure substance and its 164165
molecules, 5864
THIS TITLE IS FROM OUR THERMAL SCIENCE
AND ENERGY ENGINEERING COLLECTION.
OTHER TITLES OF INTEREST MIGHT BE . . .
Derek Dunn-Rankin, Editor
Advanced Technologies in Biodiesel: New Advances in Designed and Optimized
Catalysts by Aminul Islam, Yun Hin Taufiq-Yap, and Eng-Seng Chan
Advanced Technologies in Biodiesel: Introduction to Principles and Emerging Trends by
Aminul Islam, Yun Hin Taufiq-Yap, and Eng-Seng Chan
Essays in Energy by Kaufui V. Wong
Lignocellulosic BiomassEnergized Fuel Cells: Cases of High-Temperature Conversion
by JonYong Zhu, Yulin Deng, Xuebing Zhao, and Wei Liu
Optimization of Cooling Systems by David Zietlow
Momentum Press offers over 30 collections including Aerospace, Biomedical, Civil,

Environmental, Nanomaterials, Geotechnical, and many others. We are a leading book
publisher in the field of engineering, mathematics, health, and applied sciences.
Momentum Press is actively seeking collection editors as well as authors. For more
information about becoming an MP author or collection editor, please visit
http://www.momentumpress.net/contact
Announcing Digital Content Crafted by Librarians

Concise e-books business students need for classroom and research
Momentum Press offers digital content as authoritative treatments of advanced engineering

topics by leaders in their field. Hosted on ebrary, MP provides practitioners, researchers,
faculty, and students in engineering, science, and industry with innovative electronic content
in sensors and controls engineering, advanced energy engineering, manufacturing, and
materials science.
Momentum Press offers library-friendly terms:

perpetual access for a one-time fee
no subscriptions or access fees required
unlimited concurrent usage permitted
downloadable PDFs provided
free MARC records included
free trials
The Momentum Press digital library is very affordable, with no obligation to buy in future
years.
For more information, please visit www.momentumpress.net/library or to set up a trial in the
US, please contact mpsales@globalepress.com.

Graphical Thermodynamics and Ideal Gas Power Cycles

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

Graphical Thermodynamics and Ideal Gas Power Cycles

Uploaded by

Document Information

Copyright

Available Formats

Share this document

Share or Embed Document

Sharing Options

Did you find this document useful?

Is this content inappropriate?

Copyright:

Available Formats

Graphical Thermodynamics and Ideal Gas Power Cycles

Uploaded by

Copyright:

Available Formats

GRAPHICAL

All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, stored

First published in 2017 by

ISBN-13: 978-1-60650-506-9 (print)

Momentum Press Thermal Science and Energy Engineering Collection

Cover and interior design by S4Carlisle Publishing Service Private Ltd.

Printed in the United States of America

In this book, an almost new approach to modern thermodynamics has been

absolutely reversible cycle; Carnot; Carnots efficiency; closed thermody-

LIST OF TABLES XIX

1. BASIC CONCEPTS AND DEFINITIONS 1

1.2.1.2 Analytical calculation of the

2.4.9 The Simple Compressible Substance and

2.7 The Boundary Work Calculation 99

3.1.7.2 About the bad effect of abbreviating

4.3.3 The first law of thermodynamics for the adiabatic

5.4.4 Evaluating thermodynamic cycles 204

Figure 1.1. Multiequation curves 19

Figure 2.4. A schematic for a system (gas) and its boundary 67

Figure 4.3. Representing the isothermal process on diagrams.

Figure 5.15. Some possible sketches (AD) for understanding

voir RTij that serves the complicated dual mini-

Table 1.1. Standard prefixes in SI and technical units 2

This book Graphical Thermodynamics and Ideal Gas Power Cycles is

1. The analysis of the ideal gas polytropic process for Cv = f (T ):

5. Detecting and excluding the imperfection in the classical proof of

4. The following six signs are used as multiplication (, *, ) and di-

Two signs ( and ) are mostly used as multiplication signs.

be either simple or included between one or more types of

5. To dissipate any misunderstanding, the equations and statements

Symbol Name Unit

Symbol Name Unit

gravitational acceleration, mass

n Polytropic exponent; normal con-

Symbol Name Unit

AR cycleAbsolutely reversible cycle

BASIC CONCEPTS AND

1.1 UNIT SYSTEMS

In physics, we deal with so-called dimensions. According to Others Defi-

OD1-1: A dimension (physical characteristic), such as length, time, or

(2) the multi equal-sign/side equation abbreviation multi equation or

Table 1.1. Standard prefixes in SI and technical units

Multiple Prefix and its Multiple Prefix and its

1.1.2 THE INTERNATIONAL SYSTEM OF UNITS

It is also known as metric SI (from Le Systme International d Units)

Where X is the displacement and t is the elapsed time.

1) Substituting the given values in Equation (A) and considering Table

Or = 2.5 hm/ min 4.1667 m/s. (B1)

Applying Equation (D) in Equation (A), we obtain

This equation can be considered as the product of the following two

These functions/equations can be considered as the result of substitut-

This leads to the following rules.

OR1-4: If the dimensions used in calculating a dimension are ex-

1.1.2.1 Deriving some secondary units from the primary ones

1) To derive the acceleration unit, we chose the constant acceleration

1.1.3 THE U.S. CUSTOMARY SYSTEM (ALSO KNOWN AS THE

The majority of U.S. customary units were redefined in terms of

1 mi = 5280 yd, 1 in. = 1" = 25.4 mm,

The divisible of the pound (lb) is the ounce (oz), where 1 lb = 16 oz

1.1.4 THE TECHNICAL UNIT SYSTEM