Practical Steel Tub Girder Design Part I

PRACTICAL
STEEL TUB GIRDER

DESIGN
AUTHORS
Domenic Coletti, P.E.

HDR
Zhanfei Tom Fan, P.h.D., P.E.

Texas Department of Transportation
Walter Gatti
Tensor Engineering
John Holt, P.E.

John Vogel, P.E.

April 2005
The National Steel Bridge Alliance has published this document in

its continuing effort to enhance state-of-the-art steel bridge design
and construction in the United States.
DISCLAIMER
All data, specifications, suggested practices and drawings presented herein, are based on the
best available information, are delineated in accordance with recognized professional
engineering principles and practices, and are published for general information only.
Procedures and products, suggested or discussed, should not be used without first securing
competent advice respecting their suitability for any given application.
Publication of the material herein is not to be construed as a warranty on the part of the
National Steel Bridge Alliance or that of any person named herein that these data and
suggested practices are suitable for any general or particular use, or of freedom from
infringement on any patent or patents. Further, any use of these data or suggested practices
can only be made with the understanding that the National Steel Bridge Alliance makes no
warranty of any kind respecting such use and the user assumes all liability arising therefrom.
TABLE OF CONTENTS
INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1
STEEL TUB GIRDER APPLICATION ISSUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .2
Span Ranges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Curvature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .3
Aesthetics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Durability/Maintainability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Economy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .4
Application Issues References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .5
DEPTH, WIDTH AND SPACING OF TUB GIRDERS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .6
Depth-to-Span Ratios . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
Tub Girder Width and Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .7
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN METHODS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .9
Tangent Tub Girder Design Techniques and Tools . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .10
Approximate/Preliminary Curved Girder Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Effects of Curvature, M/R Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .11
Grid Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
3-D FEA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .12
GIRDER DESIGN . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .14
Bottom Flanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .15
Webs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .16
Top Flanges . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .17
DIAPHRAGMS AND BRACING . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .18
General Guidelines . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
Internal Intermediate Diaphragms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .19
External Intermediate Diaphragms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .20
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Internal Diaphragms at Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .22
External Diaphragms at Supports . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .23
Top Flange Lateral Bracing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .24
MISCELLANEOUS DETAILS AND ISSUES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .26
Flange-to-Web Welds and Shear Studs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
Bearings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .27
Bridge Decks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
Field Splices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .28
Detailing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .29 ii
Material Selection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .30
Painting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .31
PRACTICAL EXAMPLES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .32
IH-35/US 290 Interchange, Austin, Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
Various TxDOT Houston Projects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .33
US 75 Underpass at Churchill Way, Dallas, Texas . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .34
CONCLUSION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .36
REFERENCES & APPENDICES . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .38
References . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .39
Appendices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .42
INTRODUCTION
This book Steel tub girder use is becoming more detailed design, including various available
addresses the commonplace in modern infrastructure analysis tools (the M/R Method, grid analysis,
entire design design. They offer advantages over other and three-dimensional finite element
process for a steel
superstructure types in terms of span range, analysis); specifics on design of the
tub girder bridge...
stiffness, and durability particularly in numerous components of a steel tub girder
curved bridges. In addition, steel tub girders bridge (girders, internal and external
have distinct aesthetic advantages, due to diaphragms, lateral bracing members,
their clean, simple appearance. Steel tub stiffeners, bearings, deck, field splices, etc.);
girder design is in many ways more complex suggestions on steel tub girder detailing; and
than steel plate girder design, especially for special considerations for construction of a
construction loading stages. Yet there is no steel tub girder bridge.
single, comprehensive source of information
on steel tub girders. Instead, bits and pieces
of layout, design, detailing and construction
guidance are scattered among a broad and
disconnected collection of design
specifications, guidebooks, textbooks, articles
and formal design examples, many of which
are out of print or otherwise difficult to obtain.
Designers faced with the task of preparing
plans for a steel tub girder bridge often have to
start with an extensive sometimes
frustrating literature search, hoping to find
enough advice from among several sources
to guide them from preliminary design
through final detailing.
A much anticipated tub girder publication

is forthcoming from the University of Texas
and the University of Houston (25) but was
Figure 1: A bold statement in modern
not available at the time of publication of highway bridge design, steel tub girders offer
this book. Another much anticipated
INTRODUCTION
advantages in span range, ability to
publication is the upcoming 2005 Interim accommodate curvature, and aesthetics.
Revisions to the AASHTO LRFD Bridge
Design Specifications (26), in which the While this book is not a stand-alone steel tub
design provisions for straight and curved girder design manual, it endeavors to cover
steel girder bridges (both I girders and tub the entire design process in outline form in
girders) are unified into a single design one document, while providing an extensive
specification document. list of references that the designer can 1
consult. Because nearly every steel tub
This book addresses the entire design girder bridge is unique in terms of
process for a steel tub girder bridge and configuration, site conditions, local fabrication
offers a list of pertinent references for each and construction preferences, and myriad
phase, including suggestions on how to find other factors, the book will typically outline
some hard-to-locate documents. The book issues and considerations related to specific
presents preliminary design considerations, questions rather than attempting to provide
including: appropriate applications for steel hard and fast rules, in the hopes of leaving
tub girders; preliminary girder sizing and designers better informed to make their own
spacing guidelines; framing plan layout final decisions for their project. Finally, some
considerations; and suggestions related to recent steel tub girder bridge experience in
preliminary (approximate) design. The book Texas is presented, with key issues and
also discusses issues related to final, lessons learned highlighted.
STEEL TUB GIRDER APPLICATION ISSUES
2
There are many There are many reasons to choose steel In short span ranges, steel tub girders can
reasons to choose tub girders, which offer many distinct be an economical solution, particularly if
steel tub girders, advantages over steel plate girders and considerations such as aesthetic
which offer many
other superstructure types. However, steel preferences preclude other structure
distinct advantages
over steel plate
tub girders are not a panacea. Designers types. However, it is increasingly difficult
girders and other should carefully consider each bridge on a to design efficient steel tub girders for
superstructure case-by-case basis to determine if steel span lengths shorter than those requiring
types... tub girders are an appropriate superstructure the rule-of-thumb 5-foot minimum web
choice. Several keys issues to evaluate depth (minimum depth needed to provide
are listed below. accessibility for future inspection). This
limit works out to be below approximately
150 feet for simple spans and 200 feet for
continuous spans. One writer has
suggested a desirable lower span length
limit of 120 feet (1). In lower span ranges,
and/or when curvature is slight, other
shapes may prove to be more efficient
than steel tub girders.

Figure 2: Steel tub girders under construction
for a new Automated People Mover system.
Tight curvature and clean appearance were
key factors in choosing steel tub girders.
SPAN RANGES
Steel tub girders can potentially be more
economical than steel plate girders in
long-span applications, due to the
Figure 3: For slight curvature and spans
increased bending strength offered by
below approximately 120 feet, other
their wide bottom flanges and thanks to superstructure types, such as the curved steel
less field work associated with handling plate girders in this shallow depth curved
fewer pieces. However, their use in long- grade separation bridge, may be a better
span applications should be evaluated choice than steel tub girders.
with due consideration given to increased
fabrication costs of tub girders, particularly 3
if bottom flange longitudinal stiffeners or CURVATURE
other complicated details are required. While steel tub girder use is not limited to
Also, lifting weights may be higher with tub curved structures, they do offer definite
girders. Spans in excess of 500 feet have advantages in curved bridge applications.
been successfully constructed; for Torsional stiffness of tub girders is many
instance, in October 1998 the West times greater than that of plate girders,
Virginia Department of Transportation resulting in superior transverse load
completed the Lower Buffalo River Bridge distribution characteristics. Tub girders are
carrying WV 869 over the Kanawha River. also extremely efficient in carrying
That bridge features a five-span tangent torsional loads found in curved bridges,
tub girder unit with a 525-foot-long center requiring far fewer diaphragms between
span, the third longest tub girder span in girders. Steel tub girders accommodate
the United States. extremely tight radii of curvature and have
Steel tub girders been used in this role from their earliest
accommodate applications. Among the earliest uses of
extremely tight steel tub girders in the United States were
radii of curvature two bridges built on horizontal radii of 150
and have been
feet in Massachusetts in the early 1960s
used in this role
from their earliest
(2). Later, a series of steel tub girders
applications... were constructed at the Dallas/Fort Worth
International Airport in the late 1970s on
175-foot horizontal radii. On the down
side, the complexity of fabricating
trapezoidal box shapes to accommodate
vertical curvature, horizontal curvature, Figure 4: Steel tub girders built on horizontal
super-elevation transitions, and/or skews radii as tight as 175 feet were constructed at
is challenging and contributes to a cost the Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport in
premium versus other structure types. the late 1970s.
AESTHETICS ECONOMY
One of the reasons most often cited for Steel tub girders are more costly to
using steel tub girders is aesthetics. fabricate than plate girders. Their
Bracing, stiffeners, utilities, and other geometry is complex, making it difficult to
components are typically hidden within the fabricate and assemble individual pieces
box, resulting in a smooth, uncluttered in the shop and at bridge sites. It takes
form. Because a single tub girder can
highly skilled workers to fabricate and

essentially take the place of two plate erect steel tub girders, resulting in a
girders, the number of visible components premium on labor costs even if material
is minimized, again leading to a reduction costs are competitive with plate girder
in visual clutter. alternates. Individual tub girders are also
bigger and heavier than plate girders,
DURABILITY/MAINTAINABILITY increasing equipment costs for erection.
Steel tub girders offer advantages in
durability and maintainability. The steel
surface area exposed to the environment
is greatly reduced, since half of the web
and flange surfaces are enclosed. In
addition, elements routinely subjected to
debris buildup (and thus corrosion and
deterioration) in plate girders such as
bottom flanges, diaphragms, and bracing
4 members are protected in tub girders.
Furthermore, reduced numbers of
diaphragms result in reduced painting
costs. Tub girders are also easier to Figure 5: Simple lines, smooth surfaces, and
inspect, since much inspection is fewer parts visible; the clean appearance of
performed from inside the tub, which tub girders offers distinct aesthetic
serves as a protected walkway. However, advantages.
it should be noted that bridges with only
one or two tub girders (such as direct However, well-conceived and carefully
connector ramp structures) may be detailed steel tub girders offer some
considered fracture critical, requiring economic advantages over plate girders. The
additional inspection. need for fewer diaphragms reduces
fabrication costs. Furthermore, fewer
Figure 6 (near
right): Modern
highway
construction
involves working
around many
constraints; steel
tub girders can
help solve tough
problems.
diaphragms and fewer girders versus plate

girder alternates can speed erection, a critical
advantage in urban highway reconstruction
projects where traffic interruptions (and
associated contractor lane rental penalties)
dramatically affect construction costs and
pose economic impacts to the community.

While steel tub girders are not
inexpensive, when efficiently designed,
carefully detailed, and used in the right
application, they represent a reasonably
economical, aesthetically pleasing
solution that will compete favorably with
other superstructure types.
APPLICATION ISSUES REFERENCES

There are several good references that
discuss steel tub girder application issues.
The article Why Steel Box Girders? (2)
offers a concise overview of many key
issues. Both Section 12, Beam and Girder
Bridges, of the Structural Steel Designers
Handbook (1) and Section 21, Curved Steel
Box Girder Bridges, of the Structural 5
Engineers Handbook (3) touch on some of
these issues as well. The introduction to
Volume II, Chapter 7, Composite Box Girder
Load Factor Design, of the United States
Steel (USS) Highway Structures Design
Handbook (4), also provides a succinct
discussion of many key issues.
DEPTH, WIDTH AND SPACING OF TUB GIRDERS
6
As an upper DEPTH-TO-SPAN RATIOS owners have very economical deck

bound, there are The traditional rule of thumb for steel details including permanent metal
no hard and fast bridge girder depths of L/25 is a good deck forms or stay-in-place precast
rules... starting point for steel tub girders. The concrete deck panels which may
L/25 guideline is mentioned in Section 12 not be suited for wider girder widths
of the latest version of the AASHTO Guide and spacings. Another issue is the
Specifications for Horizontally Curved ability of wide span decks to
Steel Girder Highway Bridges (5). accommodate certain overload
However, designers should not be afraid conditions. Finally, redecking while
to exceed this ratio; tangent steel tub maintaining traffic may be quite
girders have approached L/35 and still difficult on bridges with wider girder
met all code requirements for strength and widths and spacings.
deflection control. Keep in mind the Transportation Limits Note that tub
minimum recommended web depth for tub girder widths above approximately
girders is 5 feet, as cited by several writers 12 feet present transportation
(2, 6). Note that steel tub girder depth difficulties; widths above 14 feet
affects more than just the commonly may require provisions for a
considered implications, such as vertical longitudinal bottom flange splice so
clearance below a bridge. Because most that the tub can be transported to
tub girders use sloped webs (typically the bridge site in two sections.
sloped at 1H:4V), web depth also directly

affects bottom flange width (as will be
discussed later).
TUB GIRDER WIDTH AND SPACING

As a lower bound, at least one writer has
suggested a minimum width of 4 feet be
maintained for tub girders (6) to allow
sufficient room for workers to complete
fabrication of various internal girder
details. As an upper bound, there are no
hard and fast rules. Upper limits on tub
girder width (and also on tub girder
spacing) are often controlled indirectly by
three central issues: Figure 7: Maintain a minimum width of 4 feet
for tub girders to allow room for workers to
complete fabrication of various internal
Bottom Flange Width Extremely details.
wide bottom flanges will likely 7
require the addition of longitudinal
stiffeners and/or transverse The ratio of the width of an individual tub
stiffeners for stability (see further girder to the spacing between tub girders
discussion below). should also be considered. Article
10.39.1.1 of the AASHTO Standard
Deck Transverse Span Some Specifications for Highway Bridges (7)
owners (e.g., state departments of states: The average distance center to
transportation) are uncomfortable center of flanges of adjacent boxes shall
with wide girder spacings, both not be greater than 1.2 times and not less
within each tub girder and between than 0.8 times the distance center to
girders. One concern is center of the flanges of each box.
constructability. Wider deck spans However, note that the main purpose of
are more difficult to form, and some this limit is to keep the width/spacing ratio
Overall width of a within the bounds of applicability for the
bridge is also a empirical live load distribution factors
controlling factor provided in the AASHTO Standard
in setting Specifications for Highway Bridges (7).
individual tub
Exceeding these limits may be
girder widths and
spacings...
acceptable, provided a more refined
analysis is performed that more rigorously
quantifies live load distribution. Designers

should take care to consider all the
implications if they choose to exceed
these limits.
Overall width of a bridge is also a

controlling factor in setting individual tub
girder widths and spacings. In many
narrower bridges carrying only one lane of
traffic plus shoulders (such as direct
connector ramp structures in multilevel
interchanges), total out-to-out deck width
may be as narrow as 28 feet or less. In
longer spans requiring deep girders, two
tub girders with webs sloped at 1H:4V
may end up with overly narrow bottom
flange widths. Single tub girder bridges
8 have been successfully used in these
situations, but beware that using a single
tub girder may result in an excessively
wide bottom flange as well as design,
detailing, and construction complexities
associated with providing two bearings per
tub girder (see bearing discussions later).
Designers are advised to evaluate these

considerations early on, before even
preliminary structural design calculations
are performed.
ANALYSIS AND DESIGN METHODS
9
While some Final design of steel tub girder bridges is a a single girder model. Dead loads can be
simple rules of detailed and intensive process. Care analyzed assuming tributary load
thumb exist to taken during the preliminary design phase distribution, and live loads analyzed with
help guide the
will pay dividends many times over later appropriate live load distribution factors.
designer through
the preliminary
on. Thorough consideration of design, Tub girder live load distribution factors
design phase, each detailing, and construction issues up front were developed by Mattock in the early
steel tub girder will result in better, more efficient, and 1970s (8) and are still included in the
bridge is unique... easier-to-construct bridges in the end. current AASHTO Standard Specifications
Before beginning to run numbers, designers for Highway Bridges (7) and AASHTO
are advised to consider numerous framing LRFD Bridge Design Specifications (9).
plan issues discussed throughout this book. Sennah and Kennedy (10) discuss
recently completed research into live load
While some simple rules of thumb exist to distribution factors for tub girders,
help guide the designer through the including recommended distribution
preliminary design phase, each steel tub formulas, but these have not been
girder bridge is unique. Additionally, incorporated into the AASHTO design
because so many design, detailing and specifications. Designers are advised to
construction issues overlap, no hard and always verify the applicability of any code
fast laws always govern. The most reliable or research recommendations by
rule is to take time during the preliminary checking the scope and assumptions of
layout and design phase to identify and the background research.
evaluate these issues.
Design can be facilitated using any of several
In this section, the tools and techniques commonly available tangent girder
for overall tub girder superstructure design programs, some of which are specifically
are discussed. However, it must be noted developed for tub girder design. Others are
that virtually all components of tub girder normally only applicable to plate girder or
bridges require design. Some more rolled beam design, but can provide sufficient
sophisticated computer analysis tools design information to shortcut some tedious
(discussed below) can calculate many or analysis steps. See Appendices A.1 and A.2
all loads needed, but no program will for further information.
perform all necessary design checks and
many require supplemental hand analysis For shear design, designers must remember
to quantify loads in secondary members. that all tub girders carry torsion, which
increases effective design shear in one web.
Because tub girders are often used in curved In most straight bridges, web shears due to
bridges, much of the discussion of tub girder torsion are significantly smaller than those
design is presented in a curved girder due to bending. Torsional analysis may be
10 context. Furthermore, even tangent tub warranted for fascia girders and for girders at
girders are subject to torsional loading and construction phase lines. If a single girder
thus deserve many of the same model is used, torsional moments can be
considerations as for curved tub girders. approximated by hand. If a multiple girder
However, discussion of tangent tub girder computer analysis model is used, torsional
analysis is worthwhile both for direct moments should be available from the
applications to tangent tub girder bridges and analysis, and additional web shears can
for use of tangent girder design tools as part be derived.
of approximate preliminary design.
In addition, because most tub girder webs
TANGENT TUB GIRDER DESIGN are sloped, the designer must account for
TECHNIQUES AND TOOLS the increase in resultant web shear due to
Straight bridges containing multiple web slope, as well as the increase in web
tangent tub girders can be designed using depth along the slope.
Designers must APPROXIMATE/PRELIMINARY CURVED horizontal curvature. It is up to designers to
remember that GIRDER DESIGN account for these effects in order to correctly
tangent girder According to the AASHTO Guide quantify design loads on a tub girder.
programs do not
Specifications for Horizontally Curved
account for load
shifting and
Steel Girder Highway Bridges (5), the In general terms, an overturning moment
torsion effects effects of curvature on primary bending (moment about the longitudinal axis of the
caused by loads can be neglected for slightly curved bridge) occurs in curved bridges, since the
horizontal bridges (see the code for the exact centers of gravity of each girder and of
curvature... definitions and limits). That is, the load the bridge as a whole are offset from a
shifting phenomenon in curved girder chord line drawn between support points
bridges (described below) can be of each span. When girders act
neglected when curvature is slight. independently of each other (for example,
However, in all cases torsional effects in the case of self load of an individual
should be examined. In many cases, girder or the case of deck placement if no
these torsional effects only influence the intermediate external diaphragms are
design of the diaphragms and bracing. provided), this effect results in torsion in
each tub girder. These torsional moments
In cases where the effects of curvature on can be determined using the M/R Method,
primary bending loads can be safely an approximate, hand calculation method
neglected, the straight girder methods for torsional analysis of single curved tub
previously mentioned in this book should girder bridges developed by Tung and
produce a design very close to the final Fountain (3, 12, 13).
design where torsion is considered, and
the resulting cross-section sizes should be When girders are connected either by
good candidates for the trial member sizes diaphragms or by a hardened deck, this

in the final design model. When analyzing effect results in a tendency for load shifting
a curved bridge using tangent girder to the outside girders of the curve, due to
methods, developed span lengths of the the global overturning moment present in
tub girders should be used. Live load curved spans; that is, girders on the
distribution factors can be found in the outside of the curve carry more load than
commentary to the ASD provisions of the girders on the inside of the curve. For
previous edition of the AASHTO Guide preliminary design of curved tub girders,
Specifications for Horizontally Curved this effect can be approximated using
Highway Bridges (11). Impact factors for guidance in the Federal Highway
steel tub girders are found in the current Administration (FHWA) Curved Girder
AASHTO Guide Specifications for Workshop Lecture Notes (12), which
Horizontally Curved Steel Girder presents graphs for quantifying increases in
Highway Bridges (5). design vertical moments due to curvature.
11
In cases where the effects of curvature on The M/R Method can be applied to
primary bending loads cannot be effectively calculate the torsional moment
neglected, approximate analysis can still in single girders, or in girders under
be performed using straight girder construction before adjacent tub girders
methods as the basis, but with the straight are tied together by intermediate
girder results amplified with factors to diaphragms and slab. Because cross-
account for curvature as described below. sectional rotations can also be obtained
using the M/R Method, it is possible that the
EFFECTS OF CURVATURE, M/R METHOD method can be applied to multiple girders
Designers must remember that tangent connected by intermediate diaphragms to
girder programs do not account for load solve the load shifting by iterations.
shifting and torsion effects caused by However, the process would be too
In a grid analysis, complicated without additional required after the analysis to account for
a two-dimensional computational aids. More effective methods such items as brace forces and lateral
grid is used to to consider the interaction of the girders are bending stresses.
define the overall grid analysis and Three-Dimensional
geometry, with
Finite Element Analysis (3-D FEA). One major difficulty in grid analysis is
line elements used
to model the
modeling the concrete slab under live
girders and GRID ANALYSIS loads. Some programs and research
diaphragms... Multiple girders and diaphragms can be investigations use line elements aligned
modeled in a grid analysis; most transversely like diaphragms to model
commercial programs for curved tub girder slab action. Be aware that validation of this
design are based on this method. simplification is not available from research.
Appendices A.3 and A.4 provide

information on two of these programs. A For preliminary design, using these tools
two-dimensional grid is used to define the may be a more involved undertaking than
overall geometry, with line elements used performing a tangent girder analysis,
to model the girders and diaphragms. because much more input is required to
Most programs distribute live loads to fully define a framing plan. However, there
girders using the lever rule. is a definite benefit to avoiding performing
manual approximations to address
Because girders and diaphragms are curvature and/or perform design checks
modeled by line elements, the elements specific to tub girders. Note that at the
should be able to account for all related preliminary design phase, it is both difficult
deformations, including bending, shear, and not valuable to perform detailed sizing
torsion, axial deformation and cross- of diaphragms and lateral bracing
12
sectional distortion. Numerous elements members beyond perhaps cursory
have been developed, but commercial evaluations to verify the soundness of a
programs currently available in the market proposed framing plan.
do not cover all types of deformation.
Engineers should ensure that the program For final design of curved or severely skewed
employed is at least able to model the tub girders, a grid analysis is the minimum
bending, shear and pure torsion correctly, level of analysis that should be considered.
since warping stresses are usually small
in properly braced box girders. Caution 3-D FEA
should be exercised in modeling trusses 3-D FEA is a method in which girder plates
(such as external K-frames) as equivalent are modeled using plate/shell elements,
line elements. Additional calculations are while a concrete slab is modeled either
Comparisons using plate/shell elements or solid brick
between field elements. Bracing members are also
measurements and included in the analysis, usually modeled
analysis including
with either truss or beam elements.
3-D FEA
continue to show
disparity, because 3-D FEA methods are intended to create
many aspects of tub highly inclusive and accurate models that
girders are difficult can replace all other methods. However,
to accurately implementation of 3-D FEA into common
model... engineering practice still has many
challenges. Comparisons between field
measurements and analysis including
3-D FEA continue to show disparity,
because many aspects of tub girders are
difficult to accurately model. Because 3-D
FEA is still a simplification of actual
structure and load history, the necessity of
detailed 3-D FEA is disputable if only
marginal improvement is achieved, while
the investment of computer and human
resources is increased significantly. Also,
some engineers still prefer to perceive tub
girder bridges as beams and grids rather
than a special assembly of plates and
blocks. Finally, 3-D FEA generally requires

additional efforts to convert stress results
back to member forces (such as moments
and shears) as are used in design.
This method, however, remains an

effective tool in research and in studying
bridge behavior under isolated load cases.
If interpreted properly, 3-D FEA results can
contribute to a better understanding of
curved bridge behavior. Three-
dimensional analysis programs or
services exist that include code-checking
procedures for main girders (see Appendix
A.5 for information). These are powerful 13
analysis tools if used properly; however,
design procedures still require other
supplemental structural analysis as
demonstrated in the design example in
the current AASHTO Guide
Specifications for Horizontally Curved
Steel Girder Highway Bridges (5).
GIRDER DESIGN
GIRDER DESIGN
14
Figure 8 (near
Internal Intermediate
right): The Diaphragm (Typ)
various parts of Top Flange (Typ)
a typical tub
External Intermediate
girder.
Diaphragm (Typ)
Shear Studs (Typ)
Web (Typ)
Top Flange Lateral

Bracing (Typ)
Stiffener (Typ)
Bottom Flange (Typ)
The girder design process for tub girders and costly ramifications may result from
should begin with development of a the simple choice of bottom flange width
framing plan. Many decisions made early and thickness.
in the design process can have significant
impacts later on; some basic issues are The AASHTO Standard Specifications for
presented below. Structural analysis as Highway Bridges (7) suggest that for b/t
discussed above must be performed to derive ratios greater than 45, longitudinal
the load effects, which are subsequently stiffeners be considered, and that b/t
checked with the code provisions. ratios greater than 60 are not permitted for
compression flanges. The b/t limit of 45 for
Tub girder bridges must always be consideration of longitudinal stiffeners is
designed considering construction intended to be a rule of thumb; with a b/t
sequence. Some structural members, above 45, it may be more economical to
such as lateral bracing, are provided only add a longitudinal stiffener to the bottom
for construction purposes. Their design is flange to increase bottom flange capacity
consequently controlled by construction without thickening the flange. Because
loading. The analysis must therefore be they are a costly addition and their use
GIRDER DESIGN
performed on the partially completed may result in undesirable fatigue details,
structure, simulating the sequence of careful consideration should be given
construction loading. Total stresses are before adding longitudinal stiffeners.
the sum of those generated due to loads Engineers often find it more economical to
on the complete bridge and those locked- simply thicken the bottom flange in lieu of
in during construction. using longitudinal stiffeners.
15
Numerous guides and design examples Even in positive moment regions, there are
are available that specifically discuss lower bound limits for bottom (tension)
girder design and code provisions in detail flange thickness. As stated in the Preferred
(1, 3, 4, 5, 7, 14, 15). Practices for Steel Bridge Design,
Fabrication, and Erection prepared by the
BOTTOM FLANGES Texas Steel Quality Council (16):
Bottom flange thickness and b/t ratios may
seem like minor details better left to final For wide bottom flanges, plate
design. However, designers of steel tub distortion during fabrication and
girders are well-advised to consider this erection can be a problem. Designers
issue up front while developing a framing should check with fabricators when
plan, because many potentially complex using bottom tension flange plates less
Figure 9 (near
right): Webs for
tub girders carry
both vertical
shear and shear
due to torsion,
and are often
horizontally
curved, sloped
and cambered.
than 1-inch thick to determine whether regarding relative cost issues before
practical stiffness needs are met. In no making hasty assumptions regarding
case should bottom tension flanges be bottom flange thickness.
less than 1/2-inch thick. Another
suggested guideline is that the bottom WEBS
tension flanges have a b/t ratio of 80 or Although tub girders carry vertical shear
less. similar to plate girders, they also carry
torsional shear stress. Tub girders are
Other writers have suggested a maximum b/t very efficient in carrying torsion, so this
ratio of 120 for bottom flanges in tension (17). generally does not present a significant
design challenge. The shear flow can be
For extremely wide and/or slender bottom obtained from the torsional moment using
flanges, transverse stiffeners may be the formulation q = T/2A, where A is the
required. Bottom flange transverse area enclosed by the tub girder webs,
stiffeners serve several purposes, including flanges and slab (or lateral bracing, if
bracing bottom flange longitudinal stiffeners investigating girder prior to deck
and stiffening bottom flanges for torsional hardening). However, designers should
GIRDER DESIGN
shear stresses. Again, care should be taken remember early on that the webs will carry
before adding transverse stiffeners to more shear than what might be predicted
bottom flanges, since they will be costly by an approximate, tangent girder
and may result in constructability and analysis, and thus increased thickness or
fatigue problems if not carefully detailed. additional transverse stiffeners may be
required. Recent experience has shown
Some detailing guides, such as the that providing a reasonable number of
16 Preferred Practices for Steel Bridge transverse stiffeners is currently more
Design, Fabrication, and Erection (16), economical than providing either a thinner
provide more detailed suggestions web with extensive transverse stiffeners or
regarding tub girder bottom flange a thicker web without.
thickness and b/t ratios. These issues are
also discussed in the Commentary to It should be noted that all tub girders have
Section 10.4.2.4 of the AASHTO Guide torsion; even tangent tub girders will be
Specification for Horizontally Curved subject to some level of torsion from a
Steel Girder Highway Bridges (5). variety of causes. Some potential sources
Designers should carefully review the of torsion in tangent (and curved) tub
issues presented in these documents and girders include:
seek guidance from local steel bridge Skew Skew increases torsion in
fabricators with tub girder experience tub girders, because web span
Critical design positions relative to various load used for lateral bracing. Top flanges are
stages for top points are no longer symmetrical also subjected to significant lateral
flanges often from one web to the next. bending stresses. These lateral bending
occur during Asymmetrical Non-Composite stresses can be generated by horizontal
construction Loading External girders in girder curvature (4), sloping webs (18),
prior to the deck particular can be subject to and temporary supporting brackets for
curing, when the asymmetrical loading during deck slab overhangs (5). In addition, forces
flanges are placement, since overhang widths from lateral bracing systems may
laterally braced are often not equal to the tributary represent a major source of lateral flange
only at the K- deck width between adjacent bending stresses and should also be
frame girders and at phased construction considered in design (see the recent
locations... lines. This effect can be article by Fan and Helwig [18] for a more
controlled/reduced by use of detailed discussion).
intermediate external diaphragms
and/or lateral bracing. Design provisions (5) suggest that lateral
bending of top flanges can greatly affect
Asymmetrical Live Loading The the portion of capacity allocated to
Commentary to Article 9.7.2.4 of bending stresses. Increasing top flange
the AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design width is generally more effective for
Specifications (9) offers a good resisting the lateral bending stresses than
discussion of this issue. Because increasing top flange thickness. Sufficient
tub girders have very high torsional top flange width is also necessary to
stiffness, they can develop provide room for connection of lateral
torsional loading during bracing members. However, the
asymmetrical application of live recommended b/t ratio for top flanges in
load. Plate girders do not tension or compression should be
experience this phenomenon, since carefully followed.
they are very flexible torsionally
and twist or rotate to accommodate Critical design stages for top flanges often
the deck behavior. For tub girders, occur during construction prior to the deck
this phenomenon is more important curing, when the flanges are laterally
for deck design (it can control the
GIRDER DESIGN
braced only at the K-frame locations.
design of the deck slab), but it is Lateral bending stresses due to live load
worth noting here as another effects can be neglected in the capacity
source of torsion in tangent and check when top flanges are embedded in
curved tub girders. the hardened concrete with shear studs,
Occasionally, project requirements dictate except in areas where shear studs are not
the need to use dapped girder ends. provided. However, curved tub girders are
These complicate design, detailing and typically provided with shear studs along 17
fabrication of the girders and their use the entire girder length to achieve the
should not be undertaken lightly. desired torsional rigidity from a closed
Reference 27 has current guidance on the cross-section.
design of dapped girder ends for both
steel plate and steel tub girders. In addition, top flanges are also subjected
to erection loads, as most contractors lift
TOP FLANGES steel girder sections by clamping the top
Top flanges of tub girders are designed flanges. Ideally, local stresses in the top
primarily to carry the girder bending flanges, including stresses in the weld
stresses. Additional longitudinal stresses between the flanges and web, should be
due to torsion exist, as the flanges also checked for these erection loads.
serve as members of the truss system
DIAPHRAGMS AND BRACING
18
Internal GENERAL GUIDELINES circumference of the tub girder cross-

intermediate Section 10.2 (and the associated section. Unfortunately, most torsional
diaphragms are Commentary) in the AASHTO Guide loads on box girder bridges such as
provided in tub
Specifications for Horizontally Curved eccentric vertical loads and curvature
girders to control
cross-sectional
Steel Girder Highway Bridges (5) offers induced torsion-fall in this category and
distortion, which discussion of framing plan issues such as will introduce distortion. Because a true
introduces diaphragm and top flange lateral bracing 3-D FEA analysis using plate/shell
additional stresses configurations, spacing and proportioning. elements will give total stresses induced
in box girders and Other good discussions can be found in by bending, torsion and distortion, a
should be the Bethlehem Steel Designers Guide to separate distortional analysis is not
minimized... Box Girder Bridges (19) and the USS needed. However, all design programs
Steel / Concrete Composite Box-Girder based on grid analysis using line elements
Bridges A Construction Manual (20). are unable to predict distortional behavior
More current sources for guidance include of box girders.
articles by Fan and Helwig (18, 21);
although the articles focus more on the
analytical aspects of determining
diaphragm and bracing forces, they also
provide insights valuable for establishing
effective, efficient framing plans. Section
21, Curved Steel Box Girder Bridges, of
the Structural Engineering Handbook (3)
also touches on some of these issues.
INTERNAL INTERMEDIATE
DIAPHRAGMS
Internal intermediate diaphragms are

provided in tub girders to control cross- Figure 11: Stiffeners to which bracing
sectional distortion, which introduces members are attached should be connected
to girder flanges to reduce local distortion.
additional stresses in box girders and
Shown is a typical detail for connection to
should be minimized. Cross-sectional the bottom flange.
distortion is caused by torsional loads that
do not act on boxes in the same pattern as
the St.-Venant shear flow, which is Distortional stresses can be neglected in
uniformly distributed along the design, if a sufficient number of internal
diaphragms with adequate stiffness are
provided. Research efforts in the early
1970s resulted in guidelines for spacing
and stiffness requirements of internal 19
diaphragms. While there might be
conceptual deficiencies in these previous
investigations, experience in the past
three decades has proven that these
guidelines are, in general, conservative.
Those studies focused primarily on X-type
cross frames. Most cross frames in
modern box girder bridges are K-frames,
allowing better access for construction
Figure 10: Connection of K-frame diagonals and inspection. With very narrow boxes,
to top chord. Tub girders have many parts consideration of X-frame or Z-frame
and pieces; try to keep the details simple
configurations might be warranted. Until
with clean load paths
Internal cross more studies on K-frames are available, girder bridges are primary structural
frames also act as previous data for X-type cross frames can members and are always needed.
braces to prevent be judiciously used for K-frames. It should Intermediate diaphragms prevent the
girder top flanges
be noted that the current AASHTO Guide individual girders from rotating
from buckling...
Specifications for Horizontally Curved independently under torsional loads and
Steel Girder Highway Bridges (5) has omitted tie the girders together such that torques
these previously published guidelines. are resisted by a structural system with a
large rotation arm and are thus much
Spacing of internal diaphragms is part of stiffer than individual girders. Individual
the framing process, and should be I-shaped plate girders have low torsional
determined by also considering factors stiffness and can develop significant
such as the angle and length of lateral rotation if not restrained.
bracing members, as discussed below.
The stiffness requirement often results in Tub girders, on the other hand, possess
very small sizes of cross frame members, larger rotational stiffness and are much
which typically are structural angles. more capable of carrying external torques
Members are sometimes selected based individually. In finished bridges, when tubs
on handling considerations; cross frame are fully closed and the concrete deck
members must also be checked to meet effectively ties the girders together,
strength requirements. Large brace forces transverse rotations of tubs are expected
can develop inside cross frames, to be small and external intermediate
particularly when they are spaced diaphragms are typically not warranted.
relatively far apart in curved bridges. During construction, however, the
Approximate design equations have rotational rigidity of tub girders is not as
recently been developed to estimate these high. Steel tubs at this stage are quasi-
forces (21). Strength verification should be closed, and their rotational behavior is not
conducted on diaphragms with controlling fully understood or predictable. Research
(largest) brace forces, usually located in recently performed at the University of

the largest bending moment regions. The Texas (25) will provide more insight into
above-mentioned guides (3, 5, 19, 20, 21) this behavior; publication is expected by
offer good discussions on sizing and summer 2005. The main reason for
spacing issues. concern is the consequence of transverse
rotations. Because a girders two top
Internal cross frames also act as braces to flanges are spaced apart but still rotate
prevent girder top flanges from buckling. together, resulting differential deflections
However, the flange stability issue has not at the top flanges would be large, even
been well addressed in previous research. with a small girder rotation. Reasonable fit-
Current design guidelines based on up may become impossible, and differential
20 distortional stresses will likely continue to be slab thickness will result at the top flange
the primary approach in the years to come. locations if girder rotation is not controlled.
Internal cross frames should be detailed to Consequently, external intermediate

minimize fatigue concerns. Stiffeners to diaphragms are used to control differential
which bracing members are attached displacement and rotation of individual tub
should be connected to girder flanges to girders during slab placement. In tangent
reduce local distortion. tub girders, external intermediate
diaphragms can sometimes be omitted or
EXTERNAL INTERMEDIATE minimized if individual tub rotation and
DIAPHRAGMS differential displacements are expected to
It is widely known that intermediate be relatively small and manageable.
diaphragms in curved I-shaped plate External intermediate diaphragms often
Figure 12 (near
right): External
intermediate
diaphragms
control
differential
displacement
and rotation of
tub girders
during slab
placement.
utilize a K-frame configuration, with depth diaphragms; at a minimum, five issues

closely matching girder depth for efficiency should be addressed:
and simplification of supporting details.
Safety Removing temporary
The necessity of external diaphragms has external intermediate diaphragms
been a debated topic for years, and tub can be difficult and potentially
girder bridges have been built with and hazardous, due to falling debris
without external diaphragms. Problems concerns, or if members are
with slab placement on curved girders carrying significant load. Crane
without external intermediate diaphragms access is limited once the deck is
have occurred. in place.
Many previous and current research Deck Stresses Loads carried by

investigations report that external temporary external intermediate
intermediate diaphragm forces are small, diaphragms will shift to the deck
and concluded that they are not needed. when the diaphragms are
Yet, girder rotations in curved bridges are removed, adding to deck stresses
frequently observed. For example, bolt and potentially leading to deck
holes do not align during installation. Many cracking if this effect is not
engineers and contractors tend to be carefully evaluated in the deck
conservative with this issue and like the design.
additional stiffness and rotation control Future Redecking In locations
that external intermediate diaphragms where future redecking of the
bring to structures. It is likely they will bridge is likely (for example, to
continue to be used unless strong address deck deterioration in 21
evidence suggests otherwise, or a regions where the heavy use of
convenient, reliable tool becomes deicing salts is routine),
available to predict girder rotation. consideration should be given to
retaining external intermediate
There is also ongoing debate regarding diaphragms, since they would
external intermediate diaphragm removal likely be required during redecking
after the deck has cured. Some advocate for the same reasons they were
removal of these diaphragms for aesthetic required during the original
reasons. However, care should be taken in construction.
evaluating the effects of removing
Traffic Control If lane closures
temporary external intermediate
are required to remove external
Pier and end diaphragms, salvage value of
diaphragms are removed diaphragms will be far
generally full- less than costs to close lanes.
depth plate girder
sections... Fatigue Leaving external
diaphragms in place may present
fatigue concerns, since connection
of diaphragm bottom chords to the
girder bottom flanges is
problematic and connection to the
web with stiffener backups may
result in a poor fatigue detail.
In Texas, external K-frames are currently

provided every two to three internal
K-frames, and are typically removed after
slab construction.
Figure 13: Internal diaphragms at supports
One related question is whether (and how) generally use full-depth solid webs, with
to include external intermediate diaphragms access manholes between the bearing
in analysis models. External intermediate stiffeners.
diaphragms are typically installed after
girders are erected, so they do not carry Internal diaphragms typically consist of a
load due to girder self-weight. Once the vertical plate. Top flanges can be provided
deck is hardened, it serves as a more for the diaphragm to increase the bending
effective load path between girders for capacity of the diaphragms, as pointed out
distributing live loads; consequently, above, and can also provide support for
external intermediate diaphragms carry the slab at girder ends. Bearing stiffeners
little or no load due to live load. Care can be attached to diaphragms and are
should be taken to properly address these designed as columns subjected to an axial
issues in tub girder analysis models. load equal to the reaction. Access holes
should be provided for inspection
INTERNAL DIAPHRAGMS AT SUPPORTS purposes; in determining the location and
Pier and end diaphragms are generally size of the holes, it is important to consider
full-depth plate girder sections. Particular the stress flow due to bending and
care should be taken in detailing end torsional moments.
diaphragms for constructability, because
the presence of abutment backwalls, other Diaphragms are supported by one or two
girders, or pier cap stems will limit access bearings. Two-bearing supports provide
22 better torsional resistance and induce less
to one side of the diaphragm during
erection. Note that pier diaphragms (and bending stress. However, two-bearing
sometimes end diaphragms) require supports are not often recommended, due
access manholes for future inspection. to width limitations of bottom flanges and
high demand for construction accuracy.
Internal diaphragms at supports are Single supports are more widely used, and
designed as deep beams subjected to the torsional resistance as well as the
1) bending loads, which are the shear distributional reactions resulting from the
forces from the girder webs; and 2) large bearing contact area is often
torsion-induced shear flow along the conservatively neglected. Bearing design
circumference of the diaphragms, due to the is discussed in more detail later.
torsional moment reactions on box girders.
Large torsional EXTERNAL DIAPHRAGMS AT SUPPORTS
reactions may be If dual bearings or other measures (such
needed at the as anchor bolts or shims) under the girder
girder support
are able to prevent transverse rotation,
points, which
results in the use
external diaphragms should be
of solid plate theoretically stress free. If single-point
girders for the support is used, however, torsional
diaphragms in moments must be resisted by external
many curved diaphragms that bend vertically.
bridges...
Figure 15: Freebody diagrams for calculating

diaphragm forces.
The above procedure would result in a

bending moment at the end of diaphragms
(M) smaller than the torque on the girder
(T). However, the resultant reaction may
not be at the center of the girder width,
due to rotation of the bearings. A larger
moment may result at one end of the
diaphragm than at the other. A
Figure 14: Full-depth plate girder sections are conservative approach is to simply
typically used for external end diaphragms. assume the moments at the diaphragm
Access holes are sometimes required to
ends to be equal to the torsional reaction
facilitate field connection, but they were not
used for this particular bridge. of the box girder (M = T), while shears are
still calculated using the above method.

These moment and shear values are
Large torsional reactions may be needed important to the design of the plate girder
at the end of the girder support points, diaphragms, and to the design of the
which results in the use of solid plate connections between the diaphragms and
girders for the diaphragms in many curved the girders.
bridges. With only one point support under
each girder, the internal end diaphragms Large moments at diaphragms often
in adjacent girders combine with the require the use of a moment connection to
external diaphragms to form a beam to the girder (diaphragm flanges are also
resist the torsional moments from
individual girders (Fig. 15). Because the
total torque may be resisted by differential 23
reactions at the bearings of different
girders, the diaphragms are subjected to
both bending and shear, as shown in Fig.
15. If the torsional reaction on each of the
twin girders is T, the moment and shear on
the diaphragm can be derived from statics
as M = Tb/L and V = 2T/L, where L is the
girder spacing and b is the average length
of the diaphragm. More complex systems,
including multiple girders and unequal Figure 16: At supports, full-depth plate girder
torsional reactions, can be solved similarly. sections are often used for external
diaphragms.
Top flange lateral connected to the girders); the connection calculate the thickness of an equivalent
bracing is required may be designed in a similar manner to plate converted from the horizontal truss,
in tub girders to the splice design for the girders. Torsional although there is no experimental
form the fourth reactions at girder supports should be verification on the stiffness aspect of this
side of the box available from analysis results. The method. Rotation of tub girders is also
until the slab is in
largest torsion is very likely to occur during likely to occur if bolted connections of the
place...
the construction stage. Torsional moments lateral bracing members experience slip. A
in straight girders are significantly smaller, better understanding of the quasi-closed tub
and a plate girder may not be warranted girder stiffness would impact the analytical
for external diaphragms. method and the use of external diaphragms.
Avoid skews in tub girder bridges if at all Design of a top lateral bracing system
possible especially at girder ends consists of three major steps:

since skewed end diaphragms are
enormously complicated to detail, 1. Framing
fabricate and erect. Pier diaphragms can The angle between diagonal lateral
potentially be detailed as pairs of right bracing members and the top flange, , is
(nonskewed) diaphragms to work around an important design parameter. Ideally, an
the problems of skewed diaphragms. around 45 degrees is desired. A small
leads to larger cross frame spacing and
TOP FLANGE LATERAL BRACING fewer bracing panels and connections.
Top flange lateral bracing is required in tub However, larger brace forces and girder
girders to form the fourth side of the box stresses result from a small . Engineers
until the slab is in place. The previously should plan the framing using both
24 mentioned guides (3, 5, 18, 19, 20) offer structural and economical considerations.
good discussions on sizing and spacing
issues. This bracing is typically formed with Diagonal lateral bracing members are
WT or angle sections, often configured in a framed into the intersection of the girder
single diagonal (Warren truss) or double top flange and internal diaphragm
diagonal (X-bracing truss) arrangement. (guidelines for the spacing of the internal
cross frames were discussed earlier). For
The purpose of providing a lateral bracing narrow girders, these guidelines may
system is to increase the torsional suggest a cross frame spacing much
stiffness of tub girders. However, the larger than the girder width, which would
relationship between torsional stiffness result in a small . Therefore, the location
and lateral bracing systems (including of the internal diaphragms should be
connection) has not been well studied. planned with consideration of lateral bracing.
Analytical formulas are available to
It is suggested to An alterative is to divide the spacing bracing due to box girder bending. Design
keep the plane of between two consecutive cross frames into equations have been developed to
the top flange more than one lateral bracing panel. Single evaluate this component of force for
lateral bracing lateral members (typically angle sections) different truss types (18).
reasonably close are used at those dividing lines. Attaching
to the plane of the
two more members to the single lateral to Vertical loads on the top flanges also induce
top flanges...
form a vertical K-frame does not brace forces due to web slope. However,
significantly increase steel weight, but does the majority of these forces are resisted
add cost, due to increased fabrication labor directly by the lateral struts. Thus, the total
requirements. Note that doing so also forces in lateral bracing members are
makes the structure stiffer, and brace forces essentially the sum of torsional and bending
in both the lateral bracing members and components. Because bending forces are a
internal diaphragms may be slightly larger. function of member size, trial truss member

sizes have to be assumed before the force
It is suggested to keep the plane of the top calculation. External diaphragms also
flange lateral bracing reasonably close to contribute load to the bracing system. If a
the plane of the top flanges, which 3-D FEA program is available, total forces
increases the torsional efficiency of tub can be obtained directly from the analysis.
girders and avoids excessive bending
loads in web stiffeners. 3. Member Size Selection and
Connection Detailing
2. Analysis Once forces are determined, brace
Torsional moments induced by dead loads members can be designed as beam
and construction loads will result in brace columns. Depending on the
forces in lateral bracing members. These connection details, bending moments 25
forces can be derived from the St.-Venant resulting from any eccentricity must
shear flow at the girder crosssections, be considered. The effective length
assuming the horizontal truss acts as an factor (k) used in design of brace
imaginary plate. members should reflect end
connection conditions
Lateral brace members, transverse struts
in internal diaphragms, and top flanges
form a geometrically stable horizontal
truss. It is therefore possible to take axial
forces representing the top flange
component of girder bending moments
and calculate member forces in the lateral
MISCELLANEOUS DETAILS AND ISSUES
26
The effects of FLANGE-TO-WEB WELDS AND SHEAR reduces reaction demand on the bearings.
transverse loading STUDS Two-bearing systems work well with radial
on the weld Flange-to-web welds are designed in a supports, but are impractical with supports
because of web similar manner as for plate girders, but there skewed more than a few degrees, where
slope and lateral
are additional loading effects exclusive to tub tub girder and/or diaphragm stiffness work
bracing loads
should be
girders that must be addressed. The shear against uniform bearing contact during
included... contributing to longitudinal load in the weld various stages of girder erection and slab
(calculated as VQ/I) should include both construction. One way to try to ensure
vertical shear (resolved to account for web proper contact in two-bearing systems is

slope) and shear due to torsion. In addition, to build the structure on temporary
the effects of transverse loading on the weld supports and then grout the bearings in
because of web slope and lateral bracing place prior to shoring removal.
loads should be included. Shear studs are
designed in a similar manner as for plate Using one bearing per support optimizes
girders, but there are additional loading contact between girder and bearing. One-
effects exclusive to tub girders that must be bearing systems also are more forgiving of
addressed. The shear contributing construction tolerances and, for skewed
longitudinal load in the studs (calculated as supports, one-bearing systems are
VQ/I) should include both vertical shear demonstrably better than two-bearing
(resolved to account for web slope) and systems. The drawback to one-bearing
shear due to torsion. Shear studs must be systems is that stiff cross frames or
provided along the total girder length to diaphragms between girders are required to
ensure that the slab is acting as the fourth resolve girder torsion into the bearings.
side of a box girder. Fabricating and erecting these stiff elements
is demanding, and bearing installation can be 27
BEARINGS difficult with very wide bottom flanges.
An important decision to make about
bearings is how many to use: one or two per What type of bearing to employ is as
support. As with most decisions, the choices important as deciding how many bearings
offered each have pros and cons. The per support will be used. Steel-reinforced
number of bearings per support can change neoprene and pot bearings are the most
from support to support, allowing designers commonly encountered bearings with tub
to optimize the design. girders, although disc bearings are
occasionally used. Steel-reinforced
Using two bearings allows girder torsion neoprene bearings generally cost less than
be directly removed through the force pot bearings in smaller sizes, are forgiving of
couple provided by the bearings, and construction tolerances, and are easily
The decision to inspected. However, steel-reinforced BRIDGE DECKS
use an empirical neoprene bearings usually have less Concrete deck slabs on most tub girders are
deck design with reaction capacity than pot or disc bearings. cast in place with extensive use of stay-in-
tub girders must
The upper reaction limit with neoprene place metal deck forms. If designers elect to
not be taken
lightly...
bearings is about 1,000 kips (22); with use the empirical design method in the
reactions much greater than this, pot or disc AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design
bearings become a more practical choice. Specifications (9), Section 9.7.2 for the
Note that pot bearings also have a lower limit bridge deck, intermediate diaphragms
on reactions (22) and may not be an between tub girders are required at 25-foot
appropriate choice when low reactions maximum spacing. Such diaphragms
are expected. partially negate the reasons to use tub
girders in the first place. In lieu of this
requirement, the LRFD Specifications,
Section 9.7.2.4 (9), permits designers to
investigate if additional slab reinforcement
over the girder webs is necessary for
transverse slab bending between girders. A
bridge deck could be modeled with both tub
girders and I-shaped girders to ascertain
differences in transverse deck bending
moments. The moment difference between the
Figure 17: Steel-reinforced neoprene
two girder systems could be accommodated
bearings are a simple, low-maintenance with supplemental reinforcement.
bearing option.
The decision to use an empirical deck
Girder translation is readily accommodated design with tub girders must not be taken
with steel-reinforced neoprene bearings. In lightly. Designers should carefully weigh
cases where the amount of translation their perceived advantages against their
creates tall, unstable pads, a stainless many limitations.
steel/polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE) sliding
surface can be introduced. Pot bearings FIELD SPLICES
always need a stainless steel/PTFE sliding Just as with plate girders, tub girders usually
surface to accommodate translations. need field splices to facilitate girder
transportation and erection. Maximum
Regardless what type is selected, designers allowable shipping lengths of about 120 feet
should ensure bearings can be replaced with are common throughout much of the U.S.,
limited jacking. but some states are more restrictive.
Designers must be cognizant of
28 Both the current AASHTO Standard oversize/overweight permit requirements
Specifications for Highway Bridges (7) and imposed by the state the bridge is located in.
AASHTO LRFD Bridge Design Specifications Sometimes the fabricator is not in the same
(9) include general formulas for designing state as the bridge and designers do not
reinforced neoprene bearings. For specific know which fabricator will be building and
guidance on designing steel-reinforced shipping the girders, adding a level of
neoprene bearings for tub girders, see the uncertainty in locating field splices for
article Elastomeric Bearings for Steel shipping purposes.
Trapezoidal Box Girder Bridges (23). For an
overview of most bearing types used with Overall girder width of tub girders (including
steel bridges, see the National Steel Bridge sweep for curved girders) should be
Alliances (NSBAs) Steel Bridge Bearing considered for shipping purposes. Though
Selection and Design Guide (22). not likely, shipping costs of very wide girders
Figure 18 (near
right): Bolted
field splices are
generally
quicker to
complete than
welded splices,
but may prove
more prone to
corrosion.
(in excess of 14 feet) can outweigh costs of However, some erectors maintain that
adding additional field splices. In rare cases, welded splices are more forgiving with regard
tub girders are so wide they must have to fit-up tolerances, given skilled welders.
longitudinal field splices in bottom flanges. Some owners suggest welded splices may
be more durable, due to observed corrosion
Weight can be another consideration in in some bolted splices. The decision to use
locating field splices. Tub girders are welded field splices should be undertaken
heavier than plate girders and weight can with care and full consideration of all issues.
become excessive for economical

shipping and erection. When determining While painted faying surfaces may be more
field splice location, consultation with durable, allowing painted faying surfaces can
several regional fabricators familiar with create confusion, since two types of paint are
tub girders is recommended. For field usually encountered with tub girders. Exterior
splices provided only for transportation paint system primers are usually different
issues, designers should be clear in their from interior paint. Designers must be clear
plans that these splices can be completed on which, if any, paint is allowed in bolted
prior to final girder erection. faying surfaces and what slip coefficient the
design is based on.
As with plate girders, field splices can be
bolted or welded. Welded field splices with DETAILING
tub girders are difficult even for highly For detailing guidelines, the reader is
trained welders experienced with field directed to www.steelbridge.org, the
welding bridge girder splices and time AASHTO/NSBA Steel Bridge Collaborations
consuming. The longer time required to Web site. One of the Collaborations
complete welded splices can result in high documents is helpful in outlining detailing 29
costs from traffic control if the splice is over requirements specific to tub girders: G1.4,
traffic. Fitup tolerances prior to welding are Design Details Sample Drawings, which is
in some ways more restrictive than with currently (May 2003) in draft form; a final
bolted connections. Bolted field splices version should be available in the near future.
predominate throughout much of the United
States for tub girders. Although not as Also, Appendix B of this book contains
aesthetically appealing as welded splices, guidance on detailing steel tub girders,
they are quicker to complete with less including a set of suggested details. These
skilled labor. The current AASHTO Guide details have been reviewed by a wide range
Specifications for Horizontally Curved Steel of engineers, detailers, fabricators and
Girder Highway Bridges (5) has a erectors, and represent the best consensus
comprehensive example to guide designers on good detailing practice for steel tub
through the bolted splice design. girders. Of course, each tub girder is unique
Placing wire mesh Fabrication (SCEF) Standards (24). Some
over any copes or important detailing issues bear repeating:
clips in end plates
and bottom flange Both webs should be equal in height
drain holes are and the girders should be rotated
two more about the point defined by the
suggested details intersection of the girders centerline
peculiar to tub and the top of the webs.
girders...
Bottom flanges must extend at least
1 inches beyond web centerlines
for welding purposes.
Provide details consistent with future
Figure 19: Cost versus benefit: Full shop fit- inspection needs, such as
up was required on this tub girder project to adequately proportioned access
help ensure erection would go smoothly. holes, light access doors, electrical
Requiring full bridge assembly in the shop
service along the girders, and
may avoid some fit-up problems in the field,
but can be quite costly. Designers are painting interiors a light color.
advised to explore all consequences of their Connection details for external cross
decisions. frame or diaphragm details must be
prepared in consideration of the
and may have design or detailing tremendous lateral and torsional
requirements which differ from these stiffness of tub girders. Tub girders
suggested details, but these details cannot be manipulated as easily as
represent a broadly applicable set of plate girders during erection.

recommended practices.
Placing wire mesh over any copes or clips in

end plates and bottom flange drain holes are
two more suggested details peculiar to tub
girders. Wire mesh, which prevents girder
interiors from becoming wildlife habitat,
should be 10 gage to withstand welding and
blasting and have a tight weave, about
inch by inch. Suggested bottom flange
drain holes are 1 inches in diameter and
spaced along the bottom flanges low side
every 50 feet. Holes should be placed 4
inches away from the web plate. Place a
30 inch bead of adhesive caulk to direct water to
the drain hole. These holes will mitigate
Figure 20: Steel tub girders, top flanges and
rainwater buildup in tub girders prior to deck
stiffeners are typically assembled as a sub-
unit upside down, then flipped over and placement and provide helpful ventilation for
welded to the bottom flange. the life of the girder. See Fig. 22 for
suggested drain hole details.
This Web site also offers two more good
references in detailing tub girders: the Texas MATERIAL SELECTION
Steel Quality Councils Preferred Practices Tub girders offer excellent opportunities to use
for Steel Bridge Design, Fabrication, and High Performance Steel (HPS) A709 Grade
Erection (16) and Mid-Atlantic States HPS- 70W. Like its use in plate girders, HPS
Structural Committee for Economic will be most economical in hybrid applications.
Negative and positive moment tension flanges
Figure 21 (near
right): Tub girder
interior surfaces
should always
be coated with a
white or light
colored paint.
hard to justify using Grade 36 steel for

economics; Grade 100 steels will likely see
economical applications in bridges with
unusually long span lengths.
As with all steel bridges, weathering steel is

the material of choice unless site conditions
or aesthetic requirements preclude its use. To
optimize weathering steel aesthetics,

fabricators should be required to perform an
SSPC-SP 10 level blast cleaning of fascia
web surfaces (and bottom flanges and other
webs if they will be visible to the public) prior
to shipping girders. It is easierand therefore
less costlyto do this at the fabricators shop
than in the field.
PAINTING
Considerations for painting the exteriors of
tub girders are the same as for plate girders.
Tub girder interiors should always be coated.
Without owner direction towards a specific
coating and preparation, girder interiors
Figure 22: Suggested details for drain holes should receive a light brush blast and be
in tub girder bottom flanges. painted with a white or light colored paint 31
capable of telegraphing cracks (which aids
show the greatest potential in utilizing HPS.
bridge inspection). Specified interior paint
Recent studies such as found in Reference 28
should be tolerant of minimal surface
discuss this in more detail. It should be noted
preparation. In most cases, interior paint is
that the current AASHTO Guide Specifications
provided not for corrosion protection but for
for Horizontally Curved Steel Girder Highway
girder inspection. As such, localized paint
Bridges (5) does not provide for hybrid girders,
failure can be tolerated. Specifying stringent
due to lack of related research. However,
requirements for tub girder interior paints and
upcoming revisions to the AASHTO LRFD
surface preparation must not be taken lightly,
Bridge Design Specifications (see Reference
because they will add significant costs to
26) do include provisions for hybrid girders.
projects. Note that the painted interior
surfaces do not necessarily need to include
In addition to HPS, A709 Grades 50 or 50W
the top flange lateral bracing members.
are the next steel of choice for tub girders. It is
PRACTICAL EXAMPLES
PRACTICAL EXAMPLES
32
PRACTICAL EXAMPLES
An interesting IH 35/US 290 INTERCHANGE, AUSTIN, Steel-reinforced neoprene bearings were

finding from these TEXAS employed throughout the interchange.
projects was that Tub girders were selected for all the direct One bearing per support was used in all
lateral brace
connection structures in the IH 35/US 290 cases. The screening instrument in
forces arising
from slab
interchange in Austin. Approach spans reference (22) indicated that pot bearings
placement were used precast, prestressed concrete Texas were the best choice, since maximum
sensitive to where U-beams; the longer span and/or curved reactions were over 1,000 kips; however,
concrete pours portions used steel tub girders. the designers elected to use neoprene
were initiated and bearings based on cost, ease of
their subsequent manufacturing and long-term maintenance.
direction... See Figs. 17 and 23 for the simplicity of an
expansion bearing at the end of an 880-
foot continuous girder unit. Fixed bearings
were detailed with anchor bolts
penetrating through the bearings and
girder bottom flange. This turned out to be
a poor detail, due to the reality of construction
tolerances, and accommodations had to be
made in several instances where anchor
bolts did not align with their respective holes.
VARIOUS TXDOT HOUSTON DISTRICT

Figure 23: The simplicity of steel-reinforced PROJECTS, HOUSTON, TEXAS
neoprene bearings illustrated in an expansion Within the last 10 years, TxDOTs Houston
bearing at the end of an 880-foot continuous District completed or has under
tub girder unit
construction dozens of steel tub girder
bridges, totaling more than 110 million
TxDOT funded two research projects pounds of steel. About half of these
related to steel tub girders prior to the projects were designed directly by TxDOT
PRACTICAL EXAMPLES
construction of this interchange. One Houston District engineers. There is
project, under the direction of Karl Frank, simply no substitute for steel structures
Ph.D., covered the measurement of forces when roadway geometry is complex,
in tub girders at different stages of spans are unbalanced, and speed of
construction. The other project dealt with construction is important.
simplifying costly details associated with
tub girders and was directed by Joseph In the Houston area, tub girders are
Yura, Ph.D. An interesting finding from selected primarily for aesthetic reasons,
these projects was that lateral brace despite the cost premium. Steel I-girder
forces arising from slab placement were bridges range in cost from $70 to $80 per 33
sensitive to where concrete pours were square foot of deck area, while steel tub
initiated and their subsequent direction. To girders range in cost from $90 to $105 per
illustrate: if an end span pour began close square foot of deck area. The reasons for
to midspan and progressed toward the this approximately 25 percent cost
span end, maximum lateral brace forces premium for tub girders are complex and
were close to calculated values. If end many, but several have been identified as
span pours began at the spans end and the primary causes. Fabrication and
progressed into the span, maximum erection costs are higher because the
lateral brace forces were significantly less individual pieces are larger than for
than predicted. This phenomenon was comparable I-girder bridges. Unbalanced
attributed to the stiffness gain rate of spans are common in steel units these
freshly placed concrete. days, but web depth is maintained
Nearly all the been placed on accounting for sequence
field problems of loading and connection eccentricity.
encountered to For example, intermediate external
date can be traced
diaphragms are installed after the girders
to fundamental
engineering errors
have deflected under self weight. This
not unique to tub increases forces in the top lateral brace
girder design... system and has resulted in bowing of
braces during construction. While not
perfect, grid analysis programs have
proven to be a reliable and efficient design
tool for tub girder systems.
Figure 24: Some of the 110 million pounds of US 75 UNDERPASS AT CHURCHILL WAY,
tub girder steel designed in the TxDOT DALLAS, TEXAS
Houston District. The US 75 Underpass at Churchill Way is
a three-span continuous tangent steel tub
throughout, so efficiency is sacrificed for girder bridge (138.91 feet 132.63 feet
aesthetic reasons. Another source of 100 feet), built on a 34 degree skew. This
inefficiency is that tub girder spacing bridge might be described as a good
requirements force the designer to use example of several things to try to avoid in
one or more webs than is required for a steel tub girder bridges.
comparable I-girder superstructure.
Essentially, tub girder superstructures can First, the span arrangement is far from
tend to weigh more than equivalent ideal, both in terms of its lack of good span
I-girder superstructures due to additional balance and in the relative shortness of
conservatism on the part of engineers, the spans. The span arrangement was
since design and analysis procedures dictated by existing site conditions,
are much less well defined for tub including the locations of abutment
girders than I-girders. provisions in an existing retaining wall and
PRACTICAL EXAMPLES
existing lane configurations of the eight-

Nearly all the field problems encountered lane expressway, frontage roads and
to date can be traced to fundamental ramps below the bridge. To blend the
engineering errors not unique to tub girder bridges appearance with the strong
design. Over the last 10 years, the full existing aesthetic theme of the US 75
range of analysis tools has been used to expressway, it was desired to provide a
design tub girder bridges in the Houston smooth soffit superstructure, thus
area. Many problems have occurred eliminating steel I-girders as an option.
during construction, especially when Lane closure limitations and the given
34 general-purpose analysis programs were span lengths eliminated precast and cast-
used or when the superstructure was in-place concrete options, leaving steel
designed as individual girders and tub girders as the most viable
interaction with adjacent girders was not superstructure type.
properly accounted for. Incorrect modeling
of boundary conditions has also resulted Next, the 34-degree skew noticeably
in field problems especially with bearings complicated the design and detailing of
and uplift at the support. Recent bridges this bridge, as might be expected. A 3-D
designed with commercially available FEA analysis was performed (using the
software, based on grid analysis, have proprietary BSDI3-D System) to ensure
performed well. Problems with secondary skew effects were adequately quantified.
members have occurred but the frequency The designers chose to use paired,
has diminished as more emphasis has staggered, right (non-skewed) pier
Figure 25 (near
right): Framing
plan for US 75
Underpass at
Churchill Way;
right diaphragms
used at interior
piers to simplify
detailing for this
bridge, which is
built on a 34-
degree skew.
diaphragms to simplify detailing and

erection. At the end diaphragms, there
was not much choice but to detail the
diaphragms on the 34-degree skew; the
designers consulted a steel detailing shop
and a local fabricator during the design
process to solicit input on preferred details
for the skewed end diaphragms.
To simplify and streamline erection (a key

project criterion was minimizing the
duration of lane closures on the
expressway below), the designers chose
to omit any external intermediate
diaphragms. As would be expected, this
PRACTICAL EXAMPLES
resulted in higher top flange lateral
bracing loads, but the benefit of simpler,
quicker erection was deemed of greater
value. The designers also denoted two of
the four field splices as optional, so that
a properly equipped contractor could erect
fewer, larger field sections and avoid
some lane closures (and the associated
lane rental costs stipulated in the
construction contract). 35
CONCLUSION
CONCLUSION
36
Designers should Steel tub girders are often an excellent
also realize that in choice for modern highway bridge
many cases, there superstructures. They offer advantages
are no hard and over other superstructure types in terms
fast rules of span range, stiffness, and durability
associated with
particularly in curved bridge applications.
these issues...
In addition, steel tub girders have distinct
aesthetic advantages, due to their clean,
simple appearance.
However, the layout, design, detailing,

fabrication and erection of steel tub girder
bridges is in many ways different and often
more complicated than for steel plate
girder bridges. Designers are advised to
understand and evaluate all these issues
very early in the design process.
CONCLUSION
Designers should also realize that in many
cases, there are no hard and fast rules
associated with these issues. Each tub
girder project is unique and a solution that
worked on one bridge might not
necessarily work on another. Instead, it is
imperative that the designer of a tub girder 37
bridge explore all options on a case-by-
case basis, often in consultation with local
fabricators and/or erectors.
A full understanding and careful

consideration of all these issues will result in
a more successful tub girder bridge project.
REFERENCES & APPENDICES
REFERENCES & APPENDICES
38
REFERENCES
1. Hedefine, A., Swindlehurst, J., and Sen, M., Section 12, Beam and Girder Bridges,
Structural Steel Designers Handbook, (Brockenbrough, R.L, and Merritt, F.S.,
Editors), 3rd Edition, 1999, McGraw Hill, Inc. Current edition can be ordered from
McGraw-Hill publishers, www.mcgraw-hill.com, or call 1-877-833-5524.
2. Hall, D. H., Why Steel Box Girders? Modern Steel Construction, April 1997.
Reprint may be downloaded from the website of the National Steel Bridge
Alliance, www.aisc.org, click on the National Steel Bridge Alliance button, then
click on Bridge Crossing Articles.
3. Poellot, W.N., Section 21, Curved Steel Box Girder Bridges, Structural
Engineering Handbook, (Gaylord, E.H, Gaylord, C.N., and Stallmeyer, J.E.,
Editors), 4th Edition, 1997, McGraw-Hill, Inc. Current edition can be ordered
from McGraw-Hill publishers, www.mcgraw-hill.com, or call 1-877-833- 5524.
4. AISC Marketing, Inc., Highway Structures Design Handbook, ADUSS 88-8535,
1981. This book has long been out of print. The NSBA offers a modern version
(see references 15 and 21), but its examples for steel tub girders lack some of
the introductory text of the older version; this older version can sometimes be
found in office libraries or in the personal collections of experienced engineers.
5. American Association of State Highway Transportation Officials (AASHTO),
Guide Specifications for Horizontally Curved Steel Girder Highway Bridges,
GHC-4, 2003. Current edition can be ordered from AASHTO, www.aashto.org
(click on Bookstore), or call 1-800-231-3475.
6. Kase, R.A., Twelve Commandments for Economic Steel Box Girders, Modern
Steel Construction, August 1997. Reprint may be downloaded from the Web site
of the National Steel Bridge Alliance, www.aisc.org, click on the National Steel
Bridge Alliance button, then click on Bridge Crossing Articles.
Standard Specifications for Highway Bridges, 17th Edition, HB-17, 2002. Current
edition can be ordered from AASHTO, www.aashto.org (click on Bookstore), or
call 1-800-231-3475.
REFERENCES
8. Mattock, A.H., Development of Design Criteria for Composite Box Girder
Bridges, Development in Bridge Design and Construction, Crosby Lockwood &
Sons, London, England, 1971.
LRFD Bridge Design Specifications, 3rd Edition, LRFD-3, 2004. Current edition
can be ordered from AASHTO, www.aashto.org (click on Bookstore), or call 1- 39
800-231-3475.
10. Samaan, M., Sennah, K., and Kennedy, J.B., Distribution of Wheel Loads on
Continuous Steel Spread- Box Girder Bridges, ASCE Journal of Bridge
Engineering, Vol. 7, No. 3, May-June 2002, pp. 175-183. Copies may be
obtained by contacting ASCE (www.asce.org, or call 1-800-548-2723) or can
usually be found in local university libraries.
Guide Specifications for Horizontally Curved Highway Bridges, GHC-3, 1993
with Interim Revisions through 1995. This is the previous version of this
specification, but it may still be available from AASHTO, check at AASHTO,
www.aashto.org (click on Bookstore), or call 1-800-231-3475.
12. Richardson, Gordon, and Associates (presently the Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania,
office of HDR), Curved Girder Workshop Lecture Notes, prepared under
Contract No. DOT-FH-11-8815, Federal Highway Administration, 1976. This
document has long been out of print and may be difficult to locate.
13. Tung, D.H.H, and Fountain, R.S., Approximate Torsional Analysis of Curved Box
Girders by the M/R Method, AISC Engineering Journal, Vol. 7, No. 3, July 1970.
Reprint may be downloaded from AISCs Web site at www.aisc.org. Click on the
Engineering Journal button, then click on Downloadable PDFs.
14. American Iron and Steel Institute, Four LRFD Design Examples of Steel
Highway Bridges, Vol. II, Chapters 1A and 1B, Highway Structures Design
Handbook, 1996. Available from the National Steel Bridge Alliance,
www.aisc.org, click on the Bookstore button.
15. American Iron and Steel Institute and National Steel Bridge Alliance, Four LFD
Design Examples of Steel Highway Bridges, Vol. II, Chapter 2B, Highway
Structures Design Handbook, 1999. Available from the National Steel Bridge
Alliance, www.aisc.org, click on the Bookstore button.
16. Texas Steel Quality Council, Preferred Practices for Steel Bridge Design,
Fabrication, and Erection, November 2000. Current edition can be downloaded
from http://www.steelbridge.org, click on Regional Groups and find the
document link in the Texas Quality Council section.
17. Wolchuk, R., and Mayrbaurl, R.M., Proposed Design Specifications for Steel
Box Girder Bridges, Report No. FHWA-TS-80-205, Federal Highway
Administration, January 1980. Copies can be purchased by contacting the
National Technical Information Service at 1-800-553-6847.
REFERENCES
18. Fan, Z., and Helwig, T.A., Behavior of Steel Box Girders with Top Flange
Bracing, ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol. 125, No. 8, August, 1999,
pp 829-837. Copies may be obtained by contacting ASCE (www.asce.org, or call
1-800-548-2723) or can usually be found in local university libraries.
19. Heins, C.P., and Hall, D.H., Designers Guide to Steel Box Girder Bridges,
40 Booklet No. 3500, February, 1981, Bethlehem Steel. This guide has long been
out of print. Copies may be obtained by directly contacting the National Steel
Bridge Alliance technical staff (not the NBSA publications department).
20. United States Steel, Steel / Composite Box-Girder BridgesA Construction
Manual, ADUSS 88-7493- 01, December 1978. This guide has long been out of
print. Copies may be obtained by directly contacting the National Steel Bridge
Alliance technical staff (not the NBSA publications department).
21. Fan, Z., and Helwig, T.A., Distortional Loads and Brace Forces in Steel Box
Girders, ASCE Journal of Structural Engineering, Vol. 128, No. 6, June, 2002,
pp 710-718. Copies may be obtained by contacting ASCE (www.asce.org, or call
1-800-548-2723) or can usually be found in local university libraries.
22. American Iron and Steel Institute and National Steel Bridge Alliance, Steel
Bridge Bearing Selection and Design Guide, Vol. II, Chapter 4, Highway
Structures Design Handbook, 1996. Available from the National Steel Bridge
Alliance, www.aisc.org, click on the Bookstore button.
23. Bradberry, T.E., Cotham, J.C., and Medlock, R.D., Elastomeric Bearings for
Steel Trapezoidal Box Girder Bridges, Proceedings of the ASCE Texas Section
Meeting, Waco, TX, October 2-5, 2002. Copies can be downloaded from the
TxDOT Bridge Division website, www.dot.state.tx.us/brg, click on Division
Publications.
24. Mid-Atlantic States Structural Committee for Economic Fabrication (SCEF)
Standards, available on line at www.steelbridge.org, click on the more where it
says Mid-Atlantic States Structural Committee for Economic Fabrication (SCEF)
Standards - more on the home page.
25. Yura, J. A., Helwig, T. A., Herman, R. H., and Williamson, E.; "Trapezoidal Box
Girders - State of the Art", Research Report 0-4307-1, Report for Texas
Department of Transportation, anticipated publication date: May 2005. Contact
the University of Texas at Austin, Department of Civil, Architectural, and
Environmental Engineering (http://www.ce.utexas.edu/) or the University of
Houston, Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering
(http://www.egr.uh.edu/CIVE/).
26. American Association of State Highway Transportation Officials (AASHTO), LRFD
Bridge Design Specifications, 2005 Interim Revisions to the 3rd Edition,
anticipated publication date: May 2005. Contact AASHTO, www.aashto.org
(click on "Bookstore"), or call 1-800-231-3475.
27. Fry, G. T., Bailey, B. M., Farr, J. L., Elliot, J. E., and Keating, P. B.; "Behavior and
REFERENCES
Design of Dapped Steel Plate Girders", Research Report 0-2102-1, Report for
Texas Department of Transportation, anticipated publication date: May 2005.
Contact Texas A&M University, Department of Civil Engineering
(http://www.civil.tamu.edu).
28. Horton, R., Power, E., Azizinamini, A. and Krupicka, G., High Performance
Steel Cost Comparison Study - Box Girder, Conference Proceedings, 2004 41
FHWA Steel Bridge Conference, San Antonio, Texas, Dec. 2004.
APPENDIX A - COMPUTER DESIGN TOOLS
A.1 AISC SIMON

This DOS-based line girder program with tub girder design features is available from
AISC (www.aisc.org, type SIMON into the search box, or call 312-670-2400).
A.2 VARIOUS TANGENT I-GIRDER PROGRAMS

STLBRIDGE is a Windows-based program available from Bridgesoft, Ltd.
(www.bridgesoftinc.com or call 402-449-1581). It is one of many tangent I-girder design
programs (both new and old, commercially sold and in-house developed programs)
commonly available to bridge designers. Designers can use these programs to develop
preliminary shear and moment diagrams and/or flange stresses. However, these
programs are limited to I-shaped members (plate girders and rolled beams) and thus do
not provide the ability to directly design all pieces of a tub girder. Generally, one half of
the tub girder is input as the cross-section, and web slope is ignored.
A.3 DESCUS II
DESCUS II is a commercially sold program (www.opti-mate.com). DESCUS II is a DOS-
based program (now with a Windows interface) that performs a grid analysis for curved
tub girder design in accordance with AASHTO ASD or LFD (currently only per the
previous edition of the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Curved Steel Girder Highway
Bridges) specifications.
A.4 MDX
MDX is a commercially sold program (www.mdxsoftware.com or call 573-446-3221).
MDX is a Windowsbased program that performs a grid analysis and curved tub girder
design in accordance with the AASHTO ASD, LFD (currently only per the previous edition
of the AASHTO Guide Specifications for Curved Steel Girder Highway Bridges), and
LRFD specifications.
A.5 BSDI3-D SYSTEM

The BSDI3D System is a design service (BSDI Ltd., call 610-282-2888) that provides
3-D FEA of plate or tub girders, including code checking in accordance with the AASHTO
ASD and LFD specifications. Forces are calculated for all members modeled, but code
checks are only provided for webs and flanges.
APPENDIX A
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What are some of the factors considered when determining if steel tub girders are suitable for a bridge project?

What are some of the factors considered when determining if steel tub girders are suitable for a bridge project?

What are some of the analysis and design methods discussed for steel tub girders?

What are some of the analysis and design methods discussed for steel tub girders?

PRACTICAL

STEEL TUB GIRDER

Domenic Coletti, P.E.

Zhanfei Tom Fan, P.h.D., P.E.

John Holt, P.E.

John Vogel, P.E.

The National Steel Bridge Alliance has published this document in

A much anticipated tub girder publication

STEEL TUB GIRDER APPLICATION ISSUES

highly skilled workers to fabricate and

diaphragms and fewer girders versus plate

STEEL TUB GIRDER APPLICATION ISSUES

APPLICATION ISSUES REFERENCES

As an upper DEPTH-TO-SPAN RATIOS owners have very economical deck

DEPTH, WIDTH AND SPACING OF TUB GIRDERS

TUB GIRDER WIDTH AND SPACING

quantifies live load distribution. Designers

Overall width of a bridge is also a

Designers are advised to evaluate these

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN METHODS

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN METHODS

Appendices A.3 and A.4 provide

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN METHODS

This method, however, remains an

Shear Studs (Typ)

Top Flange Lateral

Bottom Flange (Typ)

Internal GENERAL GUIDELINES circumference of the tub girder cross-

DIAPHRAGMS AND BRACING

(largest) brace forces, usually located in recently performed at the University of

Internal cross frames should be detailed to Consequently, external intermediate

utilize a K-frame configuration, with depth diaphragms; at a minimum, five issues

DIAPHRAGMS AND BRACING

In Texas, external K-frames are currently

Figure 15: Freebody diagrams for calculating

The above procedure would result in a

DIAPHRAGMS AND BRACING

possible especially at girder ends consists of three major steps:

DIAPHRAGMS AND BRACING

MISCELLANEOUS DETAILS AND ISSUES

MISCELLANEOUS DETAILS AND ISSUES

represent a broadly applicable set of plate girders during erection.

Placing wire mesh over any copes or clips in

hard to justify using Grade 36 steel for

As with all steel bridges, weathering steel is

MISCELLANEOUS DETAILS AND ISSUES

An interesting IH 35/US 290 INTERCHANGE, AUSTIN, Steel-reinforced neoprene bearings were

VARIOUS TXDOT HOUSTON DISTRICT

existing lane configurations of the eight-

diaphragms to simplify detailing and

To simplify and streamline erection (a key

However, the layout, design, detailing,

A full understanding and careful

A.1 AISC SIMON

A.2 VARIOUS TANGENT I-GIRDER PROGRAMS