An operating system (OS) is the program that, after being initially loaded into the computer by a

boot program, manages all the other programs in a computer. The other programs are called
applications or application programs. The application programs make use of the operating
system by making requests for services through a defined application program interface (API). In
addition, users can interact directly with the operating system through a user interface such as a
command line or a graphical user interface (GUI).

An operating system performs these services for applications:

In a multitasking operating system where multiple programs can be running at the same
time, the operating system determines which applications should run in what order and
how much time should be allowed for each application before giving another application
a turn.

It manages the sharing of internal memory among multiple applications.

It handles input and output to and from attached hardware devices, such as hard disks,
printers, and dial-up ports.

It sends messages to each application or interactive user (or to a system operator) about
the status of operation and any errors that may have occurred.

It can offload the management of what are called batch jobs (for example, printing) so
that the initiating application is freed from this work.

On computers that can provide parallel processing, an operating system can manage how
to divide the program so that it runs on more than one processor at a time.

All major computer platforms (hardware and software) require and sometimes include an
operating system, and operating systems must be developed with different features to meet the
specific needs of various form factors.

Common desktop operating systems:

Windows is Microsofts flagship operating system, the de facto standard for home and
business computers. Introduced in 1985, the GUI-based OS has been released in many
versions since then. The user-friendly Windows 95 was largely responsible for the rapid
development of personal computing.

Mac OS is the operating system for Apple's Macintosh line of personal computers and
workstations.

Linux is a Unix-like operating system that was designed to provide personal computer
users a free or very low-cost alternative. Linux has a reputation as a very efficient and
fast-performing system.
 Windows operating systems have long dominated the market and continue to do so. As of
August 2016, Windows systems had a market share of over 85 percent. In contrast, Mac
OS was at a little over 6 percent and Linux was just over 2 percent. Nevertheless,
Windows is losing market share from a long-held 90 percent and higher.

A mobile OS allows smartphones, tablet PCs and other mobile devices to run applications
and programs. Mobile operating systems include Apple iOS, Google Android,
BlackBerry OS and Windows 10 Mobile.

An embedded operating system is specialized for use in the computers built into larger
systems, such as cars, traffic lights, digital televisions, ATMs, airplane controls, point of
sale (POS) terminals, digital cameras, GPS navigation systems, elevators, digital media
receivers and smart meters.

With multiprogramming several jobs are kept in memory at one time; the CPU is
switched back & forth among them to CPU utilization & to decrease the total time
needed to execute the jobs.

Multiprogramming which was developed to improve performance, also allow time

sharing. Time shared operating system allow many users (from one to hundred) to use a
computer system interactively at the same time.

Personal computer systems are microcomputers that are considerably smaller & less
expensive that are mainframe system.

Operating system these computers have benefited from the development of the operating
system for mainframe in several ways. However since individual have sole use of the
computer, CPU utilization is no longer a prime concern. Hence some of the design
decisions that are made in operating system for mainframe may not be appropriate for
the smaller systems

Single- and multi-tasking

A single-tasking system can only run one program at a time, while a multi-tasking
operating system allows more than one program to be running in concurrency. This is
achieved by time-sharing, dividing the available processor time between multiple
processes that are each interrupted repeatedly in time slices by a task-scheduling
subsystem of the operating system. Multi-tasking may be characterized in preemptive and
co-operative types. In preemptive multitasking, the operating system slices the CPU time
and dedicates a slot to each of the programs.

Templated
In an OS, distributed and cloud computing context, templating refers to creating a single virtual
machine image as a guest operating system, then saving it as a tool for multiple running virtual
machines. The technique is used both in virtualization and cloud computing management, and is
common in large server warehouses.[7]

Embedded

Embedded operating systems are designed to be used in embedded computer systems. They are
designed to operate on small machines like PDAs with less autonomy. They are able to operate
with a limited number of resources

Early computers were built to perform a series of single tasks, like a calculator. Basic operating system
features were developed in the 1950s, such as resident monitor functions that could automatically run
different programs in succession to speed up processing. Operating systems did not exist in their modern
and more complex forms until the early 1960s. [8] Through the 1950s, many major features were
pioneered in the field of operating systems, including batch processing, input/output interrupt,
buffering, multitasking, spooling, runtime libraries, link-loading, and programs for sorting records in files.
These features were included or not included in application software at the option of application
programmers, rather than in a separate operating system used by all applications.

The Linux kernel originated in 1991, as a project of Linus Torvalds, while a university student
in Finland. Interrupts
Main article: Interrupt

Interrupts are central to operating systems, as they provide an efficient way for the operating
system to interact with and react to its environment. T

Modes

Modern microprocessors (CPU or MPU) support multiple modes of operation. CPUs with this
capability offer at least two modes: user mode and supervisor mode

Memory management
Main article: Memory management

Among other things, a multiprogramming operating system kernel must be responsible for
managing all system memory which is currently in use by programs.

Multitasking refers to the running of multiple independent computer programs on the same
computer; giving the appearance that it is performing the tasks at the same time. Since most
computers can do at most one or two things at one time, this is generally done via time-
sharing, which means that each program uses a share of the computer's time to execute.
Device drivers
Main article: Device driver
A device driver is a specific type of computer software developed to allow interaction with
hardware devices. Typically this constitutes an interface for communicating with the device,
through the specific computer bus or communications subsystem that the hardware is connected
to, providing commands to and/or receiving data from the device, and on the other end, the
requisite interfaces to the operating system and software applications

User interface

Main article: Operating system user interface

A screenshot of the Bash command line. Each command is typed out after the 'prompt', and then
its output appears below, working its way down the screen. The current command prompt is at
the bottom.

Every computer that is to be operated by an individual requires a user interface. The user
interface is usually referred to as a shell and is essential if human interaction is to be
supported. Real-time operating systems
Main article: Real-time operating system

A real-time operating system (RTOS) is an operating system intended for applications with fixed
deadlines (real-time computing). Such applications include some small embedded systems,
automobile engine controllers, industrial robots, spacecraft, industrial control, and some large-
scale computing systems.

2013 worldwide device shipments by operating system[34]

Operating system 2012 (millions of units) 2013 (million of units)

Android 504 878

Windows 346 328

iOS/Mac OS 214 267

BlackBerry 35 24

Others 1,117 803

Total 2,216 2,300

Contributor(s): Jessica Scarpati
HUB:
A network hub is a node that broadcasts data to every computer or Ethernet-based device
connected to it. A hub is less sophisticated than a switch, the latter of which can isolate data
transmissions to specific devices.

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Network hubs are best suited for small, simple local area network (LAN) environments. Hubs
cannot provide routing capabilities or other advanced network services. Because they operate by
forwarding packets across all ports indiscriminately, network hubs are sometimes referred to as
"dumb switches."

The kernel is a computer program that is the core of a computer's operating system, with
complete control over everything in the system.[1] It is the first program loaded on start-up. It
handles the rest of start-up as well as input/output requests from software, translating them into
data-processing instructions for the central processing unit. It handles memory and peripherals
like keyboards, monitors, printers, and speakers.

A computer network or data network is a digital telecommunications

network which allows nodes to share resources. In computer networks,
networked computing devices exchange data with each other using a
data linkLocal Area Network (LAN)

This is one of the original categories of network, and one of the simplest. LAN networks
connect computers together over relatively small distances, such as within a single building or
within a small group of buildings

Wide Area Network (WAN)

This is another of the original categories of network, and slightly more complex in nature. WAN
networks connect computers together over large physical distances, remotely connecting them
over one huge network and allowing them to communicate even when far apart.

How do LANs and WANs connect?

LANs, such as those within a private home, usually have a modem in their residence which is
connected to an Internet Service Provider. This provider assigns an IP address to the modem,
which is a unique number that is given to all devices capable of connecting to the internet,
including any computers, phones or consoles within the home too.

Metropolitan Area Network This is a network which is larger than a LAN but smaller than a
WAN, and incorporates elements of both. It typically spans a town or city and is owned by a
single person or company, such as a local council or a large company.

Campus Area Network This is a network which is larger than a LAN, but smaller than an
MAN. This is typical in areas such as a university, large school or small business
Wireless Local Area Network This is a LAN which works using wireless network technology
such as Wi-Fi. This type of network is becoming more popular as wireless technology is further
developed and is used more in the home and by small businesses.

System Area Network This network connects computers together on an especially high-speed
connection, in a configuration known as a cluster. This means computers which are connected
together so as to work as a single system, and can be done as a result of very high speed
computers and new low cost microprocessors. Storage Area Network This network connects
servers directly to devices which store amounts of data without relying on a LAN or WAN
network to do so. This can involve another type of connection known as Fibre Channel, a system
similar to Ethernet which handles high-performance disk storage for applications on a number of
professional networks.

History of the Internet

End 1969s: ARPA sponsors the development of a packetswitching
network, called the ARPANET. First
four nodes are UCLA, SRI, U. Utah, UCSB
1974: The TCP/IP protocols are being proposed by
Vint Cerf and Bob Kahn
1983: ARPANET adopts TCP/IP. At this time, the
ARPANET has 200 routers.
1984: NSF funds a TCP/IP based backbone network.
This backbone grows into the NSFNET, which
becomes the successor of the ARPANET.
1995: NSF stops funding of NSFNET. The Internet is
completely commercial.

Since 1998: Number of hosts on the Internet double every year

Uses of Computer Networks. ... The computers connected in a network share files, folders,
applications and resources like scanner, web-cams, printers etc. The best example of computer
network is the Internet.