ZONING PRACTICE JUNE 2017

AMERICAN PLANNING ASSOCIATION

ISSUE NUMBER 6

PRACTICE PARKING REFORM

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 Eliminating Parking Minimums
By Ben LeRoy

For decades, many American planners unquestioningly applied minimum off-street

parking requirements to projects of every conceivable size, type, and context.

Whether drawn from the quasi-scientific those not trained as urban planners. Resi- valuable land that could otherwise be used
findings of the Institute of Transportation En- dents and business owners alike have legiti- for productive buildings, while structured
gineers Parking Generation report or simply mate concerns about ever-increasing conges- parking costs average nearly $19,000 per
borrowed whole cloth from other cities zon- tion levels. Accordingly, a discussion of how space (Cudney 2016). With parking require-
ing codes, minimum parking requirements to achieve parking reform would be lacking ments elevating parking supplies beyond
continued to grow more onerous and complex. if it did not include a summary of the top what the market would normally produce,
Communities across the nation watched as reasons why parking reform is a worthwhile parkers often do not directly cover the cost of
formerly walkable neighborhoods were hol- goal. Although parking requirements are their own parking. Instead, the cost of parking
lowed out by parking. Even as planners crafted well-intentioned, they raise housing prices, is tucked into rent, hiding the true allocation
complete streets policies and rejiggered tax induce automobile traffic, and degrade the of the burden. Non-parkers often end up sub-
incentives for infill redevelopment, minimum built environment. sidizing parkers, producing a more expensive
parking requirements were largely ignored, and less fair result than allowing developers
taken on faith as a necessity for any well- Increased Housing Prices to build only as much parking as parkers are
planned city. Because Americans often park for free, they willing to pay for.
But many planners have woken up. A could be forgiven for thinking that parking
wealth of data-oriented researchfrom Park- is free to build and maintain. Unfortunately, Induced Automobile Traffic
ing Reform Made Easy by Richard Willson, nothing could be further from the truth. It Intended to mitigate congestion, minimum
faicp, to the work of Chuck Marohn, aicps turns out that parkingand more specifically, parking requirements have unfortunately pro-
Strong Towns organization, to the seminal The parking produced as a result of minimum duced the opposite effect. By hiding the true
High Cost of Free Parking by Donald Shoup, parking requirementsis a significant con- cost of automobile ownership and spreading
faicphas produced a growing consensus tributor to unaffordable housing. out destinations, minimum parking require-
within the planning profession that the tra- The construction of parking carries sub- ments create the very traffic burden they were
ditional approach to requiring automobile stantial costs. Surface parking consumes created to contain. A recent analysis by the
parking produces more harm than good. In
response, cities and counties have begun
chipping away at their parking requirements
with a variety of techniques, offering urban-
minded developers the opportunity to reduce
their parking burden through shared parking,
payments in lieu of parking, and smarter man-
agement of the public parking supply.
While these incremental steps have gen-
erally proven popular with developers, rela-
tively few communities have taken the bolder
step of eliminating parking requirements in
part or in full. The following sections lay out
the case for parking reform, profile recent
reform efforts in three cities, and present a
Ben LeRoy

series of strategies to help planners make the

case for eliminating off-street parking require-
ments to residents and elected officials.
In dense urban areas with high land values, many developers choose to
THE CASE FOR PARKING REFORM build parking at surface level and elevate the building on stilts. The effect at
The case for parking reform is not self-evident street level is unpleasant, especially for pedestrians.
in our auto-dominated society, especially to

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 State Smart Transportation Initiative and the
University of Connecticut found substantial
association between increases in a citys
parking supply and subsequent increases in
car commuting (McCahill 2016). Planners are
unable to conduct a controlled experiment to
test this phenomenon in the real world, but
a wealth of evidence suggests that the relief
that parking requirements supposedly buy
from traffic congestion is temporary at best.

A Degraded Built Environment

Ask the residents of your community whether
they would prefer to spend their time in the
citys most walkable district or its largest park-
ing lot, and you will hear nearly unanimous
acclaim for the former (a few people are born
contrarians). Julie Campolis excellent Made
for Walking examines 12 unusually walkable
neighborhoods across North America. While

University of Illinois Wright

these neighborhoods vary in many respects,
they share the theme of possessing a limited
and carefully managed parking supply. As
the author notes, Rather than feeding auto-
dependency, smarter parking policies help
initiate a cycle of urban pedestrianism. . . .
Replacing surface lots and street-level garages
The University of Illinois Campus Master Plan shows several potential future
with homes or businesses improves the qual-
buildings (denoted by lighter coloration and anticipated GSF), some of which
ity of the street and encourages trips by bike
are sited on existing private land that the University does not currently own.
or on foot.

PARKING REFORM IN PRACTICE

While many cities have eliminated nonresi- sought (and been granted) relief from the gen- tractive test case. Surrounded by railroad
dential minimum off-street parking require- erally applicable parking requirements. tracks to the east, a busy arterial street to the
ments in their central business districts, very Over the same period, Champaigns north, and the University of Illinois campus
few have removed parking minimums entirely. policy makers have recognized a change in to the east and south, the University District
For communities contemplating more dra- community attitudes toward transportation. is almost an island of student housing. These
matic reform, the cities of Champaign, Illinois; Between 2000 and 2012, nearly a dozen text barriers largely prevent the commingling of
Fayetteville, Arkansas; and Buffalo, New York, amendments reduced parking requirements student housing with nearby neighborhoods
illustrate three distinct models. for particular land uses or overlay zones. composed of home owners, a typical source
The Champaign Tomorrow comprehensive of NIMBY sentiment in many college towns.
Champaign, Illinois plan, adopted in 2011, acknowledges the Furthermore, the University Districts robust
The college town of Champaign, Illinois, has importance of balancing the parking sup- transit network, its proximity to campus, and
seen substantial reinvestment in its core ply against other transportation and urban the lack of on-campus student parking com-
neighborhoods over the past 15 years. Spurred design concerns to enhance walkability in bined to keep daily driving demand among the
on by growing enrollment at the University of core neighborhoods. With a comprehensive University Districts (mostly student) residents
Illinois, local developers have engaged in a update to the zoning ordinance following at a minimum. Extensive interviews of Univer-
building boom in the high-density residential on the heels of Champaign Tomorrow and sity District landlords confirmed staff observa-
neighborhood (known as the University Dis- Champaigns minimum parking requirements tions that the residential parking supply was
trict) adjacent to campus. At the same time, a experiencing death by a thousand cuts, the experiencing a vacancy rate of approximately
greater number of all sorts of residentsgrad- citys planning staff began to consider the 30 percent. At study sessions with the plan
uate students, young professionals, empty possibility of taking a bold step: eliminating commission and city council, elected and ap-
nesters, and even familieshave driven a parking requirements in the core neighbor- pointed officials expressed their openness to
smaller boom in Champaigns vibrant down- hoods of the community. further reductions in parking requirements.
town. With space at a premium and walkability A quirk of geography and demography With no opposition arising from home owners
in high demand, developers have frequently made Champaigns University District an at- (who were indifferent) or the development

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 community (which was eager for parking re-
form), Champaign staff anticipated smooth
passage of a proposal to eliminate all parking
requirements within the University District.
However, the proposal hit an unexpected
speed bump at the plan commission meeting.

Andrew Garner, City of Fayetteville

The University of Illinois sent a representative
to the meeting to register the universitys op-
position. Citing the universitys master plan,
the universitys director of real estate plan-
ning and services expressed concern over the
impact the proposal would have on privately
held surface parking lots adjacent to campus:
Once this law is eliminated those parking
lots will become the hottest commodity in The second floor of Fayettevilles Nelsons Crossing Shopping Center sat
Champaign County for high-density develop- vacant for years as it was underparked according to the citys parking
ment. It turns out that some of those that are requirements table. Once nonresidential parking requirements were
preserved right now for parking for the private repealed, businesses could occupy the second floor, improving the
sector are locations where we have proposed developments financial productivity.
future academic buildings (Champaign
2015). The commission was unmoved by this
line of dissent, but nevertheless continued monitor private parking demand and pricing amendment allowed bike parking spaces to
the hearing to another date. At that meeting, over the coming years. Staff anticipates that be substituted for automobile parking spaces.
the university abandoned its original argu- the findings will show that any concerns were Nevertheless, most projects in downtown
ment, suggesting instead that a tightening largely unfounded: The market will value park- Fayetteville (and everywhere else) were still
of the residential parking supply could lead ing appropriately for the first time in decades, subject to minimum parking requirements.
to overflow and enforcement impacts on the and Champaigns core neighborhoods will The impetus to completely eliminate
universitys parking supply. Staff countered, continue to mature into more walkable areas nonresidential parking requirements came
noting that the universitys parking supply is as the effects of a one-size-fits-all parking from the communitys commercial real estate
largely controlled by a combination of meters policy begin to fade. brokers. Planning staff noted the frustration
and permits, making it highly unlikely that many brokers expressed in trying to fill vacant
University District residents would try to use Fayetteville, Arkansas commercial spaces with new uses required to
university parking as long-term parking. Fayetteville, Arkansas, is similar to Cham- provide more parking than the original use.
Ultimately, both the planning commis- paign, Illinois, in many ways. Both are college This issue was not limited to downtown, but
sion and city council approved the proposal, towns with approximately 80,000 residents. extended even into the citys most automo-
and in October 2015 Champaign eliminated Both host a flagship state university. Both rec- bile-oriented districts. Noting the constraining
parking requirements within the University ognized a problem with their existing parking effect parking requirements were having on
District. As predicted, a number of student regulations. While Champaign has eliminated the local economy, staff proposed cutting all
housing developments submitted permit ap- all parking minimums in select areas, in 2015 nonresidential parking requirements.
plications shortly afterwards, as developers Fayetteville eliminated all nonresidential park- To the surprise of many, the adop-
were waiting to make use of the lower park- ing requirements citywide, leaving parking tion of such sweeping parking reform went
ing requirements. These developments all requirements for residential uses in place. relatively smoothly. Fayettevilles planning
provide parking at different rates, but none of As in Champaign, Fayettevilles parking director, Andrew Garner, aicp, recounts that
them provides as much parking as was previ- reform efforts were built on the foundation of staff framed the proposal to tick many boxes
ously required. As the Fall 2017 semester ap- a comprehensive plan commitment to reduc- for both liberal and conservative community
proaches, these developments will be open- ing automobile dependence. The Fayetteville members and elected officials. Parking reform
ing their doors for the first time. Others are in Downtown Master Plan expanded on this idea, in Fayetteville found bipartisan support in
the pipeline right now. In the meantime, the recommending a Smart Parking approach its projected sustainability improvements,
city expanded parking reform to the nearby including the adoption of shared parking reduced burden on small business owners,
Midtown and Downtown areas, eliminating standards and revised minimum parking re- and individual property rights. While some
parking requirements in core areas that serve quirements. But change began slowly. While mild opposition arose, enthusiastic support
a much less student-oriented population. It the city amended its downtown parking regu- from several planning commissioners assured
is possibleeven likelythat some of the lations to allow changes in land use without passage. Tracy Hoskins, a businessman and
developments built in the wake of this reform the provision of new parking, new construc- developer who sits on the planning commis-
will find that they have underbuilt or overbuilt tion and building expansion still triggered the sion, acknowledged that while the parking
their parking supply, and the city plans to standard parking requirements. A separate reform experiment might create a few negative

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 process up for review, parking received sub-
stantial emphasis during these meetings but
did not lead the agenda. As project manager
John Fell, aicp, recalls, parking was prob-
ably a top five important issue to the public,
but people were equally or more concerned
with building height and materials, site de-
sign, and the redevelopment of large vacant
institutional sites. The project also recruited
a citizen advisory committee, composed of
representatives from every city neighborhood,
to both act as a sounding board and recruit
neighbors to public meetings.

Andrew Garner, City of Fayetville

The input process gave the plan-
ning team opportunities to urge concerned
residents to consider a more comprehensive
transportation demand management (TDM)
approach to congestion, rather than clinging
to an outdated system of parking require-
ments that had only managed to degrade
The proposed Lumiere Theatre in downtown Fayetteville would not provide the urban environment while doing little to
any parking of its own, relying instead on the private and public supply on mitigate congestion. Under the new code,
surrounding streets and lots. projects consisting of (a) 5,000 square feet of
new construction or (b) 50,000 square feet of
a renovation involving a change of use must
impacts, the question is does this cure more sweeping new unified development ordinance prepare a TDM plan. While each project must
problems than it creates? And absolutely, it that, among other things, eliminated parking accommodate the travel demand it generates,
does (Gill 2015). requirements almost universally. developers may employ a host of demand
As Fayettevilles parking reform ap- Having grown to over 550,000 residents management tools ranging from bicycle park-
proaches its second anniversary, Garner before World War II, Buffalo has spent the last ing to subsidized transit passes to alternative
reports that results have been as expected so several decades shrinking to approximately half work schedules.
far. In more auto-oriented districts, business- its peak population. Buffalos population de- The full impact of Buffalos parking
es continue to provide ample parking. Some cline has been accompanied by a hollowing out reform will not be felt for several years, but
sites exceed the old minimum requirements, of its many prewar neighborhoods by parking things are already starting to change. Staff
while others have made use of the increased lots. As one civic booster quipped about down- members report fielding interest from a few
flexibility to fill spaces previously kept vacant town Buffalo in 2003, If you look very closely, developers in adding dwelling units without
due to code requirements. Meanwhile, down- there are still some buildings that are standing additional parking to small projects already
town Fayetteville is making room for a pair of in the way of parking progress (Shoup 2005). under way. Though many of Buffalos walkable
theater projects that planners anticipate will Not content to idly watch the city contin- neighborhoods currently bear the scars of
make the area even more vibrant. One of the ue to slide, the citys strategic planning office required parking lots, look for these areas to
theaters proposes no parking at all, while the launched the Buffalo Green Code planning mature and thrive as the citys residents redis-
other (which includes a small number of on- effort in April 2010. This project stripped the cover the value of urban-style developments
site dwelling units) proposes a small lot for citys existing unified development ordinance in their urban neighborhoods.
staff and residents. No matter the location, down to the studs, replacing its standard use-
Fayetteville businesses are now free to pro- based zoning with a form-based code, retool- STRATEGIES FOR SELLING PARKING REFORM
vide as muchor as littleparking as they ing street design standards, and severely cur- The context for parking reform in each of the
need to become successful contributors to tailing parking requirements. As one project preceding examples was unique, as it is for
the community. consultant put it, the Green Code represents every community. The elected officials and
a radical reimagining of how they were going citizens in these cities may have shared a
Buffalo, New York to do every facet of the development controls willingness to listen, learn, and experiment
Parking reform in Champaign and Fayetteville in the city of Buffalo (Strungys 2017). with parking reform in a way that other com-
may seem like a leap to planners in communi- The sheer scope of the Green Code proj- munities are not quite ready for. Nevertheless,
ties still nipping and tucking their parking ect necessitated an extremely robust public some of the strategies employed are transfer-
codes, but their partial parking repeals are input process, with over 240 community meet- rable to municipalities of every type and size.
downright modest compared to Buffalo, New ings attracting over 6,500 participants. With Consider trying the following strategies when
York. That city closed out 2016 by adopting a every element of the development control pursuing parking reform in your community.

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 rebuttals address this line of attack. First, in a
competitive housing market tenants will gen-
erally select the housing option with greater
amenities (including parking) if rent is the
same, providing a strong economic incentive
for landlords with less parking to lower their
rents to remain competitive. Additionally,
even if prices do not drop for some reason,
it is hard to argue in favor of forcing tenants
to waste money on unused parking simply to
spite developers and reduce their profits.
Fairness arguments can be very power-
ful in these situations. Is it good city policy
to make people pay for parking they dont

Tim Kirkby
use? Depending on the community, appeal-
ing to housing affordability can be a power-
ful argument.
Two projects, one profit margin: A developer expects the same return from
either building, but the one granted parking flexibility presents a much Substitute Local Examples for National
more welcoming face to the street. Studies
The field of parking policy research has pro-
duced extensive data about nearly every as-
Employ Scenarios and Alternatives parking requirements, although care must be pect of parking, from vacancy rates to supply/
Parking requirements have been the law of taken to avoid stirring up legitimate concerns demand models to land consumption. Unfor-
the land for so long that many people have that parking reform is simply a giveaway of the tunately, these studies may be of limited use
trouble envisioning how a newly constructed citys regulatory power to enhance the private in front of elected officials disinclined to look
building with little or no parking might func- sectors bottom line. Asking developers to to national trends for local decisions. Instead,
tion in their city. The local development com- compare required and flexible parking generate your own local data and examples
munity can show the impact of parking re- alternatives that project the same profit mar- to create a compelling narrative that parking
quirements on both the design and finances gin can mitigate these concerns. reform is a unique solution for your unique
of a proposed project. citys unique problems.
In Champaign, architect Tim Kirkby, aicp, Put the Focus on Residents, Not Drivers In Fayetteville, planners could point to
demonstrated to the plan commission how Many parking reform efforts are stalled by buildings in otherwise busy commercial dis-
one of his projects would change if parking neighboring residents and businesses sound- tricts that were being left vacant due to exces-
requirements were eliminated (Champaign ing the alarm about parking congestion. Even sive parking requirements. In Buffalo, staff
2015). Kirkby presented two alternatives side if these concerns are overblown (as they are successfully argued that residential parking
by side. While both alternatives projected an in many cases), parking congestion proves requirements were excessive in a community
expected return of 7.5 percent, their form and to be a difficult ground on which to do battle. where 30 percent of households did not own a
finances differed dramatically. The required Instead, consider shifting the conversation to single car. In Champaign, questionnaires sent
parking alternative was two stories taller the positive impact that parking reform has on to landlords revealed that most apartment
than the flexible parking alternative, and the wallets of residents. buildings had parking occupancy rates of only
was largely lifted up on stilts to accommodate As discussed above, overly burdensome 60 to 80 percent, even at reduced rental rates.
ground-floor parking. In contrast, the flexible parking requirements raise the cost of con- These findings mirrored numbers from the
parking alternative had one fewer curb cut struction and building maintenance. These citys own public parking permits in the area,
and presented ground-level dwelling units fac- costs are tucked into the rent and purchase which had cut rates in an attempt to preserve
ing the street. Perhaps more compelling was price of building, needlessly raising the price the 70 percent occupancy rate. In all these
the financial comparison of the two buildings. on every activity conducted within those cases, the local story told the tale of why park-
The cost of building required parking was buildings. Invite concerned neighbors and ing reform was important.
projected to increase rents by approximately elected officials to speculate on what it could Remember, too, that the story does not
33 percent! This real-life example of a building mean for the city coffers if residents, no longer end upon the successful adoption of new
that would be made both more attractive and tied up by unnecessary parking costs, found parking regulations. As the built environment
more affordable was very compelling evidence themselves with a greater disposable income. changes over the years, consider tracking
of the wisdom of eliminating parking require- A common rejoinder to this argument building permits to see how much parking
ments in the University District. raises the specter that developers will simply developers are providing. In Champaign, staff
The development community is already keep rents the same and pocket the cost sav- projected that most future buildings would
a natural ally of any planner seeking to ease ings as extra profit. Fortunately, a couple of likely provide parking at 50 to 75 percent of

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 the rate formerly required, promising to return
ering reducing their parking requirements. through much of the 20th century, but cities
to the plan commission with an update in Visit this site to gain ideas for your communi- are beginning to experiment with individual-
a few years. One and a half years later, this ty, and update the map once you have made ized solutions.
projection has been borne out by the build- progress toward your goals. The planning No single parking policy will be the right
ing permits received for review. Tracking datatrade press is also very receptive to stories choice for every city, but the examples re-
both before and after adoption of parking about parking reform. counted in this article may provide a road map
reform reassures elected officials that they Dont hesitate to contact publications for your community to rethink how parking fits
can always change the like Planning magazine, in with other planning goals.
rules back if an unforeseen Streetsblog, CityLab, or
negative trend arises. your favorite planning
blog. You may be surprised ABOUT THE AUTHOR
SHARING THE STORY Explore the Strong at their willingness to
Perhaps your community shine a spotlight on your Ben LeRoy is an associate planner for
Towns parking
will be the next to make unique efforts. Champaign, Illinois, and a 2013 graduate
waves in the planning reform map Finally, consider of the University of Illinois at Urbana-
world by adopting sweep- submitting a session Champaign. His masters capstone analyzed
ing parking reforms. Or
(strongtowns.org/ proposal to a conference. the impacts of minimum parking requirements
perhaps your community is parking) to see Parking sessions are often on the citys rental housing supply. He has
still testing the waters with standing room only at APA also drafted new infill-friendly zoning districts
incremental tweaks to the how communities conferences, but other in the citys core neighborhoods and rewritten
system. Whatever position around the country connected professional the planned development ordinance.
you find yourself in, re- organizations such as the
member to share the story are updating International City/County
with the world! Parking Management Association,
their parking
reform is still a relatively the American Public Works Cover: 1343024/Pixabay.com, CC0
nascent movement, and requirements. Association, and the Gov-
practitioners around the ernment Finance Officers
country benefit from see- Association can benefit
ing what their colleagues from learning about park- Vol. 34, No. 6
in other cities and states ing reform as well. Zoning Practice is a monthly publication of the
have accomplished. It is an exciting time to be working in American Planning Association. Subscriptions
Strong Towns maintains a user-updated the field of parking reform. Most cities em- are available for $95 (U.S.) and $120 (foreign).
James M. Drinan, jd, Chief Executive Officer;
map of communities that have or are consid- ployed the same parking policy playbook David Rouse, faicp, Managing Director of
Research and Advisory Services. Zoning Practice
(ISSN 15480135) is produced at APA.
Joseph DeAngelis and David Morley, aicp,
Editors; Julie Von Bergen, Senior Editor.
REFERENCES Missing and damaged print issues: Contact
Customer Service, American Planning
Campoli, Julie. 2012. Made for Walking: Density and Neighborhood Form. Cambridge, Association, 205 N. Michigan Ave., Suite
Massachusetts: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy. Available at tinyurl.com/k3557tq. 1200, Chicago, IL 60601 (312-431-9100 or
subscriptions@planning.org) within 90 days of
Champaign (Illinois), City of. 2015. Champaign Plan Commission Meeting, May 9. the publication date. Include the name of the
Available at tinyurl.com/mwygock. publication, year, volume and issue number or
month, and your name, mailing address, and
Cudney, Gary. 2016. Parking Structure Cost Outlook for 2016. Available at tinyurl.com/ membership number if applicable.
khqo8am.
Copyright 2017 by the American Planning
Gill, Todd. Fayetteville considers eliminating minimum parking standards. Fayetteville Association, 205 N. Michigan Ave., Suite 1200,
Flyer, August 10, 2015. Available at tinyurl.com/mwey2l3. Chicago, IL 606015927. The American Planning
Association also has ofces at 1030 15th St., NW,
McCahill, Christopher T., Norman Garrick, Carol Atkinson-Palombo, and Adam Polinski. Suite 750 West, Washington, DC 200051503;
planning.org.
2016. Effects of Parking Provision on Automobile Use in Cities. Transportation Re-
search Record, 2543: 159165. Available at tinyurl.com/mpx65od . All rights reserved. No part of this publication
may be reproduced or utilized in any form or by
Shoup, Donald C. 2005. The High Cost of Free Parking. Chicago: American Planning Asso- any means, electronic or mechanical, including
ciation. Available at planning.org/publications/book/9026730. photocopying, recording, or by any information
storage and retrieval system, without permission
Strungys, Arista. 2017. Telephone interview with author, February 6. in writing from the American Planning
Association.
Printed on recycled paper, including 50-70%
recycled ber and 10% postconsumer waste.

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 ZONING PRACTICE

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AMERICAN PLANNING ASSOCIATION

205 N. Michigan Ave.

Suite 1200
Chicago, IL 60601592

PARKING?
REQUIRE OFF-STREET
DOES YOUR ZONING STILL

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