EPSC 454 Brian White 9-10,12-2003

Introduction to Magnetic Exploration

Exploration using magnetic measurements has been done since the mid-1800s, making it
the oldest geophysical technique. Today the magnetic method is still one of the most commonly
used geophysical tools because of its tremendous versatility. Magnetic measurements can be
obtained easily and cheaply, and they can be applied to both deep and shallow structures.
Magnetism shares much in common with gravity since they are both potential field methods.
Like gravity, analysis of magnetic data can be difficult and suffer from a lack of uniqueness.

1. Comparison of Gravity, Magnetism, and Electricity

Gravity, magnetism, and electricity share much in common. They are all due to
conservative forces, meaning the work done in moving between two points is independent of
the path taken, and are described as potential fields.

Gravity Magnetism Electricity

Fundamental
Density Mag. susceptibility Electrical conductivity
geophysical

parameter
Fundamental Point mass Magnetic monopole Electric charge
mathematical m p q
element (m>0 always) (p>0 or p<0) (q>0 or q<0)
Force r mm r 1 p1 p 2 r 1 q1 q 2
Fg = G 1 2 2 r Fm = r Fe = r
r r2 4 o r 2
(always attractive) (+ or -) (+ or -)
Field r m r 1 p r 1 q
g = G 2 r B= r E= r
r r2 4 o r 2
Potential mm 1 p1 p 2 1 q1 q 2
Energy U g = G 1 2 Um = Ue =
r r 4 o r
Gauss Law r r r r r r r r r r r r q
g = S g dA = 4Gm B = S B dA = 0 E = S E dA =
o

Table 1: Comparison of gravity, magnetism, and electricity

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2. Fundamentals of Magnetism

2.1 Magnetic Force

If you sprinkle iron filings on a glass plate with a bar magnet underneath, the
filings align themselves in a pattern along the magnetic lines of force, which follow
curved trajectories from the north to the south. You can also map this magnetic force by
recording the orientation of a compass needle at various points above the bar magnet.
The magnetic field lines are parallel to the magnetic force vectors at all points in space.

Figure 1: Magnetic field lines due to a bar magnet.

To quantify this magnetic force Fm, consider two magnetic poles p1 and p2
separated by a distance r. The force between charges was first described by Coulomb in
1785 and is known as Coulombs Law:

r 1 p1 p 2
Fm = r (1)
r2

The magnetic permeability is a unitless property of the material in which the poles are
located. In a vacuum, is called the magnetic permeability of free space
= o = 4 10 7 N/A 2 , and in water or air 1. We can see from Equation 1 that

the force exerted by one pole on another acts along the line joining the charges r . It

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 varies inversely as the square of the distance separating r and is proportional to their
r
product p1 p2. The force Fm is repulsive (<0) if the poles have the same sign and
attractive (>0) if they have opposite signs. Note how similar Equation 1 is to the
expression for gravitational force (see Table 1).

p1 N S p2

r Fm

Figure 2: Magnetic Force between two magnetic poles shown for the case p1>0 and p2<0. You can think
of these magnetic monopoles as the ends of two very long bar magnets, shown by the dotted rectangles.

2.2 Magnetic Field

r
Magnetic fields, commonly denoted by B , are caused by currents, or equivalently
the movement of charges. A magnetic field is defined as the force per unit pole strength
that would be exerted on a small unit magnetic pole of strength p1 if placed within a
magnetic field produced by a pole p2 at a distance r from p2 (see Figure 1).

r
r Fm 1 p 2 1 p
B= = . 2 r = . 2 r (2)
p1 r r
r
For clarity, we have just dropped p2s subscript. The direction of B is illustrated by r in
Figure 1 assuming the unit pole is positive; it is parallel to the direction of magnetic
force. The SI unit of magnetic field strength is the tesla (T) and is related to other units
as shown below:

[Br ] = Nm Cs = Ckg s = AN m = T = 10 4
G

These units describe a point charge of 1 C (coulomb) moving with a velocity of 1

m/s perpendicular to a magnetic field of 1 T (tesla) to experience a force of 1 N (newton).

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 The magnetic field of the earth is slightly less than 10-4 T, powerful magnets 0.1-0.5 T,
and powerful industrial magnets 1-2 T. Since the magnetic fields measured in
geophysical exploration are even smaller than that of the earth, it is more common to use
the units nanoteslas (nT). Thus, the average magnetic field strength of the earth is about
50,000 nT. Some relations to the nanotesla are given below:

1 nT = 10 9 T = 1 gamma = 10 5 G

The gauss (G) is the cgs unit of magnetic field strength and is equal to 1 dyne (10-5 N) per
unit pole strength.
r
An important note is that B is actually the magnetic induction or magnetic flux
r
density, and another quantity H is named the magnetic field. Although it is perhaps
r
misleading call B the magnetic field, that is the convention, which we will also follow
r r
here. It is easy to confuse B with H , because both are often called the magnetic field,
so be careful. Section 2.7 will go over the difference between them in more detail.

2.3 Magnetic Flux and the Existence of Magnetic Monopoles

Magnetic flux is related to the number of magnetic field lines that pass through
r
a given area A. It is defined as the product of the area and the component of B
perpendicular to the area (see Figure 3):

r r r r r
= B = S B dA = B An = BA cos (3)

Equation 3 is useful when considering surfaces that are not closed. The unit of magnetic
flux is called the weber (Wb):

[ ] = Wb = T m 2
So far in Sections 2.1 and 2.2 we have considered isolated magnetic poles
(monopoles). These, however, do not exist because the net magnetic flux out of any
closed surface is zero, as illustrated below by Gauss Law for Magnetism:

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 r r r r
B = S B dA = 0 (4)

This expression is one of Maxwells Equations, which are the four fundamental
equations of electromagnetism. It says that magnetic field lines do not diverge from or
converge on any point in space. The net flux is always zero for dipole sources because
the magnetic flux directed inward towards the south pole will always equal the magnetic
flux outward from the north pole. If there were a magnetic monopole source, this integral
would be nonzero. This means that isolated magnetic poles do not exist.

A

n dA

Figure 3: Magnetic field lines passes through an area A at an arbitrary angle with respect to the normal.

We can understand this result by thinking about bar magnets, which are dipoles.
If you break a bar magnet, you do not end up a north pole piece and a south pole piece.
Instead, each piece has its own north and south pole. No matter how small you break up
a magnetic material, there will always be a dipole present. Thus, a dipole is the
fundamental generator of magnetic fields, just as mass generates gravitational fields and
point charges generate electric fields.

2.4 Magnetic Moment

If a magnetic dipole (such as a bar magnet) of length L is placed in a uniform (all

r
field lines parallel with equal spacing) magnetic field of strength B , it will experience a
r r
pair of forces F1 and F2 acting parallel to each other but in opposite directions. This

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force couple creates a torque on the dipole that tends to rotate it into alignment with the
field (see Figure 4).

+p F1
L


F2 -p m
B
n
Figure 4: A small permanent magnet within a uniform magnetic field experiences a torque that rotates it
into the direction of the field.

This torque can be found by considering a current loop of area A carrying a

r r
current I within a uniform magnetic field B (see Figure 5). Since the torque about any
point is the product of the force and the lever arm and the net force of the loop is zero
r r
(because F1 and F2 are equal and opposite), the torque tends to rotate the unit normal n
r
into B (Note: The direction of n is chosen from the right-hand rule.).

r r r r r r
= I S dA B = IAn B = n IAB sin = n mB sin = m B (5)
r
Here we have simplified the expression by defining the magnetic dipole moment m as
the charge p times distance L (Note: The magnetic moment is more commonly written
r r
as , but we m here to avoid confusion with the magnetic permeability.).

m
B
I n

A

Figure 5: The magnetic moment of a current loop of arbitrary shape and area A.

r
m = IAn = pLn (6)

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 The last substitution in Equation 6 was done because the force in terms of the pole
strength p is given by

r r r r
F = F1 = F2 = pB (7)

The units for the magnetic moment are given by:

[mr ] = A m 2 = C m
2

This is a complete analogy to the force of a point electric charge. In magnetic

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exploration, it is the magnetic moment m that is measured by placing a magnet in a
magnetic field of known strength and measuring the torque. The magnetic pole strength
r
is then found from Equation 6 by dividing the magnitude of m by the length of the
magnet L. We will talk about this concept more when we discuss how magnetometers
work.

2.5 Magnetization

r
A fundamental property of magnetic materials is known as the magnetization M ,
r
which is defined as the magnetic moment m per unit volume V.

r mr r
m p
M= = = n (8)
V AL A

The units for the magnetization are given by:

r
[Mr ] = [[mV]] = A m
2
A C
= =
m3 m sm

Note that another quantity sometimes used is called the intensity of magnetization, which
is defined as oM and has units of Teslas.
The magnetization relates the magnetic strength to the magnets size. From
Equation 8, you can see that the magnetization of a bar magnet is independent of its

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 r r
length. If you break a bar magnet in half perpendicular to m (L=L/2), M is unchanged
r r
each resulting piece. However, if you break it in half parallel to m (A=A/2), M is
doubled in each resulting piece. Thus, we can see that the pole strength per unit area
r
increases as M increases.

-p n
V=AL

m
+p
L
A

Figure 6: The size of a magnetic dipole, illustrated by this bar magnet, determines the magnetization.

2.6 Magnetic Susceptibility

r
If we place a material that can be magnetized in an external magnetic field H , the
r
intensity of magnetization M that results within that material will be proportional to the
r r r
strength of the inducing field. The induced magnetization M is related to H or B
through a constant of proportionality known as the magnetic susceptibility:

r r
M M
= r = r (9)
H B

Although has no units, there is a scaling factor of 4 to convert from SI to cgs.

[cgs] = 4 [SI]

There are various forms of susceptibility, which are listed in Table 2 below. Authors do
not always explicitly state which form is being used. Worse yet, there is no agreed upon
convention for the names and units of each variant. For example, the symbol m is often
(mis)used as magnetic susceptibility or molar susceptibility.
r
For geologic materials, M is parallel to the earths magnetic field, which serves
as the inducing field. Magnetic susceptibility variations are the fundamental property

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 measured using the magnetic geophysical exploration technique. In section 3, we will
discuss different types of magnetization and how magnetic susceptibility varies among
different rock types.

Susceptibility Type Equation Symbol SI Units

volume or bulk M/H or v or k ---
mass / m or m3/kg
molar W/ M m3/mol
Table 2: Types of magnetic susceptibility (=density in kg/m3 and W=molar mass in kg/mol).

r
2.7 Current Density and the H Field

Before we go any further, we must discuss two other important concepts, the
r r r
current density J and magnetic field H . Current density is simply the electric current I
r
per unit area A. If an electric field E is applied to a solid material with electrical
conductivity , the resulting current density is

r
r I r
J b = = E (10)
A

This expression is another way to state Ohms Law (V=IR). The electrical conductivity
is defined as the inverse of the electrical resistivity, which we will discuss later this
semester as the primary parameter measured in electrical geophysical surveys.
It is important to note that the current density described above is actually the
r r
bound current density J b , which is associated with magnetization M currents through
r
matter. There is another type of current density J f associated with free currents such as
r
sending currents through wires. Thus, the total current density J tot is the sum of these
two:

r r r r r r r r
J tot = J b + J f = M + J f = E + J f (11)

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 Now we can attempt to understand Ampres Law, which is another of Maxwells
Equations. This law describes how the magnetic field lines encircle an area through
which a current is passing or the electric flux is changing.

r
r r r r r E
B = C B dL = o J + o o (12)
t

The quantity o is called the permittivity of free space and is defined as

( ) ( )
o = 1 c 2 o C 2 N m 2 , where c = 2.9979 10 8 m s is the speed of light. The last
r
term of this equation is called the displacement current J D , and it takes into account the
magnetic effects caused by varying electric fields.
r
From Equations 10 and 11 we can derive an expression for H which is another
vector quantity called the magnetic field. Assuming assume steady state in free space,
r r
we can drop J D from Equation 12 and plug in J tot from Equation 11:

( ) ( )
r r r r r r r r
B = oJ = o Jb + Jf = o M + Jf (13)
r
Solving for J f , we find that

r r 1 r r r r
J f = B M = H (14)

o
r
Here, we have defined a vector field H such that

r 1 r r 1 r 1 r
H= BM = B= B
o (1 + )
(15)
o

In Equation 14, we have used the definitions for magnetic susceptibility (Equation 18)
and relative permeability , which is defined as:

= = 1+ (16)
o
r r
Thus, one can convert between B and H via a few simple relations:

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 ( )
r r r r r
B = H = o (1 + )H = o H + M (17)

[]
r r
Since B = N (A m ) and [ ] = N A 2 , the units of H are

[Hr ] = mA = s C m
r r r r
It should be emphasized that unlike B = 0 always, H = 0 only for cases of
cylindrical, planar, solenoidal, or toroidal symmetry.

r r r r
H = M 0 generally (18)

2.8 SI to CGS Unit Conversions

The older cgs system of units is still often used in geophysic, so one must be
aware of it. The conversions between cgs and SI are not always obvious or intuitive.
Listed below are some of the most common magnetic quantities and how to convert
between the two systems.

Symbol SI Unit cgs Unit Conversion Factor

magnetic B Tesla (T) Gauss (G) 1T = 104G
induction
magnetic field H A/m Oersted (Oe) 1 A/m = 4/103 Oe
magnetization M A/m emu/cm3 1 A/m = 10-3 emu/cm3
magnetic m Am2 emu 1 Am2 = 103 emu
moment
magnetic or v --- --- 4 [SI] = 1 [cgs]
susceptibility or k
(volume)
magnetic m or m3/kg emu/(Oeg) 1 m3/kg = 103/4 emu/(Oeg)
susceptibility
(mass)
permeability H/m --- 4 10-7 H/m = 1 [cgs]
Table 3: SI to cgs conversion factors for magnetism

Here, we have used the additional definitions

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 erg dyne cm
1 electromagnetic unit = 1emu = 1.602177 10 19 C = 1
=1
Oe Oe
Wb Tm 2
Nm
1Henry = 1H = 1 =1 =1 2
A A A

3. Magnetic Materials

Now we will discuss the ways different materials respond to magnetic fields.
Diamagnetic and paramagnetic materials exhibit no collective magnetic interactions and are
not magnetically ordered. Ferromagnetic materials do exhibit long-range magnetic order
below a certain critical temperature called the Curie temperature. Pure ferromagnetic and
ferrimagnetic materials are usually what we consider as being magnetic in geophysical
exploration.

all materials

diamagnetic paramagnetic
<0 >0
orbiting electrons unpaired electrons

ferromagnetic

pure ferromagnetic antiferromagnetic ferrimagnetic

>>> 0 =0 >> 0

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Figure 7: Diamagnetism and paramagnetism arise due to either orbiting or unpaired electrons, respectively. For
ferromagnetic materials, the magnetic domains (small rectangles) align either parallel (red) or antiparallel (blue)
to the imposed magnetic field to result in a net magnetic susceptibility. The length of the arrows illustrate the
relative strength of the magnetic dipole moments within each domain.

3.1 Diamagnetism

When an object is placed in a homogeneous magnetic field, the field generally

r
induces a magnetic moment m in the object (see Section 2.4). An isolated electron with
a tiny spinning magnetic charge creates its own spin magnetic moment. Materials with
no unpaired, or isolated, electrons are considered diamagnetic, and substances with odd,
unpaired electrons are called paramagnetic (see Section 3.2).
Diamagnetic materials have very small, negative magnetic susceptibilities.
Diamagnetism is a fundamental property of all matter, although it is usually very weak
and considered negligible. It is due to the realignment of electron orbits, which act as
tiny current loops, when exposed to an external magnetic field. This means that when an
external field is applied, an internal field is produced which opposes it (Note: This can be
understood through Lenzs Law, which says that induced magnetic fields tend to oppose
the field that created them.). Diamagnetic substances are composed of atoms that have
no net magnetic moments (i.e. all the orbital shells are filled, and there are no unpaired
electrons). However, when exposed to a field, a negative magnetization is produced and
thus the susceptibility is negative (but very small).

H T

slope= =constant

Figure 8: Magnetization and magnetic susceptibility behavior of diamagnetic materials.

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 r
Note from Figure 8 that when the external inducing field H is zero, the
r
magnetization M is also zero. When a magnetic field is present, a negative magnetic
susceptibility is induced within the material. The second plot indicates that the magnetic
susceptibility of diamagnetic materials is temperature independent. Examples of
diamagnetic earth materials include quartz, feldspar, calcite, gypsum, graphite, rocksalt,
and water.

3.2 Paramagnetism

Paramagnetic materials have very small, positive magnetic susceptibilities

because some of the atoms or ions have a net magnetic moment due to unpaired electrons
in partially filled orbitals. However, the individual magnetic moments do not interact
magnetically, and like diamagnetism, the magnetization is zero unless an applied field is
present. In the presence of a field, there is a partial alignment of the atomic magnetic
moments in the direction of the field, resulting in a net positive magnetization and
positive magnetic susceptibility. In addition, the efficiency of the field in aligning the
moments is opposed by the randomizing effects of temperature. This results in a
temperature dependent susceptibility, known as Curies Law:

CB CH
= = (19)
T T

Here, C is the Curie constant (varies depending on material) and T is temperature. This
effect is shown on the second plot in Figure 9.
M

H T

=CB/T
slope=
Figure 9: Magnetization and magnetic susceptibility behavior of paramagnetic materials.

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 At normal temperatures and in moderate fields, the paramagnetic susceptibility is
small (but larger than the diamagnetic contribution). The temperature above which
paramagnetism is no longer observed is called the Curie Temperature Tc. Many iron-
bearing minerals are paramagnetic at room temperature. Examples of common
paramagnetic earth materials include pyroxene, olivine, pyrite, siderite, and biotite.

3.3 Ferromagnetism

This is a special case of paramagnetism (odd number of electrons) in which there

is an almost perfect alignment of electron spin directions within large portions of the
material referred to as domains. These domains are microscopic and are on the order of
10-4 cm. Like paramagnetism, ferromagnetism is observed only at temperatures below
the Curie temperature. Above the Curie temperature, the magnetic domains randomize,
erasing any net magnetic field. Ferromagnets will tend to stay magnetized to some extent
after being subjected to an external magnetic field. This tendency to remember their
magnetic history is called thermoremnant magnetization and is described by a hysteresis
curve (see first plot in Figure 10). The fraction of the saturation magnetization which is
retained when the driving field is removed is called the remnance of the material, and is
an important factor in permanent magnets. The wider the hysteresis curve is for a
material, the more remnant magnetism it can retain. Tc for magnetite is 578 C, and for
pure iron 770 C.

M M Tc

H T

slope=

Figure 10: Magnetization behavior of ferromagnetic and ferrimagnetic materials.

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3.3.1 Pure Ferromagnetism

Pure ferromagnetic substances, often just called ferromagnetic, have very

large, positive susceptibilities. The directions of electron spin alignment within each
domain are all virtually parallel to the direction of the external inducing field. In
r
these materials, the magnetic field due to the aligned magnetic moments o M is
often several thousand times greater than the applied magnetizing field.
Ferrromagnetic minerals do not exist naturally on earth (only in meteorites), but iron,
nickel, and cobalt are examples of common ferromagnetic elements.

3.3.2 Antiferromagnetism

The directions of electron alignment within adjacent domains are opposite,

and the relative abundance of domains with each spin direction is approximately
equal. This means that the net magnetic moment for the material is essentially zero.
Thus, the susceptibilities of antiferromagnetic materials are also zero. Hematite is an
example of an antiferromagnetic material.

3.3.3 Ferrimagnetism

Like antiferromagnetic materials, adjacent domains produce magnetic

intensities in opposite directions. The intensities associated with domains polarized
in a direction opposite to the external field, however, are weaker, which leads to a net
positive magnetic moment. The observed magnetic intensity for the entire material is
in the direction of the inducing field but is much weaker than that observed for pure
ferromagnetic materials. Thus, the susceptibilities for ferrimagnetic materials are
small (but not as small as paramagnetic) and positive. The most important magnetic
minerals are ferromagnetic and include magnetite, ilmenite, and pyrrhotite.

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 In geophysical exploration, we are generally looking for variations in the
ferrimagnetic nature of earth materials. In almost all common rocks, the magnetic
susceptibility is almost entirely carried by magnetite (Fe3O4), so a good rule of thumb
is:

rock ( magnetite )(volume fraction magnetite) (20)

3.3.4 Remnant Magnetism

The previous five types of magnetic materials are all due to induced
magnetization. Since ferromagnetic materials can retain some magnetism after the
inducing field goes away, the concept of remnant magnetism is important.
So far, weve mentioned one type of remnant magnetism called
thermoremnant magnetism. Recall that this happens when a ferromagnetic material
cools through the Curie temperature. When this happens, the external field is
frozen into the rock and remains there as long as the rock is not heated past the
Curie temperature again. Paleomagnetic studies make use of this property to
constrain when an igneous body cooled and what the Earths magnetic field direction
was then, for example.
Another type of remnant magnetism is chemical remnant magneism. Found in
some types of sedimentary and metamorphic rocks, this is due to the growth of
magnetic grains during precipitation or alteration. Depositional (or detrital) remnant
magnetism happens in some sedimentary rocks when the magnetite grains settle in
aligned orientations.

3.4 Magnetic Susceptibilities of Geologic Materials

See overheads.

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4. Magnetic Potential of a Dipole and The Earths Magnetic Field
4.1 Magnetic Potential of a Dipole
4.2 Components of the Earths Field
4.3 Variations of the Earths Field

5. Measuring the Magnetic Field

5.1 Magnetometer Types
5.2 Field Procedures
5.3 Corrections to the Data

6. Magnetic Anomalies Associated with Basic Geometric Shapes

6.1 Sphere
6.2 Thin Horizontal Sheet
6.3 Infinite Sheet
6.4 Talwani Prisms

7. Interpretation of Magnetic Data

7.1 Half Maximum Technique
7.2 Slope Technique
7.3 Modeling and Talwani Prisms

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