Orbital Mechanics

1 Introduction
In the last two weeks, we studied Newton’s laws and their rotational analogs. This week we will apply them to
orbital mechanics. By going over the materials in the handout, you will review the basic concepts relevant to orbits,
such as Newton’s law of universal gravitation and Kepler’s laws. You will also familiarize yourself with relating
energy and angular momentum in solving orbital-related problems.

2 Newton’s law of gravity

You may be familiar with Newton’s law of gravitation, which is shown below in vector form:
m1 m2
F⃗1→2 = −G 2 r̂12 , (1)
r12

where F⃗1→2 is the force exerted on particle 2 by particle 1, m1 and m2 are the masses of objects 1 and 2; and
r12 = |⃗r2 − ⃗r1 | is the distance between the two objects. G is the gravitational constant with a numerical value of
G = 6.67 × 10−11 N · m2 /kg2 . (You don’t need to memorize this number; it will be provided on Olympiads if it’s
needed.)

m1 m2
F~2→1 F~1→2

r̂12
~r12

What about the direction of this gravitational force? Here we have a unit vector r̂12 to denote the direction. It is
⃗r2 − ⃗r1
defined as r̂12 = , with the origin of the coordinate system at O. We can see that the gravitation force
|⃗r2 − ⃗r1 |
points from the receiver to the applier, an attractive force indeed.

Problem 2.1. In the space provided, draw three non-collinear particles 1, 2, and 3. Indicate the directions of the
individual gravitational forces. Can you provide an explanation as to why the gravitational force is in the direction
along the line joining the two particles?

Solution:

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m1

F3→1
F2→1

F1→2
F1→3

m2 F3→2 F2→3 m3

The gravitational force between two particles can only be along the line joining them, because there is no other
preferred direction in the isotropic space (or the gravitation field).
□

Problem 2.2.
1. Write an expression for the force exerted by the Moon, mass M , on a parcel of water, mass m, on the
Earth at point A, as shown in the figure. The radius of the Earth is R and the Earth-Moon center-to-center
distance is r.
2. For a parcel of water, mass m, at point C, the center of the Earth, what force is exerted by the Moon?
M mR
3. Show that the difference between these forces is approximately given by: FT ≈ G , which represents
r3
the tidal force on the water relative to the Earth. What is the direction of the tidal force?
4. Find the tidal force for a parcel of water at B, the far side of the Earth from the Moon. What is its direction?
5. Based on your previous calculations, explain why there are two tidal bulges in the oceans (and the solid
Earth), one pointing towards the Moon and the other away from it.

Earth

moon
m m
C
R
B A
r

Solution:
1. Directly applying Newton’s law of gravity, we find:
Mm
FA = G
(r − R)2

The direction of FA is towards the Moon.

2. Similarly,
Mm
FC = G
r2

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And the direction is also towards the Moon.
3.
   
1 1 GM m 1
FT = FA − FC = GM m − 2 = −1
(r − R)2 r r2 (1 − R/r)2

Since R/r ≪ 1, we can use the polynomial approximation: (1 − x)−1 ≈ 1 + x. Thus:

GM m 2M mR
FT ≈ 2
[1 + 2R/r − 1] = G
r r3
And the direction of FT is pointing towards the Moon.
4. Here FB = GM m/(R + r)2 , still pointing towards the Moon. The tidal force at B is then

2M mR
FT = FB − FC = −G
r3
The “−” sign indicates that the direction is away from the Moon, opposite to that of the tidal force at point A.
5. There are two main contributors to tides: gravity due to the presence of the Moon, which is inversely
proportional to the square of the distance between a point on the Earth and the Moon (shown in blue arrows),
and a centrifugal force due to the rotational motion of the Earth-Moon system, which is the same on every
point on the Earth, with a magnitude of FC (shown in blue arrows). The difference between those two forces
gives rise to the tidal force. And as you can see, at the equator, the tidal force is the greatest, and is the
smallest at the poles. Between the minimal and maximal tidal force locations, there is a component of the
tidal force that is along the Earth’s surface, which causes movement of water, hence tides.

Earth

moon

A few more questions for you to ponder: How much does the Sun contribute to the tides on Earth, compared
to the Moon? What are the relative positions of the Sun, the Moon, and the Earth so that there is highest
tides? (Hint: Sketch a similar diagram as the one above, and this time include the Sun.)
□

3 Gravitational potential energy

When analyzing the motion of planets and satellites, it is sometimes more convenient to use energy instead of
force because the total energy is a conserved quantity and it is a scalar (rather than a vector).
To calculate the gravitational potential energy, U (r), we first set a reference point: An object of mass M exerts a
gravitational force on another object m which is ⃗r away. The magnitude of ⃗r is the center-to-center distance
between the two objects. When r → ∞, U (r → ∞) = 0. Recall that when gravity does work W , the change in

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gravitational potential energy ∆U = −W . Now we can calculate the gravitational potential energy of m due to M at
any point r:
Z r Z r r
:0 = − GM m ′ GM m GM m
U (r) − 
U (∞)
 F⃗ · dr⃗′ = + ′2
dr = − ′
=− (2)
∞ ∞ r r r
∞

Does the “−” sign make sense? We choose the potential energy at infinity to be zero. Thus when the object moves
from infinity to a bit closer under the gravitation of M , gravitation is doing positive work, and gravitational potential
energy decreases. That works out!

Problem 3.1. Check if Eq.(2) is consistent with something we are very familiar with: When an object of mass m
2
is close to the Earth’s surface, its gravitational potential energy is mgh, where g = 9.8m/s and h is the elevation.

Solution: This problem calls your attention to two things: the definition of variables and the definition of reference
point. In Eq.(2), r is the center-to-center distance between the two objects and U (r = ∞) = 0. In the context of this
problem r = h + RE , where RE is the radius of the Earth. Since the problem sets its reference point at the Earth’s
surface, namely r = RE , then the potential energy at elevation h is equivalent to the change in potential energy
from r = RE to r = h + RE :
 
GME m GME m GME m 1
∆U = U (h + RE ) − U (RE ) = − + = 1−
h + RE RE RE 1 + h/RE

In the problem, the object is close to the Earth’s surface, hence h/RE ≪ 1. We can use the polynomial expansion
(1 + x)−1 ≈ 1 − x for small x:

GME m
∆U ≈ 2 h
RE

Near the Earth’s surface, g = GME m/RE

2
. Thus ∆U = mgh. □

Problem 3.2. You will now examine the Sun-Earth system and work out a few typical velocities. Constants you
may need: mass of the Earth mE = 6.0 × 1024 kg; mass of the Sun mS = 2.0 × 1030 kg; radius of the Earth
RE = 6400 km; the Earth’s orbit around the sun rE = 150 × 106 km.
1. You wish to launch a satellite from the Earth into a circular orbit. Find the velocity v1 such that the satellite
orbits near the Earth. This is called the orbital velocity, or sometimes the first cosmic velocity.
2. To escape the Earth’s gravitation, what is the minimal speed v2 your satellite needs to reach? This is called
the escape velocity, or the second cosmic velocity.
3. When a satellite is launched at a speed v between v1 and v2 , will it have a closed orbit around the Earth?
If yes, what is the shape of the orbit? If not, briefly explain why not.
4. Now you want to send a satellite beyond the solar system. What is the minimum speed v3 the satellite
needs to acquire near the Earth surface so that it can eventually leave the solar system? This is called the
third cosmic velocity.

Solution:
1. In a circular orbit near the Earth, gravitation from the Earth to the satellite provides the centripetal
acceleration and the orbit radius is RE :
mE p
G 2 = v 2 /RE ⇒ v1 = GmE /RE = 7.9km/s
RE

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mE m
2. The total energy of the satellite launched from the Earth is E = 21 mv 2 − G . To determine the value this
r
energy, we imagine a satellite launched with just high enough speed to escape Earth’s gravity. When such a
satellite is very far from Earth, its speed drops to zero (if it still had some residual speed, we launched it too
GmE m
fast!). At this point, it has no gravitational energy because the term goes to zero, and it has no kinetic
r
mE m
energy, so the total energy is zero. We therefore have 0 = 12 mv 2 − G . We see that for the satellite to
r
escape from the Earth, its kinetic energy needs to be at least that of its potential energy at the Earth’s surface.
Therefore:
p √
v2 = 2GmE /RE = 2v1 = 11.2km/s

3. Since the satellite velocity is still less than the escape velocity, it will have a closed orbit. However, the orbit
will be an ellipse instead a circle. We will actually show this result in more detail in the next section.
4. To escape the solar gravitation, the kinetic energy of the satellite must be at least that of its potential energy
due to the Sun’s gravitation at the Earth-Sun orbit:
1 2 mS m p
mvs,S =G ⇒ vs,S = 2GmS /rE
2 rE
vs,S is the
p satellite speed relative to the Sun. Since the Earth is already orbiting the Sun at
vE,S = GmS /rE ≈ 29.8 km/s, p the satellite’s speed relative to the Earth is then:
√
vs,E = vs,S − vE,S = ( 2 − 1) GmS /rE = 12.4 km/s. This is the speed the satellite needs to escape from the
Earth-Sun orbit. Therefore during the Earth-based satellite launch, its kinetic energy needs to be the sum of
2 mvs,E and whatever is needed to escape the Earth:
1

1 mE m 1 q q
mv32 − G 2
= mvs,E 2 =
⇒ v3 = 2GmE /RE + vs,E v22 + vs,E
2 = 16.7km/s
2 RE 2

□
Before we move on to the next part, there is one quick note about gravitational potential energy. So far we have
been looking at the potential energy of one object under the gravitational influence of another. What if we have a
system of objects? In that case, the potential energy of a system of particles in a certain configuration is equal to
the work done by an external agent to bring them from infinity to this current configuration. For example, for the
system depicted below, the total potential energy of the system is:

m2

r12 r23

m1 m3
r31

 
m1 m2 m2 m3 m3 m1
U = −G + +
r12 r23 r31

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Problem 3.3. Consider a cloud of gas of very low density. The gas collapses into a star, which we will assume
to be homogeneous, of density ρ and radius R. How much gravitational potential energy will be released during
the process of collapse?

Solution: The amount of energy it releases is equal to the difference in its initial and final gravitational potential
energies. The initial potential energy is zero because the gas is very dispersed. One way to think about this is to
build a ball of radius R by adding up a shell of star material:
G 4 3
dU = G · m · dm/r = · ρ πr · ρ4πr2 dr
r 3
16 2 2 R 4 16
Z
U (R) = G · π ρ r dr = G π 2 ρ2 R5
3 0 15

4 Virial Theorem
The Virial theorem relates the time-average of total kinetic energy Ek of a system to that of its potential energy U .
Starting from the definition of Ek , we have:
T Z T Z T
1 1 1 d⃗r 1
Z
Ek = mv 2 dt = m⃗v · dt = m⃗v · d⃗r
T 0 2 2T 0 dt 2T 0
0
 
T
>
 T
1  dm⃗v 
 Z
=  m⃗v · 
d⃗r − ⃗r · dt
2T  
0 0 dt 

T
1 1
Z
=− ⃗r · F⃗ dt = − F⃗ · ⃗r
2T 0 2

In the case of gravitation, F = kr−2 , thus F⃗ · ⃗r = U . Therefore:

1
Ek = − U
2

n
For a more general power-law form of potential U = krn , Virial theorem is then Ek = U
2

Problem 4.1. The Virial theorem can be used to make a crude estimate of the mass of a cluster of galaxies.
From observation data, you gather that the cluster of galaxies has a spatial extent of R, and the mean square
velocities of the individual galaxies are about ⟨v 2 ⟩. Estimate the total mass M of the cluster.

GM 2
Solution: The total potential energy of the system is about U = − and the total kinetic energy is
R
Ek = 12 m⟨v 2 ⟩. According to the Virial Theorem,

GM 2
0=− + M ⟨v 2 ⟩ ⇒ M = R⟨v 2 ⟩/G.
R
□

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Exercises
4.1. Three stars, all of mass m, orbit their common center of mass in a plane. The separation between each two
stars is a. Find their orbiting speed.

m m

5 Kepler’s Laws
Kepler’s laws can be derived from Newton’s laws of motion, Newton’s law of gravitation and some basic knowledge
of geometry. Instead of reading the proofs below, it is a better exercise that you try proving them on a separate
sheet of paper. And then we can go over the proofs together. Just to make things a bit more interesting, we will
prove Kepler’s 2nd law first as it is a very general law for any motion under a central force. Let’s go!
1. K2: The line from a planet to the sun sweeps out equal area in equal time.

~v

~r
M

At this point, we don’t know the shape of the orbit yet. All we know is Newton’s laws of motion, and that the
Mm
planet experiences gravitation from the sun F⃗ = −G 2 r̂. This is an example of a central force, where the
r
force is directed along the line connecting the centers of mass.
⃗ = 1 ⃗r × d⃗r. The rate of sweeping this
To proceed, we start with the definition of “area swept by the planet:” dA 2
area is therefore:
dA⃗ 1 d⃗r
= ⃗r × . (3)
dt 2 dt

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How to show that this is a constant? We differentiate it with respect to time one more time and see if it is zero:

⃗
d2 A 1 d⃗r d⃗r 1 d2⃗r
2
= × + ⃗r × 2 . (4)
dt 2 dt dt 2 dt
The first term in the above equation is zero because it is a the cross product between two parallel vectors. In
d2⃗r
the second term, 2 is the acceleration of the planet, which is F⃗ /m = −GM/r2 r̂, in the direction of ⃗r. So the
dt
d2 A⃗ ⃗
dA
second term is also zero. Therefore we proved that 2 = 0 and so is a constant.
dt dt
⃗
dA ⃗
L ⃗
dA
If you pause to look at Eq.(3) more carefully, you will notice that = 12 ⃗r × ⃗v = . Since is a constant,
dt 2m dt
⃗ is a constant, meaning that the angular momentum for a planet is conserved.
L
2. K1: Planets orbit the sun in ellipses, with the sun at one focus of the ellipse.
The proof below is quite mathematically demanding and is not required in the IPhO syllabus. Feel free to skip to
the final result Eq. (8).
Before delving into the proof, can you think of some mathematical properties of an ellipse?
x2 y2
The equation of an ellipse centered at the origin with width 2a and height 2b is: + = 1.
a2 b2
To make our subsequent proof a bit easier, we shift the ellipse so that the sun is at the left focus of the
ellipse, as shown. The equation for this ellipse is:

(x − c)2 y2
+ = 1. (5)
a2 b2

r0
θ
S

Using polar coordinates (r, θ), with r the separation between the planet and the sun and θ the angle shown in
the figure, Eq. (5) becomes:
a(1 − e2 ) r0
r(θ) = ≡ . (6)
1 − e cos θ 1 − e cos θ

r0 is also called the semi-latus rectum. Depending on the problem, you may find it easier to work in Cartesian
coordinates or polar coordinates. Therefore being familiar with both forms is quite handy. To convert between
the two systems, we have x = r cos θ and y = r sin θ. Additionally, we know in an ellipse, the eccentricity
e = c/a and c2 = a2 − b2 . Now you just need to insert these relations into Eq. (5) and simplify the final result.

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Proceeding from Eq.(6), we now need to show that the planet indeed has an orbit of this form. Starting with
Newton’s second law and the fact that gravitation is only in the r̂-direction, we know that the direction of ⃗a
must also be along r̂. Let’s confirm that.
d⃗r dr dθ
⃗v = = r̂ + r θ̂ = vr r̂ + v⊥ θ̂ = vr r̂ + rω θ̂
dt dt dt
d⃗v d2 r dr dr̂ dr dθ d2 θ dθ dθ̂
⃗a = = r̂ + + θ̂ + r θ̂ + r
dt dt2  dt dt dt dt dt2 dt dt
d2 r 2

dr dθ d θ
= − rω 2 r̂ + 2 + r 2 θ̂
dt2 dt dt dt
 2   
d r 1 d dθ
= − rω 2 r̂ + r2 θ̂
dt2 r dt dt

How do we know the second term is in fact zero? From K2, we learned that L ⃗ is a conserved quantity. Since
⃗ = ⃗r × m⃗v = ⃗r × m(vr r̂ + rω θ̂), L = mr2 ω must be a constant, or equivalently d (r2 dθ ) = 0.
L
dt dt
Now we just need to equate the first term to F⃗ /m,
2
d2 r

M M L
2
= −G 2 + rω = −G 2 + r (7)
dt2 r r mr2

Our ultimate goal is to find the path of the planet, so we would like to switch variables from time t to angular
position θ. Conservation of angular momentum gives us a simple way to relate the two:
dθ
L = mr2
dt
d2 r
So now we want to express dt2 in terms of θ using this. However, we obtain
dr dr dθ L dr
= =
dt dθ dt mr2 dθ
This promises to get ugly when we take the next derivative! But notice that this can become
 
dr L d 1
=−
dt m dθ r
So things might get easier if we switch to u = 1/r. And indeed we then get
d2 r L d du L d2 u dθ L2 d2 u
= − = − = −
dt2 m dt dθ m dθ2 dt m2 r2 dθ2
If we plug this into our equation of motion and switch to u throughout we get
L2 u2 d2 u L2
− 2 2
= −GM u2 + 2 u3
m dθ m
d2 u GM m2
2
+u=
dθ L2
1
From there it is easy to integrate: u(θ) = = c cos(θ) + GM m2 /L2 , where c is an integration constant
r(θ)
depending on the initial condition. The geometric parameters r0 and e are closely related to the angular
momentum L and the total energy E:
r
r0 L2 2Er0
r(θ) = , where r0 = 2
,e = 1 + (8)
1 − e cos θ GM m GM m

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Problem 5.1. In the figure, indicate the directions of velocity, acceleration and net force at the five points
indicated along the planet’s path, which orbits the sun in the counter-clockwise direction. Is it true that at
any point on the orbit, v = ωr, as we have in uniform circular motion?

D
E

S
A C

Solution:

~v D ~v
E
~a ~a

~v
~a
A C
~a
~v

~a

B ~v

The directions of the acceleration and the force should be fairly clear: They all point towards the sun. As for
the direction of the velocity, it is always tangential to the ellipse, and generally has one component in the r̂
dr
direction (radial, vr ) and one in the θ̂ direction (perpendicular, v⊥ ), or ⃗v = vr r̂ + v⊥ θ̂. vr = and
dt
dθ
v⊥ = r = rω. When the planet is at the ends of the major axis, vr = 0. However, it is not the case when the
dt
planet is at the ends of the minor axis. □
Knowing that the planet’s orbit is an ellipse is more powerful than it appears at first. You will discover a few of
those and try applying them in the exercises.

Problem 5.2. Recall from geometry that r0 = a(1 − e2 ) = b2 /a. Use Eq. (8) to find an expression for the
total energy E and the angular momentum L in terms of G, M, m, a, b.

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r0 2Er0
Solution: From the problem, we have e2 = 1 − =1+ . We have
a GM m
GM m GM m
E=− , or a = − . (9)
2a 2E
This is to say that, given the masses of the planet and the sun, the total energy of the planet only depends on
the semi-major axis, a, of its orbit.
Recall in the Virial theorem, we have 2E k + U = 0. Then the result above can be rewritten in terms of the
time-averaged kinetic energy E k or the time-averaged potential energy U :
GM m GM m
Ek = ;U = −
2a a

b2 L2
As for L, we have = , and therefore:
a GM m2
r
b2 L
L= GM m2 , or b = √ . (10)
a −2mE

And subsequently, we find that the eccentricity is:

c2 b2 2EL2
e2 = = 1 − = 1 +
a2 a2 m(GM m)2

Just by using the geometric properties of an ellipse, you are able to determine the energy and the angular
momentum of the planet. □
r
3
a
3. K3: The period of an orbit is T = 2π , with a the semi-major axis of the orbit.
GM
We have already laid down much work to show this result. From K1, we know that the orbit is an ellipse of
dA L
which the area is πab. From K2 we know that the planet sweeps out an area at a constant rate of = .
dt 2m
Therefore:

πab πab 2πa3/2

T = =r = √ (11)
L/2m b 1 2GM
GM m2 ·
a 2m

Exercises
5.1. Sketch a set of four orbits around the same star with the same energy per unit mass, E/m. What is the range
of angular momentum for a given E/m? In your sketch, include the orbit with the maximum L and the minimum L,
if they exist.
5.2. Sketch a set of four orbits around the same star with the same angular momentum L. What is the range of E
for a given L?
5.3. A planet of mass m orbits a star of mass M in an elliptical orbit with semi-major axis a and semi-minor axis
b. Use the relevant conservation laws to find the planet’s total energy E and the angular momentum L in terms of
m, M, a, b and G. Verify that your results are consistent with our derivation above.
5.4.

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P
~v1

S
~v2

A planet orbits around a star S, as shown in the figure. The semi-major axis of the orbit is a. The perigee, namely
the shortest distance between the planet and the star is 0.5a. When the planet passes point P (on the line through
the star and perpendicular to the major axis), its speed is v1 . What is its speed v2 when it passes the perigee? (2017
F = ma)
5.5. A satellite is following an elliptical orbit around the Earth. Its engines are capable of providing a one-time
impulse of a fixed magnitude. In order to maximize the energy of the satellite, when should the impulse be applied,
and in which direction? (2018 F = ma A)
5.6. The Crab Pulsar (PSR B0531+21) has a rotation period of 0.033 second. Assuming gravitation is the only
force holding the pulsar together, estimate the minimum density of the pulsar.

5.1 Reduced mass

In the derivation of Kepler’s laws above, we assumed that the mass of the star (say the Sun) is large enough so that
it is fixed at the origin while the orbiting body (planets, satellites, ...) moves around it. To take the star’s mass and
its motion into account, which is relevant when solving problems with two interacting bodies comparable in mass
such as a binary star, we will introduce the concept of reduced mass.
Given two stars of masses m1 and m2 , from Newton’s laws we have:
m2⃗a2 = F⃗21 ≡ F⃗ ; m1⃗a1 = F⃗12 = −F⃗
Multiplying the first equation by m1 , the second one by m2 and subtracting one equation from the other, we
have:
m1 m2
(⃗a2 − ⃗a1 ) = F⃗
m1 + m2

We define the reduced mass µ as:

m1 m2
µ= . (12)
m1 + m2
Thus we have F⃗ = µ⃗a, which essentially converts a two-body problem to an equivalent one-body problem. It is clear
Gm1 m2
that in the equivalent problem, F⃗ is still − 2 r̂12 , c.f. eq.(1). As for ⃗a = ⃗a2 − ⃗a1 , it is just the relative acceleration
r12
between the two stars.
The distance between the center of mass (CM) of the system and the two stars are r1 and r2 , respectively, and
satisfies:
r1 m1 = r2 m2 .

Kepler’s laws are modified when we solve for the exact orbits with two stars using the reduced mass:

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• K1: Both stars move in elliptical orbits with the CM located at a focus.
• K2: In this case, it is the angular momentum with respect to the CM that is conserved. So the vector that
sweeps out equal area in equal time is the position vector from the CM to m1 (and m2 ).
• K3: The periods of m1 and m2 ’s orbits are the same as the orbit of a mass µ orbiting a fixed point under the
gravitation of F = Gm1 m2 /r12 . To find the period T , we can still use Eq.(11), except the angular momentum
will be with respect to the CM. Thus we have:
3/2
2πaµ a1 a2
T = √ , where M = m1 + m2 , aµ = M= M. (13)
GM m2 m1
Let’s check and see if the result is sensible: First, eq. (13) is symmetric for m1 and m2 , which is expected
considering both m1 and m2 have the same period. Second, when m1 = m2 , aµ = 2a1,2 , which means when
the two stars are of the same mass, the system is equivalent to that with a single star orbiting a fixed point
with twice the semi-major axis. Last, in the limit of m2 ≫ m1 , aµ → a1 . All of the limiting cases check out.

Exercises
5.7. The first gravitational wave event observed was by the LIGO collaboration in 2015 and was interpreted as the
merger of two black holes in a binary system. A complete understanding requires general relativity. Here we
assume Newtonian mechanics to estimate the separation of the centers for the two black holes at the point in the
merger event. Observed information: The mass of the black holes are roughly 35 solar masses (implying a radius
for the event horizon of about 100 km for each, if assumed spherical), where a solar mass is 1.989 × 1030 kg. At the
peak amplitude of the detected gravitational wave, its measured frequency indicated that the two black holes were
revolving around the center of mass about 75 times per second.

6 Types of orbits
From the above derivation, we can summarize the following scenarios for orbits: Given that an object has angular
momentum L with respect to a star, there exists a minimal energy E0 .
1. If E = 0, then e = 1; the object will have a parabolic trajectory as it passes by the star.
2. If E > 0, then e > 1; the object will have a hyperbolic trajectory.
3. If E0 < E < 0, then 0 < e < 1; the object will have an elliptical orbit.
4. If E = E0 , then e = 0; the object will have a circular orbit.

Problem 6.1.

r
θ
S P0

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Orbital Mechanics
Halley’s Comet is a short-period comet visible from Earth. As shown in the figure, the comet orbits the Sun (S)
in an elliptical orbit with a period of T = 76 years. In 1986, it passed perihelion P0 , shown in the figure, with a
distance r0 = 0.59 AU from the Sun. AU, or the astronomical unit, is the average distance between the Earth and
the Sun. Some time later, the comet reaches point P , at angle θ = 72◦ .
1. Find the distance from P to the Sun, rP .
2. Find the magnitude and the direction of the comet’s velocity at P .
1 AU = 1.5 × 1011 m, mass of the Sun mS = 2 × 1030 kg, and G = 6.67 × 10−11 N · m2 /kg2 .

Solution: Before we start putting numbers in, let’s walk through the thinking process: The problem gave T , with
which we can get a from K3. Because we know r0 , which is the distance between the focus and the perihelion, we
know r0 = a − c, thus we can find all the parameters for the elliptical orbit. [[[Using r0 for the semi-latus rectum
earlier and the minimum radius here is going to get confusing real fast. Maybe rmin here or something.]]] To get rP ,
we need to know UP . And once we know UP , we can find the kinetic energy, which is related to ⃗vP .
Ok, now we actually solve the problem.
1. 1/3
2πa3/2 T 2 GM

T = √ ⇒a=
GM 4π 2
You can put in all the numbers and find T . Here is a short-cut: Since the Earth is 1AU from the Sun, with a
period of 1 year, then:
76yr  a 3/2
= ⇒ a = 762/3 AU ≈ 17.94 AU
1yr 1AU

Since r0 = a − c = 0.59 AU, c = a − r0 = 17.35 AU, and e = c/a = 0.967. Using the polar form of the ellipse
equation, we have
a(1 − e2 ) 17.94(1 − 0.9672 )
rP = = = 0.894AU.
1 + e cos θ 1 + 0.967 · cos 72◦

2. From rP , we can find the potential energy UP = −GM m/rP . Also the total energy of the comet is
E = −GM m/2a, thus:
1 1 1
mv 2 = E − U ⇒ vP2 = 2GM ( − ) ⇒ vP = 4.4 × 104 m/s
2 P rP 2a

As for its direction, we need to find the tangent of the ellipse at point P , which requires us to take a derivative.
dy
2x 2y dx dy x b2
+ = 0 ⇒ = −
a2 b2 dx y a2

From rP , we know xP = c + rP cos 72◦ , yP = rP sin 72◦ , therefore:

dy c + rP cos 72◦
=− (1 − e2 ) = −1.34
dx rP sin 72◦

Or the angle of the velocity at P is tan−1 (−1.34) = 127◦ .

□

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Orbital Mechanics
Exercises
6.1.

P2 A

1
2
3
4
5

It takes several orbital maneuvers to send a satellite into the Moon’s orbit. When launched from the Earth, the
satellite first enters an elliptical orbit, labelled 1 in the figure. The nearest point to the Earth P is HP = 2.05 × 102
km above the Earth surface and the farthest one A is at HA = 5.09 × 104 km above the Earth surface. To push the
satellite into orbit 2, the engine on the satellite fires at point A. Once the satellite is in orbit 2, its engine fires at point
P2 three times, sending the satellite into orbit 3, 4 and 5.
The mass of the satellite is m = 2.35 × 103 kg, the radius of the Earth is R = 6.378 × 103 km, the gravitational
2
acceleration at the Earth’s surface is g = 9.81m/s , and radius of the Moon is Rm = 1.738 × 103 km.
1. Calculate the eccentricity of orbit a.
2. Calculate the period of orbit 1.
3. To push P2 to be 600 km above the Earth’s surface, how long does the engine need to fire at point A on orbit
1? Assume the thrust provided by the engine is 490 N and applied in the same direction of the satellite’s
velocity.
4. The satellite eventually enters a circular orbit around the Moon at a distance Hm = 200 km above the Moon’s
surface. Its period is Tm = 127 minutes. Calculate the mass ratio of the Moon and the Earth.

7 Further Reading and Problems

The sources in this section are optional and contain more complete explanations of the material here, additional
practice problems, or both.

7.1
Chapter 14 of Halliday, Resnick, Krane Physics, 5th ed. 2002.
Chapter 7.5 of Morin Introduction to Classical Mechanics, 2008

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Orbital Mechanics
8 Answers to Exercises
4.1: Ek = −U/2 = 3 × 12 mv 2 ⇒ v =
p
GM/a
5.1: Same E√
means all orbits have the same length of major axis, and the same focus. Since a > b,
L ≤ GM m/ −2E = Lmax . Therefore 0 < L ≤ Lmax . When L = Lmax , the orbit is a circle.
5.2: When L is a constant, b2 /a is a constant. So the orbits will grow faster in a than in b.
5.3: The easiest thing here is to set up angular momentum conservation and energy conservation at the apogee
and the perigee.
√
5.4: v2 = 3v1 / 5
5.5: Directed along the satellite’s velocity and applied when the satellite is at perigee.
5.6: Use K3 and get ρ ∼ T 2G .
3π

5.8: The black hole in the CM frame is equivalent to a particle of reduced mass µ in the same gravitational field
2π(r/2)3/2
U (r) = Gm2 /r. Here µ = m/2. Using K3, we have T = √ . Putting in the numbers, r = 347 km.
Gµ
√
6.1: 1. e = a2 − b2 /a = 0.794; 2. T ≈ 15.76 hr; 3. 150 seconds; 4. Mm /M = 0.0124.

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