Pt3 Revision Science

Reference notes: Science Form 3 2017
CHAPTER 1: RESPIRATION
REFRESH!
Q: WHAT IS RESPIRATION?
A: chemical process whereby energy is released from glucose or other simple substances.
Cellular respiration
Glucose + oxygen energy + carbon dioxide + water
Q: WHAT ARE THE PRODUCTS OF RESPIRATION?
A: energy + carbon dioxide + water
Our body takes in oxygen from the atmosphere and release carbon dioxide. This process which
involves an exchange of gases is known as breathing.
THE STRUCTURE OF HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

The human respiratory system consists of
Nasal cavity
Throat (pharynx)
Trachea (windpipe)
Lungs
Bronchi
Bronchioles
Diaphragm
Intercostal muscle
Ribs
Alveoli
FLOW OF AIR FROM THE ATMOSPHERE TO THE

Bronchus then branches into smaller tubes called
Walls are lined with hairs to trap dust particles in the air
bronchioles
Nostrils Bronchioles These tube end in many tiny air sacs known as
alveoli
Surrounded by blood capillaries
Secretes mucus; a slimy substance that traps bacteria and other
Nasal foreign particles in the inhaled air. A site in which gaseous exchange (diffusion) occurs
Adaptations of alveoli which allow the gaseous exchange occur
cavity effectively:
It does not collapse because it is kept open by rings of
Large surface area compared to its volume
cartilage (C shaped)
Alveoli thin and elastic walls
Trachea Branched into left bronchus and right bronchus, which then
Surrounded by network of blood capillaries
goes into left lung and right lung respectively.
moist
LUNGS
STRUCTURE OF ALVEOLI
Functions of other parts of the respiratory system:

INTERCOSTAL MUSCLES
Move the ribs up and down during breathing
DIAPHRAGM
Lies at the base of the thoracic cavity
Separates the thoracic cavity from the abdomen
Move the ribs up and down during breathing
STRUCTURE OF THE LUNGS

Lungs are made up of:
Bronchioles
Alveoli
Blood capillaries
It is protected by 12 pairs of ribs known as the rib
cage.
The thoracic cavity houses the lungs
THE BREATHING MECHANISM

INHALATION
A process in which air is taking into the lungs
The air which enters the lungs is the inhaled air
EXHALATION
The process of expelling carbon dioxide from the lungs into the atmosphere.
The expelled air is known as exhaled air
COMPARISON BETWEEN INHALATION AND EXHALATION

INHALATION EXHALATION
The external intercostal muscle contract The external intercostal muscle relax
The rib cage moves upward and outward The rib cage moves downward and inward
The diaphragm contracts and flattens The diaphragm relaxes and curves upwards
The volume of thoracic cavity increases the volume of thoracic cavity decreases
The air pressure in thoracic cavity the air pressure in thoracic cavity increases
decreases
Air from the surroundings enters the lungs Air is forced out of the lungs
SELF ASSESS 1.1

1. Differentiate between breathing and respiration.
2. Why is the alveolus efficient in carrying out gaseous exchange?
1.2 TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN

TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN IN THE HUMAN BODY
The transport of oxygen involves the following process:
o The diffusion of oxygen from the alveoli into the blood capillaries
o The transport of oxygen by red blood cells
o The diffusion of oxygen from the blood capillaries into the cells
In humans, oxygen is carried by the blood (blood circulatory system). The heart, blood vessels
(veins or arteries) and blood capillaries make up the blood circulatory system.
Blood vessels from the lungs carry blood rich in oxygen to the rest of the body for respiration and
vice versa.
The concentration of oxygen in the alveoli is higher than the concentration of oxygen in the
capillaries.
PARTS OXYGEN CONTENT CARBON DIOXIDE CONTENT

Alveoli High Low
Capillaries Low High
Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli to the capillaries.

Carbon dioxide diffuses from the capillaries to the
alveoli.
Once the capillaries are rich with oxygen, they pass
the oxygen to the cells in the various parts of the
body.
The concentration of oxygen in the blood capillaries
and the cells is shown in the table below. As a result,
oxygen will diffuse from the blood capillaries to the
cells
PARTS OXYGEN CONTENT CARBON DIOXIDE
CONTENT
Blood capillaries High Low
Cells Low High
The process is reversed for carbon dioxide. Carbon dioxide diffuses from the cells to the blood
capillaries.
The figure below shows how oxygen from the surroundings is absorbed by the cells. It also
shows how carbon dioxide which is expelled from the cells returns to the surroundings.
Oxygen is insoluble in blood. It is even less soluble at body temperature.

Q: BUT HOW DOES BLOOD CARRIES OXYGEN THROUGHOUT THE WHOLE BODY IF OXYGEN IS
INSOLUBLE IN BLOOD?
A: because of the presence of haemoglobin. Oxygen combines with haemoglobin to form
oxyhaemoglobin.
Oxygen + haemoglobin oxyhaemoglobin

Oxyhaemoglobin gives out oxygen when it reaches the body tissues which have low oxygen
concentration.
SELF ASSESS 1.2

1. Briefly explain the diffusion of gas
2. Why is the wall of an alveolus one-cell thick?
3. The following reactions may occur either in our lungs or kidneys. Identify the organ in the table.
HAEMOGLOBIN REACTION ORGAN
Oxygen + haemoglobin oxyhaemoglobin
Oxyhaemoglobin haemoglobin + oxygen
1.3 HEALTHY RESPIRATION SYSTEM

1.3 THE IMPORTANCE OF A HEALTHY RESPIRATORY SYSTEMS
The air we breathe contains various substances
Because of air pollution, the air that we breathe may contain harmful substances such as pollutants,
bacteria, viruses and other microorganisms.
Q: WHY SMOKING IS HARMFUL TO THE RESPIRATORY SYSTEM?
A: because it contains:
Tar, nicotine, carbon monoxide poisonous
High temperature of the smoke may harm the body cells. WHY? HOW?
A non-smoker inhales secondary smoke from a smoker. They also can be known as a passive
smoker.
Smoking is the most preventable single cause of death in the world.
Tobacco smoke is the most important risk factor for diseases such as:
Amphysema
Heart diseases
Asthma
Bronchitis
Pneumonia
Lung cancer
EFFECTS OF HARMFUL SUBSTANCES - cigarette

Tar collects in the lungs as tobacco smoke cools. Tar is a mixture of many toxic chemicals. Many of
these substances are carcinogens. More than 40 types of compounds in cigarette smoke can cause
cancer.
Nicotine causes an addiction to smoking
Carbon monoxide acidic and damages lungs tissues
EFFECTS OF HARMFUL SUBSTANCES INDUSTRIAL WASTES

Examples of harmful substances from industrial wastes:
Cement dusts
Coal dusts
Sulphur dioxide
Asbestos dusts - carcinogen
When these substances enter the trachea, the flow of air between the lungs, the mouth and the
nose is blocked, causing breathing difficulties.
EFFECTS OF HARMFUL SUBSTANCES MOTOR VEHICLES

Carbon monoxide, oxides of nitrogen, and hydrocarbons are harmful
All these have been linked to respiratory problems such as:
Chronic bronchitis
Emphysema
Asthma
Lung cancer
Pollutants such as oxides of nitrogen may contribute to the formation of haze.
Haze cause throat irritation and inflammation of the upper respiratory tract which leads to
breathing difficulties.
EFFECTS OF HARMFUL SUBSTANCES MICROORGANISMS

Bacteria, viruses and other microorganisms cause infections that affect the respiratory system
These microorganisms produce toxins which will make the person ill.
Certain viruses cause influenza, resulting an irritation and swelling of the upper respiratory tract.
Bacteria and viruses also causes whooping cough and pneumonia.
EFFECTS OF HARMFUL SUBSTANCES - SUMMARY
Chemical Sources Damaging effects

substances
Tar Cigarette smoke Carcinogenic causes lung cancer
Nicotine Cigarette smoke Causes an addiction to smoking
Carbon Cigarette smoke, car Highly poisonous reduces the
monoxide exhaust amount of oxygen in the blood,
death may ensue
Sulphur Industry, vehicles Acidic damage lung tissues
dioxide
Hydrocarbons Industry, vehicles Carcinogenic cause cancer
Oxides of Industry, vehicles Interact with hydrocarbons to form
nitrogen haze
Haze Industry, vehicles, open Causes breathing difficulties,
burning worsens asthma and pneumonia
IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF AIR
Education to inculcate good Publicity through the mass

practices media
Good practices to
improve air
quality
Forums and seminars to inform

Campaigns and contests to
the public, and exchange ideas
increase awareness
and information
END OF CHAPTER 1
CHAPTER 2: BLOOD CIRCULATION AND TRANSPORT
2.1 TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN HUMANS
Human circulatory system consists

of the heart, thousands of blood
vessels and blood which flows
inside these vessels.
The function of circulatory system is
to help transport materials
throughout the whole body.
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE

HUMAN HEART
The human heart is a cone-shaped,
muscular organ that is about the
size of a fist.
It is situated in the thoracic cavity
between the lungs.
The walls of the heart is made up of
cardiac muscles.
The heart is made up of four chambers.
FOUR CHAMBERS OF THE HEART
The two chambers at the top are the right and left atria (singular:
atrium)
RIGHT ATRIUM LEFT ATRIUM
The two chambers below are the right and left ventricles.
There are 3 types of valves inside the heart:
Tricuspid valve : lies between right atrium and right ventricles
TRICUSPI BICUSPID Bicuspid valve : lies between left atrium and left ventricles
Semilunar valve : situated at the beginning of the pulmonary
D VALVE VALVE artery and the aorta
RIGHT VENTRICLE LEFT VENTRICLE
The function of tricuspid and bicuspid valve is to allow blood to flow in only one
direction, from the atria to the ventricles.
The function of the heart is to pump blood to all parts of the body.
The rhythmic contractions and relaxations of the walls of the heart ensure a
continuous blood circulation in the human body.
THE PUMPING ACTION OF THE HEART
Blood from the body flows into the right

atrium while blood from the lungs flows
1 to the left atrium
Both atria contract and push blood

2 through the valves into the ventricles
Both ventricles contract and force the blood

into the pulmonary artery and the aorta. The
3 valves are closed to prevent blood from
flowing back into the atria
HOTS 1
The heart beats faster when we exercise at high altitudes. Which of the following explanations are
true?
1. To pump more blood to the cells
2. To keep the body warm
3. To carry more oxygen to the cells
4. To remove excess water from the skin.
DISCUSS WITH YOUR FRIENDS.
Do all the chambers of the heart contract
At the same time?
BLOOD VESSELS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

3 types of blood vessels
Arteries
Veins
Capillaries
Human circulatory is a closed system because blood flows in
blood vessels that are connected.
VEIN, ARTERY & CAPILLARY

CHARACTERISTICS VEIN ARTERY CAPILLARY
CROSS SECTION
SIZE OF LUMEN Big Small Small
Thin, less muscular, less elastic Thick, thicker muscles, elastic One-cell thick
STRUCTURE OF WALL
layer
VALVE Present Absent Absent
BLOOD FLOWS Slowly, low pressure Fast, high pressure Slowly, low pressure
Deoxygenated blood except Oxygenated blood except Carries OB to the tissues,

CARRIES: pulmonary vein, blood is dark pulmonary artery, blood is collects DOB back from the
red in colour bright red in colour tissues
Carries blood from all parts of Carries blood away from the Connects arteries to
the body to the heart heart to all parts of the body vein
Allows exchange of
substances between
FUNCTION blood and body cells by
diffusion
Involved in the release
of excess heat from the
body
This is how the veins, arteries and capillaries are
connected.
Arteries branch into smaller vessels called arterioles.
Arterioles branch into very small vessels known as
capillaries.
Capillaries are found very closed to the cells in the body.
Capillaries joined together forming venules.
Venules join to form veins.
The aorta is the largest artery in our body.

The function of valve is to prevent blood from flowing
backwards.
The contraction of skeletal muscles also helps blood flow
in one direction inside the veins.
HOTS 2: HOW DO YOU KNOW IF AN ARTERY OR A VEIN IS CUT?
PATH OF BLOOD FLOW IN THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

Human circulatory system is known as double circulatory system
Double circulatory system the blood in the body is pumped twice to the heart
PULMONARY CIRCULATION SYSTEMIC CIRCULATION
Goes from the heart to the lungs and back to Goes from the heart to all parts of the body
The heart Except to the lungs and back to the heart
DOB from all parts of the body except the lungs is carried by
the vena cava to the right atrium of the heart
When the right atrium is full, the muscle contract, DOB is
forced into the right ventricle through the tricuspid valve
The right ventricle then will contracts. The valve closes and
DOB is pushed out through the pulmonary artery and
carried to the lungs
THE EXCHANGE OF GASES OCCURS IN THE LUNGS. OB is
returned to the left atrium by pulmonary vein.
When the left atrium is full, the walls contract. The OB is
forced into the left ventricle through the bicuspid valve
When the left ventricle is filled up, the walls contract. The
valve closes and blood is forced out through the aorta to be
carried to other parts of the body
SUBSTANCES CARRIED BY HUMAN BLOOD

The human circulatory system transport blood which carries the following substances:
FROM Dissolves in TO
Oxygen from Red blood cells Body cells

the lungs
Carbon dioxide Blood plasma Lungs

from the cells
Digested food Blood plasma Liver

from small
intestines
Waste product Blood plasma Kidneys

(urea) from
the cells
Hormones Blood plasma Target organs

from
endocrine
glands
SELF ASSESS 2.1
Describe the path taken by a molecule of glucose from the small intestine to the point when it reaches
the kidneys in the body.
Explain why blood capillary walls are thin.
Suggest why blood pressure in the artery is high.
2.2 HUMAN BLOOD

Blood renewable living tissue
Q: HOW MUCH BLOOD ARE PRESENT IN A HEALTHY ADULT?
A: ?????
COMPOSITION OF THE BLOOD

Plasma
55 % - of the volume of the blood
Pale yellowish liquid made up of 90% water, and 10%
soluble substances:
Glucose
Amino acids
Mineral salts
Blood proteins
Hormones
Waste materials
Cellular Components
Made up of red blood cells, white blood cells, platelets
Red Blood Cells

Produced in the bone marrow
Biconcave discs with large surface area to volume ratio
Do not have nuclei
1cm3 of blood contains about 5 000 000 000 red blood cells
Each red blood cell contains a pigment known as
haemoglobin transport oxygen to the cells in the form of
oxyhaemoglobin
Platelets
Small fragments of cells from larger cells in the bone marrow
1cm3 of blood contains 250 000 000 platelets
Help in clotting of blood to stop bleeding
White Blood Cells

Produced in the bone marrow and lymph nodes
Irregular in shape and the shape can change
Have nuclei
1cm3 of blood contains about 8 000 000 white blood cells
Protect the body against diseases and fight infections
Two types of WBC
Lymphocytes produce antibodies to kill germs
Phagocytes carry phagocytosis by surrounding the bacterium, swallowing it, digesting it thus
killing it.
Functions of the blood

Acts as a transport medium
Carries dissolved gases like oxygen and carbon dioxide
Carries digested food substances
Hormones
Waste products
Oxygen is carried by RBC, the other substances are carried in
the blood plasma
Blood protects the body against diseases
Blood maintains the body temperature. Heat is distributed
from the liver to all parts of the body by the blood plasma.
BLOOD GROUPS AND COMPATIBILITY

Four groups of human blood A, B, AB and O
Can receive blood from
Blood group Can donate blood to group
group
A A, O A, AB
B B, O B, AB
A, AB, B, O
AB AB
(Universal recipients)
A, AB, B, O
O O
(Universal Donor)
When a person loses a lots of blood, he needs a blood transfusion from a suitable donor
Blood transfusion the transfer of blood from a donor to a recipient
The donors blood must be compatible with the recipients blood. Otherwise, agglutination or
coagulation of blood occurs inside the blood vessels, it may result in the death of the recipient.
THE IMPORTANCE OF BLOOD DONATION

Saves life does not harm the donor
A person can donate blood every 56 days or about 4 6 times a year
Few conditions have to be met in order to donor blood:
Generally healthy
18 years old 65 years old
Weighs at least 50kg
Has a haemoglobin level of at least 1.25 mg per litre (males)
Has a haemoglobin level at least 1.20 mg per litre (females)
Donated blood is collected in plastic bags which contain sodium citrate, it prevent blood from
coagulating
Is it safe to use donated blood?
Yes, it have been tested and screened for hepatitis B and C, AIDS and other sexually trasmitted
diseases
All the blood donated is stored in blood banks at 4 degree celcius.
Two types of blood stored in the blood bank:
Fresh blood lasts 24 hours
Stored blood - lasts about 40 days
Reasons to undergo blood transfusion:

When a person loses a lot of blood
During surgery or childbirth
To treat certain diseases leukaemia, haemophilia
BLOOD CONSTITUENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

RBC WBC PLATELETS
PRODUCED IN Bone marrow Bone marrow and lymph nodes Bone marrow
Shape Biconcave Irregular Round fragments
Nucleus Not present Present Not present
Function Transport oxygen Protect body against diseases and fight Help in blood clotting
infections
Lifespan 120 days 2 4 days 4 days
SELF ASSESS 2.2

1. List four substances which are carried in the blood and explain how they are transported
2. How do you differentiate a red blood cell from a white blood cell under a microscope?
TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN PLANTS

Water and food are carried from one part of a plant to other parts.
Q: HOW?
A: through a transport system that are specifically designed to transport food and water.
Respectively.
TRANSPORT TISSUES IN PLANTS

Transport tissues in plants are made up of:
Xylem
Phloem
They are found in the roots, stems and
leaves
The structures of xylem and phloem are
shown in the diagram.
STRUCTURES OF XYLEM AND PHLOEM IN LEAVES
STRUCTURES OF XYLEM AND PHLOEM IN STEM

XYLEM TISSUES
Made up of xylem vessels (dead cells) with no nucleus or cytoplasm
Form long tubes with thick walls
Form the woody tissues of plants
Provide mechanical support to plants
Transport water and dissolved materials from the roots up to the stems and the leaves.
KEY WORD: DEAD CELLS, WOODY TISSUES, TRANSPORT WATER
PHLOEM TISSUES
Made up of living cells
Phloem cells are arranged to form long tubes with separating walls in between
Transport food (glucose) from the leaves to all parts of the plants
KEYWORDS: LIVING CELLS, SEPARATING WALLS, FOOD
WILTING
In the morning, the stem of non-woody plants is upright and the leaves are well spread out. This is
because the cells are turgid
in the afternoon, the stem is no longer upright and the leaves droop or wilt. This is because there is
not enough water inside the plant.
Wilt plant loses more water to the surroundings than it absorbed from the soil.
90% water absorbed by a plant is lost as water vapour to the environment
Water evaporates from the leaf surfaces
STRUCTURE OF A LEAF -
STOMATA
On the upper and lower
surfaces of the leaf are tiny
pores called stomata.
There are usually more
stomata on the lower surface
of a leaf than on the upper
surface.
TRANSPIRATION AND FUNCTION OF THE STOMATA

TRANSPIRATION the loss of water in the form of water
vapour.
The water evaporates through the stomata
A stoma is a tiny pore between two bean-shaped cells called
guard cells. These cells contain chloroplasts and carry out
photosynthesis.
Guard cells control the opening and closing of the
stoma
Stomata of plants are usually open during the day to allow the
exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide during photosynthesis
and respiration
FACTORS THAT AFFECT THE RATE OF TRANSPIRATION

LIGHT INTENSITY
Light intensity increases, the ROT increases
The presence of light causes the stomata to open wide and more water vapour is lost to the
environment
TEMPERATURE
the higher the temperature, the greater is the evaporation of water vapour, thus, the ROT
increases
HUMIDITY
The lower the humidity, the higher is the ROT.
AIR MOVEMENT
On windy days, the wind blows water vapour away from the stomata, more water is lost. ROT
increases.
CAN ROT BE MEASURED?

YES. By using a bubble potometer or a weight potometer.
WEIGHT POTOMETER
Measures the weight lost by a plant during a
fixed period of time
BUBBLE POTOMETER
Measures the amount of water absorbed by
a plant during a fixed period of time.
SELF ASSESS 2.3
1. What is the meaning of wilting?

2. What conditions increase the rate
of transpiration?
END OF CHAPTER 2
CHAPTER 3: EXCRETION
HUMAN EXCRETION
Metabolism is the set of chemical reaction that occurs
in living organisms to maintain life.
Cells produce waste products which is not required by
the body
Carbon dioxide
Urea
These products are toxic and must be eliminated from
the body.
Excretion the process of eliminating waste products
from the body
EXCRETORY ORGANS AND EXCRETORY PRODUCTS

The removal of waste products from the body is carried out by
excretory organs
The skin
The lungs
The kidneys
THE SKIN
Largest organ in our body
Skin eliminates water, mineral salts, and urea in the form of sweat.
Sweat leaves the skin through tiny holes called sweat pores.
Sweat is salty, it travels from the sweat glands along the sweat ducts to the sweat pores.
the evaporation of sweat cools the skin and the body.
THE KIDNEYS
The main excretory organ in humans
It eliminates substances like urea, minerals salts,
and waste products from the blood
These substances are then eliminated from the
body in the form of urine
Urine contains water.
Urea - waste product formed in the liver from
excess amino acids in the body.
THE LUNGS
The products of cell respiration are carbon dioxide, and water
Carbon dioxide diffuses out of the capillaries into the alveoli to be expelled
Carbon dioxide and water are expelled from the lungs through exhalation
Carbon Water,
dioxide and mineral salts
water and urea
lungs skin
kidneys
Water,
mineral salts
and urea
THE IMPORTANCE OF EXCRETION

Why must waste products be excreted?
The waste products may become toxic to the body
If these waste products are accumulated in the body, we may become ill
It needs to be eliminated through excretion in order to maintain a healthy body
Carbon dioxide a high level of this gas will increase the breathing rate
Urea if left excess in the body, it may cause kidney to work extra hard, in long term, may lead to
kidney failure
Excess water and mineral salts by removing these two substances, the kidneys help maintain the
chemical composition, water and pH balance of the body.
SELF ASSESS 3.1
1. tick the correct statements regarding the human excretory organs
The lungs regulate the amount of water in your blood ( )
The sweat glands and blood vessels in the skin play a role in excretion of water and mineral
salts ( )
Urea is made in the liver while urine is produced in the kidney ( )
2. On a hot day, what kind of urea is produced?
3. Complete the table below:
Excretory organ Excretory products in humans Excreted as
Nitrogenous wastes mainly urea,

excess water and mineral salts
Excess water and mineral salts
Carbon dioxide and water vapour
THE URINARY SYSTEM IN MAN

The human urinary system consists of several parts:
Kidney
Renal vein
Renal artery
Urethra
Aorta
Ureter
bladder
FUNCTION OF KIDNEYS
An excretory organ that removes wastes
like urea, water and mineral salts from the
blood
FUNCTION OF RENAL VEIN
The blood vessel that carries blood
without waste products from the kidney
FUNCTION OF RENAL ARTERY
The blood vessel that brings waste
products to the kidney
FUNCTION OF AORTA
The main blood vessel that brings blood
from the heart to the kidney
FUNCTION OF URETER
The tube that carries urine from the kidney to the bladder
FUNCTION OF URINARY BLADDER
Temporary storage for the urine before it is removed
FUNCTION OF URETHRA
The tube that brings urine from the bladder to the penis or opening for removal
THE URINARY SYSTEM IN MAN

Kidneys are located in the back of the abdominal cavity.
The liver removes excess amino acids from the blood by converting them into urea which is excreted
by the kidneys.
The urea is sent to the urinary system starts from the kidneys through the ureters to the bladder, and
lastly to the urethra.
From the urethra, it is removed as urine through the penis or opening.
HOW URINE IS REMOVED FROM THE BODY
Liver
Excess amino acids kidney ureter
are converted into
urea
Penis or
urethra bladder
opening
STRUCTURE OF THE KIDNEY

Kidneys are bean-shaped
each kidney is approximately the
size of a fist
Thick layers of fat cover and
protect each kidney
The outer, transparent coat of the
kidney is called the capsule. It is a
tough membrane.
When a kidney is cut

longitudinally, it can be seen that the
kidney consists of two parts.
Outer part darker, protective
part known as the cortex
Inner part lighter layer called
the medulla
the cortex constitutes about one-third
of the kidney.
The medulla forms several pyramids
which open into a sac-like cavity called
the pelvis.
From the pelvis, a long, narrow tube,
the ureter, leads to the bladder
FUNCTIONS OF THE KIDNEY

Kidneys filter wastes from the blood
At the same time, they regulate the water and chemical balance in the body.
Inside the kidney, large molecules are separated from the small ones as blood is forced under high
pressure through them.
TWO-STAGE FILTRATION SYSTEM

The kidneys are two-staged filtration system.
First filtration occurs when water, mineral salts, sugar and waste products are filtered as
blood passes through the kidney
Blood capillaries present in the kidneys perform the second stage of filtration
Second filtration most of the mineral salts and sugar are returned to the circulatory system.
the other function of the kidneys is the reabsorption of water into the circulatory system
The amount of water that is reabsorbed depends on the amount of water required by the
body
If the body system has too much water, reabsorption of water will be less. Urine produced
will be dilute.
When our body needs more water, more water will be reabsorbed into the blood. Urine
produced will be very concentrated.
the kidney control the chemical composition of the blood and play a regulatory role
Table below shows five substances which are found in the blood entering the kidneys and in the urine
Substance Blood entering the kidneys Kidneys Urine
Glucose 2.0 2.0 0

Mineral salts 10.0 (and water) 10.0 (and water) 17.0 (and water)
Amino acids 0.9 0.9 0
Protein 88.0 0 0
Urea 0.5 20.0 20.0
The blood vessel that brings blood containing waste products to the kidneys is the RENAL ARTERY.
The blood vessel that carries clean blood away from the kidneys is the RENAL VEIN.
Substances that pass from the blood into the kidneys are urea, glucose, amino acids, mineral salts
and water.
Protein cannot pass from the blood into the kidneys because the size of the molecules are too
large.
Substances which are reabsorbed into the blood from the kidneys are glucose and amino acids.
- both substances are not found in the urine
Glucose source of energy
Amino acids needed for body building
Content of urine:
Mineral salts
Water
Urea
Summary: functions of the kidneys
Filter wastes from the blood
Regulate the amount of mineral salts and water in the body
THE IMPORTANCE OF MAINTAINING HEALTHY KIDNEYS

Q: WHY DO WE NEED TO PROTECT OUR KIDNEYS?
A: the food we consumed may contain toxic substances which can damage the kidneys
Mercury, lead, arsenic and insecticides
Food that is too sweet or salty are bad for the kidneys too.
TOO MUCH SALT

A high intake of salt will affect the water balance, and may cause
hypertension.
A high concentration of salt in the blood may cause the formation
of kidney stones, which can leads to kidney failure.
TOO MUCH SUGAR
Too much sugar will ultimately cause diabetes
TIPS TO MAINTAIN A HEALTHY KIDNEYS

Avoid taking all kinds of drugs and unprescribed medicines and food that can damage the kidneys
Drink eight glasses of plain water daily
Exercise regularly improve the blood circulation to and from the kidneys
WHAT CAUSE KIDNEYS TO BE DAMAGED?

Infections normally it begins in the bladder, may spread to the ureter and kidneys
Kidney ailment is a common ailment today.
We can live with one kidney, however if both kidneys fail, we may die.
Today, kidney failure is treated through dialysis or kidney transplants.
DIALYSIS
Dialysis machine artificial substitute for the original
kidneys
Dialysis technique of separating particles of different
sizes. A liquid mixture is passed through a partially
permeable membrane
It carries three task:
Pumps blood and monitors the flow for safety
Cleans waste products from the blood
Observes blood pressure and the rate of fluid
removal from the body
HOW DIALYSIS MACHINE WORKS?
The patients blood is filtered through an artificial membrane in the dialysis machine
the blood from an artery in the arm of the patient is passed through the dialysis tube
The tube is made up of semi-permeable membrane and is surrounded by a dialysis fluid
(dialysate).
Waste products such as urea, excess mineral salts and water diffuse out from the blood through the
semi-permeable membrane of the tube into the dialysis fluid
These substances are removed by the dialyser
The cleansed blood is then flowed back into the vein of the patient.
To ensure all wastes are removed, the patients blood must passed through the machine many times.
The whole process may take four to five hours, two or three times a week.
Q: WILL THE PROCESS HEAL THE DAMAGED KIDNEYS?
SELF ASSESS 3.2

1. name the blood vessel of a patient which is
connected to the dialysis machine to filter the
waste products from the blood.
2. What is the feature of the dialysis tube that filters
the patients blood in the dialyses machine?
3. Name two waste products that are filtered by the
dialysis machine.
EXCRETION IN PLANTS
Q: WHAT ARE THE WASTE PRODUCTS OF PLANTS?
A: water, carbon dioxide, oxygen, mineral salts, nitrogenous wastes
The types of nitrogenous wastes in plants differ from those in humans and animals
Plants are less active than animals, so the accumulation of waste products is slower.
The excretory needs for plants are less than animals.
Therefore plants do not have definite excretory organs to remove their waste products.
Water and carbon dioxide produced during respiration are used in photosynthesis.
Only small quantity of the oxygen produced during photosynthesis is used for respiration.
Carbon dioxide (by product of respiration), Oxygen (by product of photosynthesis) are removed from
the tissue by simple diffusion through:
The stomata of the leaves
The lenticles in young stems
The surface of the root hairs in young roots.
EXCRETION IN PLANTS
Excess water is removed as water vapour during transpiration
Mineral salts remain in the plants as crystals.
Calcium carbonate
Calcium oxalate crystals
Minerals like silicon salts are deposited in the leaves of plants of the grass family. Silicon strengthen
the leaf blades.
Plants have little nitrogenous waste products which is converted into harmless granules which are
retained in the plant cells.
Some granules are useful to human and animals, and some are poisonous.
Most pigments are extremely poisonous. However alkaloids can be extracted to produce
medicines.
These waste products are removed from a plant when a flower or leaf is shed.
Drugs like morphine, opium and cocaine are also obtained from the excretory products of plants.
EXCRETORY PRODUCTS SOURCE USE
Bark of mangrove trees, tea For tanning leather, making ink
Tannin
leaves and dye
Stem of rubber tress Making rubber products: tyres,
Latex
shoes
Stem of pine trees Manufacturing varnish, paint,
Resin
ink, lacquer, glitter and gum
Orange tree leaves, eucalyptus Perfumes, aromatherapy oil,
trees, orange peels, rose petals, medicine
Volatile oils
sandalwood, citrus fruits,
lavender trees
Quinine Bark of cinchona trees Medicine to treat malaria
Coffee beans Coffee drink which can prevent
Caffeine
sleepiness
Gum Stem of acacia trees Cough mixture and sweets
Coca leaves An addictive drug used in making
Cocaine
morphine for pain relief
Poppy fruit An addictive drug used in making
Opium
morphine for pain relief
Latex Stem of rubber tree Making gloves, shoes, tyres
Leaf of tobacco plant An addictive drug found in
Nicotine
cigarette
Pepper Seed of pepper plant Flavor enhancer
Wood of champor tree Used in aromatherapy and prayer
Camphor
incense
SELF ASSESS 3.3

1. How do plants eliminate complex waste products produced from the metabolism of their cells?
2. State the ways mineral salts are excreted from plants
3. State the uses of the following waste products of plants.
Tannin
Quinine
resin
END OF CHAPTER 3
CHAPTER 4: REPRODUCTION
SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Reproduction process of producing new individuals from living organisms

The importance of reproduction:
To increase the number of individuals or offspring of the same species
To ensure that animal and plant species do not become extinct
There are two types of reproduction:
Sexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction
SEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Involves the fusion of sex cells (gametes) of
two parents, a male parent, and a female
parent.
Fertilisation the fusion of nuclei of male
gametes and female gametes. Fertilisation
results in the formation of a zygote
the zygote undergoes several cell divisions
before a new individual is formed.
The fusion of genetic materials from the
two parents results in a new individuals
with variations .
Variation the difference between
individuals of the same species
There are two types of fertilization :
External fertilization
Internal fertilization
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL FERTILISATION
Internal fertilisation External fertilisation

The fusion of nuclei of the male and female The fusion of nuclei of the male and female gamete
gamete occurs inside the body of the female occurs outside the body of the female
Occurs in mammals, reptiles, birds and insects Occurs in most aquatic animals like frogs, fishes
and toads
Advantage: Disadvantage:
The ovum, zygote and embryo are safely situated A lot of gametes need to be produced. Probability
in the females body of gametes die before fertilisation occurs is very
high
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Asexual reproduction- involves only one parent. It does
not involve gametes.
The new individual formed is genetically identical to the
parent. No variation in the offspring produced.
Advantage: only needs one individual to
reproduce
Disadvantage: no variation of characteristics in
the new individuals
Occurs in some plants and lower class animals : hydra,
amoeba and paramecium
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION- BINARY FISSION

Mature cell divides into two daughter cells
The nucleus divides first, followed by the
cytoplasm
Examples of organisms:
Bacteria
Amoeba
paramecium
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION

Vegetative reproduction is a form of asexual reproduction in plants that relies on structures of the
parent plant.
Vegetative parts the structure where the new plant arises from the part of the parent plant
Leaves, underground stems (rhizomes, bulbs, corms, tubers) and suckers
Does not involve the production of seeds or spores.
Examples: ginger, onion, banana, potato
VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION - STEMS

A. Bulb
A short stem with fleshy leaves or leaf bases. The leaves often function as food storage.
New shoots arise from buds in the axils of the fleshy leaves.
B. Corm
A short, vertical, swollen underground stem that serves as a storage organ used by plants to
survive adverse conditions.
New shoots form from buds located on the top of the corm.
C. Runner
A stem that grows horizontally on the surface of the soil.
It develops new plants from the node tip
D. Rhizome
A horizontal underground stem that produces shoots and roots from its nodes.
E. Tuber
Underground stems that produce new shoots from buds or eyes
The tops or sides of the tuber produce shoots that grow into typical stems and leaves and the
under sides produce roots.
VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION - LEAVES
Bryophyllum and Begonia are plants that reproduce through their leaves
When the leaves drops to the soil, the buds at the edge of the leaf will grow into new plants
VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION - ROOTS

Adventitious buds are formed on the root of
the plant
These buds detached from the root and
develop into new plants
Examples: carrots, turnips, and sweet potatoes
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION BUDDING

A bud grows out of the body of the parent organism
A bud starts off as a swelling which grows to resemble the parent
The mature bud then drops off to become a new individual
Hydra, yeast
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION - REGENERATION

The body of the parent organism breaks into distinct pieces or fragments.
Each fragment has the ability to grow and develop into a completely new individual.
Flatworm and starfish
ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION- SPORE FORMATION

Spores are produced in the spore sacs (sporangium)
When mature sporangium bursts open, it releases spores.
Spores germinate and grow into new plants when they reach a moist place
Fungi, moss and ferns
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SEXUAL AND ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION ASEXUAL REPRODUCTION
Involves 2 parents Involves only 1 parent
Involves gametes Does not involve gametes
Involves fertilisation Does not involve fertilisation
Offspring shows variation not Offspring have same characteristics

identical to the parents as the parents
Produces large number of offspring
Produces few offspring at one time
at one time
Humans, higher level of organisms
Occurs in lower level organisms such
(fish, birds, amphibians, reptiles,
as amoeba, hydra and paramecium
invertebrates) and flowering plants
SELF ASSESS 4.1

1. State two differences between the sexual reproduction and asexual reproduction.
2. State one disadvantage of external fertilisation
3. Give one example of organism that carries out asexual reproduction through:
Binary fission
Budding
Spore formation
regeneration
4.2 MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Consists of:
Scrotum
Testes
Sperm ducts
Seminal vesicles
Prostate gland
Urethra
penis
STRUCTURES, FUNCTIONS AND DESCRIPTION

Testis produces sperm and male sex hormones
Scrotum a skin sac that holds and protects the testes outside the body
Sperm duct a tube that transports sperms from the testis to the urethra
Seminal vesicle store sperms and secrete a sugar-rich fluid that provides sperms with energy, which
helps them to move. The mixture of seminal fluid and sperms is called semen.
Prostate gland produces alkaline liquid that is added to the semen during ejaculation. The liquid
protects the sperm from acidic environment of the vagina, thus aiding sperm motility and survival
Urethra a tube inside the penis that carries urine and sperms in the semen. It transport sperm and
urine out of the body.
Penis an organ made up of soft tissues and rich in blood vessels. It transfers
semen from the testes to the vagina during sexual intercourse.
Sperm male sex cells (male gamete) produced by the testis
Smallest cell in the human body.
Life span less than 72 hours
Made up of three parts:
Head contain nucleus which carries genetic materials to be passed
from the father to the offspring
Neck (middle piece) contains mitochondria which provide energy
for the sperm to swim
Tail enable the sperm to swim in the vagina, uterus, and up to the
fallopian tube for fertilisation
Function : to fertilise an ovum to form a zygote
PUBERTY IN MALES
Puberty the stage when boys and girls become sexually matured.
It is accompanied by physical, physiological and emotional changes.
Example:
Voice deepens
Body becomes taller and heavier
Hair grows on the face and body
The testes mature and start producing sperms
The emotions change: attracted to the opposite sex
SELF ASSESS 4.2

1. What is the name of male reproductive cells and where are they produced?
2. State two functions of sperms
3. Name the parts of a sperm
4. a boy used to sing very well during his primary school days. Suddenly he finds that his voice has
become deeper and he cannot sing as well as before. What is happening to him? What other changes
may he experienced?
4.3 THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

Consists of:
Ovary
Fallopian tube/ oviduct
Uterus (womb)
Cervix
Vagina
STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE PARTS IN FEMALE

REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM
Ovary
female reproductive organ
Responsible in producing female gametes or ova
Produce female sex hormones
Fallopian tube (oviduct)
Connects the ovary to the uterus
Collects the ovum released from the ovary and carries it towards the uterus
A site which fertilisation between male and female gametes occurs
Vagina (birth canal)
A muscular tube where the s perms are deposited by the penis during sexual intercourse
Widens during the birth of the baby
Vulva
The outer opening of the vagina
Cervix
The narrow neck of the uterus which dilates during childbirth
Secretes mucus which enables the sperm to swim easily to meet the ovum
Uterus
Pear-shaped muscular organ with thick walls and rich with blood capillaries
The place where a fertilised ovum is implanted
The place where the embryo develops into a foetus and the foetus grows during pregnancy
THE STRUCTURE OF THE OVUM

The largest cell in human body
The role of the ovum in reproduction
Carries genetic materials from the mother in the nucleus
During fertilisation, the nucleus of the ovum combines with the nucleus of the sperm, forming
zygote which develops into a new offspring
DIFFERENCES BETWEEN SPERM AND OVUM

Characteristics Sperm Ovum
Size 0.01 0.05 mm 0.12 mm
Place of
Testis Ovary
production
Mobility Able to move by
Unable to move by itself
itself
Number One released every 28
Millions in a day
produced days
Lifespan Up to 72 hours Up to 24 hours
PUBERTY IN FEMALES
Females usually reach puberty earlier than males (11 13 years old)
Changes that occur in the body of females:
Ovaries start to release mature ova
and produce sex hormones
Body becomes taller and heavier
Breasts develop
Hips become wider
Hair begins to grow in the armpits
and the pubic area
Menstruation begins
Emotional changes becoming shy, being attracted to the opposite sex
SELF ASSESS 4.3

1. Where are the sex cells produced in the body of a woman?
2. Why is the human egg or ovum larger than the sperm?
3. Explain the function of the organs below:
Ovary
Fallopian tube
Uterus
4.4 THE MENSTRUAL CYCLE

At birth a girl has many unripe eggs in her ovaries, she starts to ovulate at puberty
At puberty ova ripen at different times, when
an ovum ripens and matures, it is released from
the ovary.
Ovulation the release of one mature ovum from
one of the two ovaries into the fallopian tube
[FERTILE PHASE]
On its journey to uterus, the ovum
prepares itself for fertilisation.
The lining of the uterine wall becomes
thickerand has more blood vessels. WHY
DOES THIS HAPPEN?
No fertilisation lining of the wall of the uterus
and blood vessels starts to break down
Ovum + blood + lining of the uterine wall is
discharged through the vagina menstruation
One menstrual cycle lasts for about 28 days. (may
vary from 23 days to 40 days)
Length of the cycle depends on:
Mental condition
Physical activity
Emotional changes
Nutrition of an individual
A woman may experience premenstrual syndrome.
Abdominal pain
Emotional changes
Headaches
Lethargy
Menopause happens when women stop menstruating at the age between 50 and 55 years old.
MENSTRUATION PHASE
day 1 day 5
Lining of the uterine wall together with
the blood vessels break down. The lining
tissues and blood are discharged as
menstruation occurs.
REPAIR PHASE
Day 6 day 11
Lining of the uterine wall builds
up and becomes thicker and richer in
blood vessels
OVULATION PHASE
Day 12 day 16
This is the fertile phase.
Ovulation usually occurs on the 14th day
The uterine wall and blood vessels continue
to develop
PREMENSTRUAL PHASE
Day 17 day 28
Uterine wall continues to thicken and
becomes rich in blood vessels in preparation for fertilisation
Uterus is ready for implantation
If fertilisation does not occur/ not successful, the lining of the uterus starts to break down.
Another cycle starts.
CONCLUSION OF MENSTRUAL CYCLE
Days in the menstrual cycle Phases in menstrual cycle
Menstruation phase
15 Discharge of unfertilised egg, uterine lining
and blood
Repair phase
6 11
rebuilding and thickening of the uterine lining
Ovulation / fertile phase
12 16
Release of ovum from the ovary
Premenstrual phase
17 28 The uterine lining continues to thicken by
increasing blood supply
SELF ASSESS 4.4

1. Can fertilisation take place during menstruation? Explain your answer.
2. What can be found in the discharge during menstruation?
3. State the events that take place during the fertile phase.
4. What is the meaning of puberty?
4.5 FERTILISATION AND PREGNANCY

During sexual intercourse (copulation), millions of sperms are released from the penis into the vagina.
However only about 100 sperms will reach the ovum.
Sperms journey :
Swims with the helps of their tails from vagina cervix uterus fallopian tubes/ oviduct
Lifespan : 72 hours
If a mature ovum is present in fallopian tube, sperms will surround the ovum.
Only one of the sperm will successfully penetrate the membrane of the ovum.
A membrane is formed immediately around the ovum, preventing other sperms from entering the
ovum.
The nucleus in the head of the sperm then fuses with the nucleus of the ovum.
The fusion results in fertilisation, forming zygote.
Once zygote is formed, the female becomes pregnant and foetus will develop in her uterus.
DEVELOPMENT OF AN EMBRYO INTO

A FOETUS UNTIL BIRTH
4 stages:
OVULATION
a mature ovum is released into the oviduct/ fallopian tube
FERTILISATION
Fusion of the nuclei of a sperm and an ovum to form a zygote
DEVELOPMENT OF THE ZYGOTE
Zygote divides into two cells after 30 minutes, cells divide repeatedly to form a ball of
cells called the embryo.
Embryo moves down the fallopian tube and enters the uterus. (movement assisted
by the rippling movements of the uterine wall
IMPLANTATION
After 7-8 days after fertilisation, the embryo implants/ attaches itself into the
thickened lining of the uterus
It sinks into the soft tissues of the uterine wall IMPLANTATION
Result of fertilisation between male and

female gamete
Zygote
A ball of cells for two months

Embryo
After two months, embryo develops and

resembles a human being
Foetus
DEVELOPMENT OF THE EMBRYO
Embryo implanted in the uterine wall continues to grow inside a sac (amnion sac). The foetus is
surrounded by amniotic fluid.
Embryo gets nutrients and oxygen from the blood vessels in the uterine lining.
Finger-like projections grow from the embryo into the lining of the uterus, forming placenta.
The embryo has now develop into foetus.
DEVELOPMENT OF THE FOETUS

The foetus is joined by the umbilical chord to the placenta.
Umbilical chord contains vein and artery.
Vein carries blood rich in nutrients and oxygen from the placenta to the foetus
Artery carries waste products such as urea and carbon dioxide away from the foetus
to the placenta. These substances diffuse into the mothers blood.
In the placenta, the foetus blood and the mothers blood do not mixed.
Foetus also starts to move.
When the foetus is fully formed at the end of the pregnancy, the foetus rotates its body until the head
is pointing towards the cervix.
THE BIRTH OF THE BABY

At about 9 months, the baby is ready to be born.
Uterine muscle
Amnion sac contract very
breaks, strongly, these
Small
amniotic contractions push
contraction the baby out
fluid flows
through the cervix
out and the vagina
SELF ASSESS 4.5
1. What is the
function of the sac of
amniotic fluid
surrounding the
developing foetus?
2. Name the substances transported in the placenta from
1. The foetus to the mother
2. The mother to the foetus
3. Trace the pathway of a sperm from ejaculation until it meets an ovum.
4.6 THE IMPORTANCE OF PRENATAL CARE

Pregnant mothers require a balanced diet.
More energy needed: need to consume more food 11 592 kJ
Woman that is not pregnant need to consume less food 9450 kJ
Nutrient Pregnant women Women that are not pregnant
Protein (g) 102 70
Iron (mg) 15 10
Calcium (mg) 1000 1500 800
Vitamin A(microgram) 900 750
Vitamin C (mg) 100 70
4.6 THE IMPORTANCE OF PRENATAL CARE

Besides taking nutritious food, a pregnant woman should have
enough rest and sleep, avoid taking drugs which are not
prescribed by doctor, do not drink alcohol or smoke cigarettes.
These activities can harm the foetus.
Pregnant women who smoke risk having :
Smaller babies
Stillborn babies
Babies who are mentally and physically retarded
Miscarriages or premature babies.
when carbon monoxide is inhaled by a pregnant woman, it will
combine with haemoglobin to form carboxyhaemoglobin, which
means, less oxygen is transported to the foetus and may cause
abnormal development of the foetus brain.
Excessive alcohol will cause foetal alcohol syndrome as the
alcohol is transported by the blood to the foetus.
Alcohol slows down the development of foetus,
damages its brain, the nervous system and heart.
Nutrients Sources Functions

Carbohydrates and Rice, bread, potatoes, milk, For daily energy requirements and various
fats butter, cheese activities of the mother
Chicken, beef, fish, beans, For the growth of new cells in the foetus
Protein
milk, cheese
Broccoli, spinach, hazelnuts, For the proper development of the nervous
Folic acid
groundnuts system in the foetus
Citrus fruits, tomatoes, guava, For healthy skin of the foetus and the mother
Vitamin C
vegetables
Calcium and Anchovies, cheese, milk For the formation of healthy, strong bones,
phosphorus and teeth in the foetus
Liver, red meat, tuna fish Formation of haemoglobin to prevent
Iron
anaemia in the mother
Fibre Cereals, vegetables, fruits For easy bowel movement of the mother
SELF ASSESS 4.6

1. Explain why pregnant women are advised to eat more
vegetables and fresh fruits.
2. If a pregnant woman only takes carbohydrates and fats, what
are the effects of this diet on:
The foetus
Herself?
3. What is the importance of iron to pregnant mothers and what is
the effect of lack of iron on mothers?
4.7 THE IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH IN HUMAN REPRODUCTION

Main issues concerning human reproduction:
Sterility
Birth control
Sterility the inability to produce children
Caused by the problems in reproductive system of the husband or the wife.
CAUSES OF STERILITY
in female In male
Defective reproductive organs defective reproductive organs such as the inability of
Abnormal ovulation or inability to the penis to ejaculate sperms into the vagina
ovulate Low sperm count
Blocked fallopian tube Deformed or weak sperms
Fertilised egg cant implant itself in the Inactive sperms which are unable to swim to meet
uterine lining after fertilisation the ovum
Health problems such as diabetes and
hypertension
METHODS TO OVERCOME STERILITY

Nutrition
consume nutritious food, abstain
from smoking and drinking alcohol
Drug treatment
Take hormone pills or injections to enhance ovulation (female) or increase the chances to
produce more active sperms (male)
Surgery
Removal of growth tissues in the oviducts which cause blockage or growth in the uterus which
prevents implantation
In vitro fertilisation (IVF)
A mature Implantation
The wife is
egg is of the
injected with A sperm
transferred embryo
a hormone fertilises the
into a glass takes place
to stimulate egg in the
dish and the
the ovary to culture
containing embryo
produce solution
nutrients develops
eggs
and oxygen into a foetus
BIRTH CONTROL OR CONTRACEPTION
Birth control basically means preventing pregnancy by:

Stopping the production of eggs (prevent ovulation)
Stopping the sperms from reaching and fertilising the ovum
Stopping the implantation of the embryo in the uterus
Various methods of birth control:
Contraceptive pills
Condoms
Spermicides
Intrauterine contraceptive device (IUCD)
The rhythm method (natural method)
Vasectomy
Ligation
Contraceptive pills
Taken by women every day, for 21 days after menstruation
Content : combination of hormones which prevent ovulation.
This method is 100% reliable if the woman follows the
doctors instructions correctly but there are some side
effects.
Condoms
Thin rubber sheath used by men
It is worn over the mans erect penis before intercourse to prevent sperms from entering the vagina
of the woman.
Helps prevent infections of sexually transmitted diseases such as AIDS, syphilis, gonorrhea
It is reliable, and easy to obtain and to use.
Spermicides
Chemical substances in the form of foams, jellies or cream.
The spermicide is introduced into the vagina of the woman before intercourse. It kills the sperms that
are released into the womans body.
It is not effective on its own and must be used with other methods such as the condom or diaphragm.
Intrauterine Contraceptive Device (Iucd)

Also known as intrauterine device (IUCD)
Either made of plastic or copper wire coil
This device is fitted inside the uterus by a doctor and can be
left inside for 2 3 years.
How does it works?
Prevent sperms from swimming up the uterus, and
the fertilisation and implantation of the embryo.
when it is removed, pregnancies can occur.
The Rhythm Method
It is used by people who believe that other contraceptive methods are wrong and against their
religion.
The couple identify the fertile period of the woman. They avoid having intercourse during this time
because an egg is most likely to be present in the oviduct.
It is not a reliable and effective method for women with irregular menstrual cycles.
Vasectomy
Also known as male sterilisation. require
minor surgery
Sperm ducts are cut and then tied to prevent the
sperms travelling from the testes to the urethra and penis.
No sperm will be released through the penis.
Ligation
Also known as female sterilisation or tubal ligation. It
involves more complicated surgery than a
vasectomy
It is irreversible and usually carried out on a
woman who does not want any more children
The middle parts of the oviducts are cut and the open
ends are clipped or tied.
It stops the released ovum from getting into the
oviduct. Thus, prevents fertilsation.
THE IMPORTANCE OF RESEARCH ON HUMAN REPRODUCTION

Regular routine check-ups for both husband and wife because it helps:
To identify the problems faced by the childless couples
To diagnose diseases like cancer, AIDS or growth in the reproductive organs early and to seek
early treatment
The research on human reproduction is centred on:
Overcoming sterility
Birth control methods
Maintaining healthy reproductive systems.
it helps childless couples overcome sterility problems
It helps create happier and healthier families
Enables couples to plan their family and ensures that mother and baby are both healthy
Family planning reduces the financial burdens on parents and ensures that parents can give more love
and care to their children
Family planning also helps in control the rate of population growth of a country and indirectly helps
control social problems
Misuse of birth control methods
Misuse of birth control methods may leads to social
problems like:
Indiscriminate sexual activities among men
and women
Broken families
The spread of sexually transmitted diseases
such as AIDS
Easy access to contraceptive pills without
proper prescriptions may result in health
problems like heart diseases, hypertension,
and liver damage among the users.
SUMMARY
Birth control method Methods of treating infertility
IVF In Vitro fertilsation
Natural rhythm method GIFT Gamete intra-Fallopian transfer
Chemical use of spermicides ZIFT Zygote intra-Fallopian transfer
Mechanical use of condoms and IUCDs IUI Intrauterine insemination
Hormonal contraceptive pills ICSI Intracytoplasmic sperm injection
Surgical vasectomy and tubal ligation Egg donation, and egg freezing technique
Surrogate mothers
SELF ASSESS 4.7

1. After a check up with a doctor, a childless couple discover that the husband is sterile. What are the
possible reasons for the husbands sterility?
2. Which contraceptive method is irreversible? Explain why it is irreversible.
4.8 SEXUAL REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM OF FLOWERING PLANTS

The flower is very important in the reproductive system of a plant.
Flowers produces the male and female gametes for sexual reproduction. They produce seeds which
finally grow into new plants.
Types of flowers:
Bisexual have both the male and female reproductive organs.
Unisexual only have either the male or female organs.
PARTS OF A FLOWER AND THEIR FUNCTIONS
Part Characteristics function
Outermost whorl of a flower. Protects the flower during the bud
Sepal
Usually green in colour stage
second whorl of a flower.
Petal Usually brightly coloured and attracts insects for pollination
scented
Anther produces pollen grains.
Stamen (male Consists of the anther and Male gametes are produced in the
reproductive part) filament pollen grain
Filament holds the anther
Pistil/ carpel (female Consists of the stigma, style, Stigma posesses sticky surface for
reproductive part) ovary and ovule the pollen grains to attach to
Style
Connects the stigma to the
ovary
Allows the pollen tube to
grow towards the ovule
Ovary surrounds and protects the
ovules inside
Ovule contains the female
gametes. After fertilisation, the
ovule develops into a seed.
STRUCTURES OF PISTIL STIGMA, STYLE, OVARY, OVULE
SELF ASSESS 4.8

1. What are the reproductive organs in flowering
plants?
2. Name the parts of pistil and stamen
3. Where does fertilisation take place in flowering
plants?
4. Give two differences between the sepals and
the petals of a hibiscus flower.
5. Jane planted two papaya trees in her garden.
After a few months, both plants started to flower.
However only one plant bears fruits. Explain why this
happens.
4.9 POLLINATION
Pollination pollen grains are transferred from the anther to
the stigma.
Pollination enables fertilisation and sexual reproduction.
Flowers have different adaptations to ensure pollination takes
place.
When the anther of a flower is mature, it bursts open and the
pollen grains are exposed.
The pollen grains may fall to the ground or be carried away by
pollinating agents:
Wind
Water
Insects
animals
Pollinating agents - insects
Examples: butterflies, bees, moths

Characteristics of flowers pollinated by insects:
Big and colourful flowers with short Suck
nectar
flower stalks.
Produce nectar and are scented
Anther and stigma are enclosed inside the Collect
pollen
flower grain
Short filaments and small anthers
Short styles and stigmas with sticky Transfer
surfaces pollen
Produce small quantities of pollen grains grain
which are large, sticky and have rough
surfaces
Pollinating Agents - Animals

Examples: birds, bats
When these animals suck the nectar from a flower, the pollen grains stick to the feathers, fur, beaks
or body of the animals.
The pollen grains are then transferred to the stigma of the same flower or other flowers that the
animal visit.
Examples of plants pollinated by animals:
Durians
Rambutans
Hibiscus
African tulips
The characteristics of flowers pollinated by animals are similar to those pollinated by insects.
Pollinating Agents Wind

Most of the monocotyledonous plants are
pollinated by wind.
A lot of pollen may be wasted when they landed
on the ground Wind
Characteristics of wind-pollinated flowers: blows
Small flowers, not brightly coloured, long
stalks Pollen
grain
Do not produce nectar and are not blown
scented
Anthers and stigma hang outside the
Landed
flowers and sway by the wind on stigma
Anthers produce large quantities of
pollen small, light, smooth
Long style and stigma, stigma is long and feathery
Pollinating Agents - Water

Works for aquatic plants
The moving water helps to free pollen grains from the anther to the stigma
Example: hydrilla, water lily, and water hyacinth.
Pollen grains are normally light, able to float on water and do not rot easily.
Characteristics of the flower:
Produce large amounts of pollen
Comparison Of Flowers Pollinated By Insects And Wind.
Characteristics Insects Wind

Smaller and not brightly
Petals Large and brightly coloured
coloured
Small quantities, large, sticky Large quantities, powdery and
Pollen grains
and rough smooth
Stigmas Sticky Large and feathery
Stigmas and anthers Located in the flower Hang outside the flower
Nectar Produce nectar No nectar
Smell Scented No scent
Self Pollination And Cross Pollination

Self-pollination
transfer of pollen grains from the anther of one flower to the
stigma of the same flower or to the stigma of another flower on
the same plant.
Cross-pollination
Pollen grains from the anther of one flower land on the stigma
of another flower of a different plant of the same species.
Comparing Self-Pollination And Cross-Pollination
Self-pollination Cross-pollination
Involves only one parent Involves two plants of the same species
Involves one or two flowers of the same Involves two flowers of different plants of the same
plant species
Less variety in the new plants produced More varieties in the new plants produced
Characteristics of the new plant produced: Characteristics of the new plant produced:
Has the same characteristics as Inherits characteristics from both parent
the parent plant plant, resulting in new varieties of plants
Has lower resistance against higher resistance against plant diseases and
plant diseases and pests pests
Healthier, can adapt to the changing
environment
Produces more and better quality fruits and
seeds
shorter maturity period
Use Of Cross-Pollination In Agriculture

Malaysian agricultural agencies:
Malaysian Agriculture Research and Development Institute (MARDI)
Malaysian Palm Oil Board (MPOB)
These agencies are responsible for carrying out research into cross-pollination to produce
better quality agricultural products.
Examples of cross-pollination in agriculture:
a cross between two oil palm species Dura and Pisifera has resulted in a new species called
Tenera which can produce a higher yield and better quality palm oil.
New varieties of paddy plants like MR103 and MR106 produce better quality rice grains.
Eksotika, masmadu
SELF ASSESS 4.9

1. Give the definition of pollination
2. Pollen grains are transferred from the anther of a flower to the stigma of another flower of different
plant of the same species.
What is this type of pollination?
Give the advantages of this type of pollination.
3. How would a research worker obtain a new variety of plant with better qualities through cross-
pollination?
4. If a pollen from a papaya flower lands on the stigma of a banana flower, what would be the result?
4.10 DEVELOPMENT OF FRUITS AND SEEDS IN PLANTS

Fertilisation
Take place after pollination
Occurs when male gamete in the pollen grains fuses with the egg cell (female gamete) in the
ovule.
Pollen grain stigma (sugary secretion on the surface of the stigma stimulates the pollen grain to
germinate) pollen tube formed from the pollen grain style ovule inside the ovary
The pollen tube continues to grow and enters the ovule through a tiny hole called the mycropile.
The pollination process occurs when pollen grains land on the sticky surface of the stigma
1
Sugary secretion on the stigma stimulates the pollen grain to germinate

2
A pollen tube is formed from the pollen grain and grows downwards through the style
towards the ovary. By the time it reaches the ovary, it contains two male gametes.
3
The male gametes enter the ovule through the micropyle and one of the male gametes
fuses with the female gamete to form a zygote
4
The formation of fruits and seeds

A zygote undergoes cell division and develops into an embryo.
The embryo is made up of the plumule, radicle and cotyledons
Changes that occur to the flower after fertilisation

Flower parts After fertilisation
Ovum Zygote embryo
Ovule Seed
Ovary Fruit
Ovule wall Testa of the seed
Ovary wall Wall of the fruit
Become smaller, dry up and drop
Stigma, style off, or may remain to help in
dispersal
Stamens Wither and drop off
Sepals, petals Wither and drop off
The formation of fruits and seeds
The seed protects the embryo, the fruit protects the
seeds
The seed will germinate into a young plant under
suitable soil conditions.
A seed is made up of an embryo and a food
store in a protective seed coat
Seeds from different plants are different in
size, shape and colour
The endosperm, which acts as a food store, is
found mostly in the monocotyledonous seed
SELF ASSESS 4.10

1. What is the function of pollen tube?
2. What happens to the ovary and ovule after fertilisation?
3. Name two functions of a fruit
4. Describe what happens to the ovule and the ovary after fertilisation
4.11 GERMINATION OF SEEDS

Structure and function of a seed
Seed is made up of embryo, a
food store and a seed coat
Seed coat (testa) covering the
enclosed seed, protects the
embryo from injury and from
drying out
Embryo is made up of
plumule, a radicle, and one or
two cotyledons.
Monocotyledonous plants
endosperm stores the food.
Dicotyledonous plant
cotyledon stores the food.
The structures of seeds and their functions

Structure Function
Testa (seed coat) An outer covering that protects the seed
A tiny hole that allows air and water to enter the
Micropyle
seed
Hilum The part where the seed is attached to the fruit
Stores food in the form of starch to be used
Cotyledon
during the germination of the seed
Plumule The part of the embryo that grows into shoot
Radicle The part of the embryo that grows into root
Germination of seed
Germination growth of the seed into a seedling
Breaking of the
Absorption of testa
Swelling of the
water through the
seed What is the
micropyle
function of water?
Radicle emerges Plumule grows

through the
upwards,
micropyle, grow
downwards, develops into a
forming root shoot
Once the testa breaks, more oxygen reaches the embryo. The oxygen is used to oxidise food and turns
it into energy during cell respiration. The energy is used for seed germination.
Food store in the cotyledons provide foods for the growth of the radicle and plumule
Seedling continues to absorb food from the food store until the first green leaves emerge.
The cotyledons will shrivel and fall off after all food has been used up during germination.
green leaves then will take over the role of food production by producing their own food through
photosynthesis.
Summary germination of seeds

A: The seeds absorbs water through the micropyle, causing the testa to break
B: The radicle grows downwards into the soil
C: The radicle develops into a root
D: The plumule grows upwards towards the sunlight
E: The plumule grows into shoot (first leaves). The cotyledons become smaller and finally shrivel and
fall off.
Types of seed germination
Epigeal germination Hypogeal germination
The cotyledons remain below the surface of the
The cotyledons rise above the surface of the soil
soil
Examples: sword bean, bitter gourd, sunflower
Examples: maize plant, mango, and rubber trees
plants
Conditions needed for germination of seeds

Seeds stays dormant until they get favourable conditions to germinate
The conditions needed for germination vary from species to species.
In general, all seeds need the following factors to germinate:
Water softens the testa and causes it to burst open. Water also acts as a medium for the
enzyme to act on the stored food and change it to soluble food substances needed by the
embryo during germination
air contains oxygen needed for respiration. Respiration releases energy required for
germination.
Suitable temperature most seeds will germinate at temperatures between 10 degree celcius
and 35 degree celcius
SELF ASSESS 4.11

1. Name the parts of the embryo of a dicotyledon seed.
2. What is the function of the cotyledon?
3. Which part of the seed will develop into the:
Leaf?
Root?
4. List down all factors for the germination of seeds
5. Explain the function of water in the germination of seeds.
6. How do seedlings obtain food during germination?
7. Why does a shopkeeper keep beans, peas and grains in a very dry place in his shop?
4.12 VEGETATIVE REPRODUCTION IN FLOWERING PLANTS
Besides sexual reproduction, flowering plants also carries out vegetative reproduction.
It is used widely in research and agriculture. This method produces many young plants of high quality
very quickly.
Young tissues from the shoot, roots and leaves can be used as vegetative parts in tissue culture
techniques to produce young plants
Refer asexual reproduction: vegetative reproduction
The application of research on vegetative reproduction in agriculture

MARDI and MPOB carry research on vegetative reproduction in agriculture to produce new varieties
of crops, increase yield within a short time and improved quality.
stem cutting
A cutting is a piece of twig or branch which is cut off from the parent plant. It is then placed
in the soil.
Stem cutting
The cutting must include a node near its
base.
Adventitious root will grow from the node
after a few days
Plants that have been successfully grown
by stem cuttings include sugar cane,
bouganville, rose and hibiscus
Tissue culture
It is an example of biotechnology
Biotechnology the use of living cells, for
example, bacterial, plant and animal cells for the production of useful substances and processes
Advantage: produce many young plants in a short time
Good quality parent plants are selected for tissue culture.
The young plant produced is called as clone.
Plants that are successfully cloned : banana, paddy, tomato, carrot, maize, coffee, oil palm, orchid and
rubber tree
SELF ASSESS 4.12

1. What are the advantages and disadvantages of vegetative reproduction compared to sexual
reproduction?
2. Young shoots start to grow from the potato tuber after being kept in a basket for one to two weeks.
Explain why this happens.
3. Name the vegetative structures of plants
4. State two differences between vegetative reproduction and reproduction of flowering plants.
END OF CHAPTER 4
CHAPTER 5: GROWTH
5.1 THE HUMAN GROWTH PATTERN

Living organisms possess important
characteristics the ability to grow.
Living organisms eat and use the food they
consume to grow bigger
Definition : irreversible increase in body size,
the number of cells and weight.
Growth involves changes in body shape and
the function of an organism.
It is permanent.
When living organisms consume food, the food
will be broken down into its components to release energy and provide
building materials.
These building materials are used to increase
the body size.
Our body weight increases and we become
taller
However we stop growing taller when we reach
particular age
our body shape also changes
Human growth includes not only physical
changes, but also mental, social and spiritual changes. We become more mature
Measuring growth rate

Human growth can be determined by measuring the
Height
Weight
when these measurements are plotted against time, a growth curve is obtained. (s-shaped or sigmoid)
The gradient of the growth curve at a particular time indicates the growth rate of the person at that
time.
Growth pattern in human being
Childhood
adolescenc
Infancy 5 stages of e
growth
pattern
Adultho
od
Old
age 5 Stages Of
Growth Pattern -
Infancy
Developing age : 1 -3 years old
A period of rapid growth
The infants nervous and muscular system
develop rapidly from birth to 16 months.
End when a child is fully weaned.
5 Stages Of Growth Pattern - Childhood

4 12 years old
A period of slow growth
The child fills out
Body becomes broader
From the age of four, male children are slightly
taller
5 Stages Of Growth Pattern Adolescence

Developing age: 13 19 years old
A period of very rapid growth
Sexual maturity or puberty is achieved
Girls reach puberty much earlier at the age of 12 while boys reach maturity at about 14 years old.
5 Stages Of Growth Pattern - Adulthood

Developing age : 20 65 years
A period of minimal growth
Most adults have reached maturity from the age of between 16 and 18 years.
5 Stages Of Growth Pattern Old Age

Developing age: above 65 years old
A period of negative growth; the loss in
height and weight due to degeneration of body
tissues.
Body tissues break down more quickly
than they can be repaired.
Comparing the growth curves of males and females

Stages of
Male Female
growth
Infancy Same growth rate
Childhood Higher growth rate Lower growth rate
Early adolescence : faster than boys
Early adolescence: slower than girls
because girls reach puberty earlier
Adolescence Once puberty begins in male (14 yo), growth
Slower than males
rate increases and becomes faster than female
Age 16 18: males grow faster than female Slower than male
Effects of nutrition on the growth of children

A growing child requires a balanced diet and sufficient
nutrients for healthy grow.
Children need carbohydrates to supply energy for their:
Active daily activities
Rapid growth of body cells
fats provide twice the amount of energy supplied by
carbohydrates. Functions of fats:
Source of energy during extreme starvation
Insulator to reduce heat loss from the body
Proteins are needed for growth for:
Building new tissues
Replacement or repair of damaged cells
Vitamins and minerals are needed in small quantities.
Deficiency in minerals and vitamins will cause:
Scurvy lack of vitamin C
Rickets Vitamin D
Anaemia - iron
Minerals/ vitamins Main sources Why children need it Effects of deficiency

To make haemoglobin Anaemia pale with
Iron Liver, meat, vegetables
in RBC little energy
Form strong teeth and
Rickets soft and
Calcium Cheese, eggs, milk bones, help blood clot
deformed bones
during injuries
Maintain healthy skin
Citrus fruits, guava, Scurvy gums and
Vitamin C and gums, heal wounds
green vegetables nose bleed easily
quickly
Form strong bones and
Vitamin D Eggs, butter, milk, fish rickets
teeth
SELF ASSESS 5.1

1. Give two differences between a boys body and a mans body
2. When does negative growth in a human being take place?
3. Name two foods rich in:
Protein
Iron
Vitamin C
Carbohydrates
State two good habits for the healthy growth of children.
END OF CHAPTER 5

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Reference notes: Science Form 3 2017

THE STRUCTURE OF HUMAN RESPIRATORY SYSTEM

FLOW OF AIR FROM THE ATMOSPHERE TO THE

Functions of other parts of the respiratory system:

STRUCTURE OF THE LUNGS

THE BREATHING MECHANISM

COMPARISON BETWEEN INHALATION AND EXHALATION

SELF ASSESS 1.1

1.2 TRANSPORT OF OXYGEN

PARTS OXYGEN CONTENT CARBON DIOXIDE CONTENT

Oxygen diffuses from the alveoli to the capillaries.

Oxygen is insoluble in blood. It is even less soluble at body temperature.

Oxygen + haemoglobin oxyhaemoglobin

SELF ASSESS 1.2

1.3 HEALTHY RESPIRATION SYSTEM

EFFECTS OF HARMFUL SUBSTANCES - cigarette

EFFECTS OF HARMFUL SUBSTANCES INDUSTRIAL WASTES

EFFECTS OF HARMFUL SUBSTANCES MOTOR VEHICLES

EFFECTS OF HARMFUL SUBSTANCES MICROORGANISMS

EFFECTS OF HARMFUL SUBSTANCES - SUMMARY

Chemical Sources Damaging effects

IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF AIR

Education to inculcate good Publicity through the mass

Forums and seminars to inform

CHAPTER 2: BLOOD CIRCULATION AND TRANSPORT

2.1 TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN HUMANS

Human circulatory system consists

STRUCTURE AND FUNCTION OF THE

FOUR CHAMBERS OF THE HEART

THE PUMPING ACTION OF THE HEART

Blood from the body flows into the right

Both atria contract and push blood

Both ventricles contract and force the blood

BLOOD VESSELS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

VEIN, ARTERY & CAPILLARY

SIZE OF LUMEN Big Small Small

VALVE Present Absent Absent

Deoxygenated blood except Oxygenated blood except Carries OB to the tissues,

The aorta is the largest artery in our body.

HOTS 2: HOW DO YOU KNOW IF AN ARTERY OR A VEIN IS CUT?

PATH OF BLOOD FLOW IN THE CIRCULATORY SYSTEM

SUBSTANCES CARRIED BY HUMAN BLOOD

Oxygen from Red blood cells Body cells

Carbon dioxide Blood plasma Lungs

Digested food Blood plasma Liver

Waste product Blood plasma Kidneys

Hormones Blood plasma Target organs

2.2 HUMAN BLOOD

COMPOSITION OF THE BLOOD

Red Blood Cells

White Blood Cells

Functions of the blood

BLOOD GROUPS AND COMPATIBILITY

THE IMPORTANCE OF BLOOD DONATION

Reasons to undergo blood transfusion:

BLOOD CONSTITUENTS AND THEIR FUNCTIONS

SELF ASSESS 2.2

TRANSPORT SYSTEM IN PLANTS

TRANSPORT TISSUES IN PLANTS