C H A P T E R V.

DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY OF CONICS AND CUBICS.

131. GENERAL EQUATION OF A CONIC. (1) The following investigation

concerning conics and cubics is in substance with some extensions a repro-
duction of Grassmann's applications of the Calculus of Extension to this
subject*. In places the algebra is handled differently and alternative proofs
are given for the sake of illustration.
A quadric surface in a complete region of two dimensions will be called
a conic. It will also in this chapter be called a curve in order to agree with
the usual nomenclature of Geometry.
(2) The complete region is of two dimensions: the product of three
points or of three linear elements or of a point and a linear element is
purely numerical. Also the product of three linear elements, being a pure
progressive product, is associative; thus if Llt L2> L3 be the linear elements,
(L^zLz) = (Lj. L2L3). Also if p and q be points, then, since 2 is a point,
{LxL2pq) is the product of the three points LYL2i p} q. Hence
(Z1L2p5) = (X1Zr2.-pgf).
(3) The equation, (xaBcDex) = 0,
where a, c, e are any points and and D are any linear elements, is evidently,
since x occurs twice, of the second degree in the three co-ordinates of x.
For let e1} e2, ez be the three reference points, and let x = f^ 4- £2e2 4- £òe3.
Also let the fixed points and lines be written in the form
a= + + , = ßxe&0 -f ß#& + ß&e2,
and so on; where alf o^, a3, etc., are given numerical coefficients. Then the
given equation, after multiplying the various expressions for the points and
lines, takes the form
(ej&y (\ & + ... 4- 2 ^ 2 £ + ...) = 0.
Hence, dividing out the numerical factor { 2 ^, the given equation is
equivalent to a single numerical equation of the second degree defining a
quadric locus.
* Cf. Ausdehnungslehre von 1862, and Creile, vols, xxxi, xxxvi, LII.
230 DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY OF CONICS AND CUBICS. [CHAP. V.

Write for the expression (xaBcDex), then the following transformations

by the aid of subsection (2) are obviously seen to be true :
= {xaBcD . ex) = {xaBc (D . ex)} = — {xaBc. exD)
— — [c . axB . exD) = {c . exD . axB) = — {xeDcBax} ;
where it is to be remembered in proving the transformations that xa is a
linear element, xaB is a point, xaBc is a linear element, xaBcD is a point.
(4) From vrx = — [ . axB . exD) = 0, it is obvious that a and e are points
on the conic. In general is not on the conic, for the points c, (acB), and
(ecD) are not in general collinear.
(5) Points in which and D meet the curve. Suppose that meets
the curve in the point p, and let = pq. Also substitute p for x in the
expression .
Now <2£>i? = ap .pq = (apq)p = (aB)p.
Therefore ^= —{ . . epD) = ( ) (cp . epD) = 0.
This involves either (i) that (aB) = 0, or (ii) that (cp . epD) = 0.
(i) Let (aB) = 0. Then axB = (aB) x - (xB) a = - (xB) a. Hence
>&x = — (# ) ( . exD) = 0.
Therefore the curve splits up into the two straight lines
(xB) = 0, and (ca . exD) = 0.
Similarly if (eD) = 0, the curve becomes the two straight lines
(xD) = 0, and (ce . axB) = 0.
These special cases in which the conic degenerates into two straight lines
will not be further considered.
(ii) Let (cp . epD) = 0. Then {cp. epD) = [c (p . epD)}.
But p . epD = p {(eD)p - (pD) e} = - (pD)pe.
Hence (cp. epD) = (pL) ( ) = 0,
so that p lies in D or in the line ce.
Accordingly the two points in which intersects the curve are . D and
B.ce.
Similarly the points in which D intersects the curve are . D and D . ca.
(6) Letg = B.Dy b = B.ce, d = D.ca.
Then b = (Be)c-(Bc)e, d = (Da) - (De) a.
Hence eb.ad = (Be) (Da) [ec. ac) = (Be) (Da) (eac) c=c.
Also we may write B = bgy D = dg.
Hence the equation becomes
{(xa . bg) (eb . ad) (dg. ex)) = 0 ;
where a, 6, d, e, # are five given points on the curve and x is a variable point.
(7) Conversely, if we take any five points a, b, d} e, g and write,
{(xa. bg) (eb. ad) (dg. ex)) = 0,
131, 132] GENERAL EQUATION OF A CONIC. 231

then the above reasoning shows that the five points are on the curve which
is the locus of x. But only one conic can be drawn through five points;
therefore by properly choosing the five points this equation can be made
to represent any conic section, and is therefore the general equation of the
second degree.
(8) If we perform the constructions indicated by the products on the
left-hand side (cf. fig. 1), we see that the equation is a direct expression of
Pascal's theorem, which is thereby proved.
a

l \

Fm. 1.

(9) Perform the operation of taking the supplement on the equation,

and write X for the linear element \x, A for \a, and so on. Then
| {{xa . bg) (eb . ad) (dg . ex)} = {(XA . BG) (EB . AD) (BG. EX)}
= 0.
This is the general tangential equation of a conic [cf. § 107 (4)] : hence from
subsection (7) it follows that , B} B,E,G are tangents ; and the equation is
a direct expression of Brianchon's Theorem.
132. FURTHER TRANSFORMATIONS. (1) These results can be obtained
by a different method which forms an instructive illustration of the algebra.
The following series of transformations follow immediately from the
extended rule of the middle factor :
axB = (aB) x — (xB) a ;
hence, axBcDx = {(aB) xc . — (xB) . }
= (aB) (xB) ex - (xB) (aB) ex + (xB) (cB) ax.
Now (aß) (xB) - (xB) (aB) = x[(aB) - (aB) B]=x[a. BB] = (xa . DB).
Hence, axBcBx = (xa . BB) ex + (xB) (cB) ax,
and, (axBcBxe) = (xa . BB) (cxe) + (xB) (cB) (axe).
232 DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY OF CONICS AND CUBICS. [CHAP. V.

Thus the equation of the curve, vrx = 0, can be written

(xa. DB) (cxe) + (xB) (axe) (cD) = 0.
(2) To find where meets the curve, put (xB) = 0. Then either
(xa . DB) = 0, or (cxe) = 0.
Thus either x is the point BD or it is the point ceB ; therefore these are the
points where meets the curve.
Similarly the points where D meets the curve are BD and caD.
(3) Obviously the points a and e lie on the curve.
(4) If (cD) = 0, the curve degenerates into the two straight lines
(xa . BD) = 0, (xce) = 0.
Similarly if (cB) = 0, the curve becomes the two straight lines,
(xe . BD) = 0, (xca) = 0.
(5) To find the second point in which any line through the point a cuts
the curve.
Let L be the line, then (aL) = 0. Let x be the required point in Z, then
xa = L.
Hence (xaBcDex) = (LBcDex) = 0.
Hence x is incident in the linear element LBcDe, also x is incident in L.
Therefore x = LBcDeL.
(6) It is to be noticed that a apart from L does not appear explicitly
in this expression for x. Hence the theorem can be stated thus :
If a be any variable point on the line i , the conic through the five
points a. BD, ceB, e, caD passes through the fixed point LBcDeL.
(7) The conditions that T should be the tangent at a are (aT) = 0, and
a = TBcDeT.
(8) The general expression is susceptible of a very large number
of transformations of which the following is a type :
xa ,bg = (xbg) a — (dbg)xy eb.ad = (ebd) a - (eba)d, dg.ex = (dgx)e — (dge)x.
Hence {(xa. bg)(eb. ad)(dg. ex)} =(eba)(dge)(xbg)(adx) — (eba)(ade)(xbg)(dgx)
-h (abg) (ebd) (dgx) (aex) — (abg) (eba) (dgx) (dex).
(9) The equation,
(xaxBYa2B2... an-bBn^ajje) = 0,
represents a conic. Hence the following theorem due to Grassmann :
' I f all the sides of an n-sided polygon pass through n fixed points
respectively, and n — 1 of the corners move o n n - 1 fixed lines respectively,
the nth corner moves on a conic section/
133, 134] LINEAR CONSTRUCTION OF CUBICS. 233

133. LINEAR CONSTRUCTION OF CUBICS. The first linear constructions

satisfied by any point of a cubic were given by Grassmann* in 1846 ; and
the theory was extended and enlarged by him in 1848 and 1856 f. An
indefinite number of such linear constructions of increasing complexity can
be successively written down by the aid of the calculus. * The simplest types
are given by
(xaAalt ^ .xc) = 0 (1),
{xaAax. xbBbx .xc) = 0 (2),
(x. xaBcD . xaji-fi-j)^ = 01 ,~.
( }
(xaBcDxD&B^x^O) '
(xaA .xbB.xcC) = 0 (4).
The two equations, marked (3), are alternative forms of the same equa-
tion. It is to be noted that none of these constructions give a method of
discovering points on a cubic ; but that, given a point x on a cubic, the
constructions can be made. Thus a point x on the cubic will be said to
satisfy the corresponding construction, but not to be found by it.

134. FIRST TYPE OF LINEAR CONSTRUCTION OF THE CUBIC. (1) To

investigate the construction
(xaAc^ . xbBkCbi. xc) = 0.
This equation asserts that if the three lines xaAalf xbBkCbly xc are
concurrent, the locus of x is a cubic. Let be the point of concurrence ;
then the construction is exemplified in figure 2.

IB

FIG. 2.

(2) It has now to be proved that any cubic can be represented by

this construction. This will be proved by shewing that by a proper choice

* Cf. Grelles Journal, vol. xxxi.

t Cf. CrellJs Journal, vols, xxxvi. and LU.
234 DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY OF CONICS AND CUBICS. [CHAP. V.

of the fixed lines and points of the construction the cubic may be made
to pass through any nine arbitrarily assumed points. Thus we proceed
to investigate the solution of the following problem : Given any nine arbi-
trarily assumed points in a plane to find a linear construction satisfied by
any point of the cubic passing through them.
But previously to the direct solution of this problem in § 135 some
properties of the expression {xaAaY. xbBkCb-^. xc) must be investigated.
(3) Let stand for the product ( . xbBkC^. xc).
Then &x = — {xaAax. xc . xbBkOb^).
Now put p = xaA .xc, q = ocbB.
Then = - (p . qkCbi) = (pbflkq).
It is easily proved that (pbflkq) = — (qkC^p).
(4) To find the particular positions of x for which p = 0, or q = 0.
Now p = 0, when x — a, and when x = c.
Also by § 105 p = {xaAdxc) x — ( )
= {( A) (ache) — (aA) ( )} x - (xA) (actix) c.
Hence all the points x for which p = 0 (except x = c) must satisfy (in
order to make the coefficient of zero) either (xA) = 0, or (œaai) = 0.
If (xA) = 0, then, since the coefficient of x must also be zero, {xa-^c) = 0.
Hence x = aYcA ; and thus a^cA is another of the required values of x for
which p vanishes.
If (xaa.i) = Q, then (xA)(aa1c) — (aA)(xa1c) = Q. The only point on the
line which satisfies this equation is the point a. For if Xa + fxa^ be
substituted for x, the equation reduces to (alA)(aalc) = 0; and hence, fi = 0.
Hence the three values of x for which p = 0 are a, c, axcA.
The only value of x for which q — 0 is x = b.
(5) To investigate the values of x for which p = x. These are included
among the points satisfying the equation px = 0. Though this equation for x
is also satisfied by the points just found which make p = 0.
Now px = — (xA) (aaxx) ex.
Hence if x lie in A, i.e. if (xA) = 0, or if x lie in aalf i.e. if (xaa1) = 0>
then p = x. But the points a and must be excluded, as involving p — 0.
(6) The points for which q = x are given by qx = 0, excluding the
point b for which q = 0.
Now qx = xbBx = (xB) xb.
Hence if (xB) = 0, then q = x.
Thus either of the points AB or substituted for x in the expressions
p and q make x =
135] FIRST TYPE OF LINEAR CONSTRUCTION OF THE CUBIC. 235

(7) Hence if x be either of these points

= (pbflkq) = (xbjGkx).
Now (xbßkx) = (xbjc) (xG).
Therefore (xbJJkx) = 0, implies either (xbjc) = 0, or (xG) = 0.
Hence if the points AB and aaxB lie on the cubic they must lie either on
bje or G. Thus if , , be concurrent, the point of concurrence lies on the
cubic.
This analysis of the equation will enable us easily to follow Grassmann's
solution of the problem.

135. LINEAR CONSTRUCTION OF CUBIC THROUGH NINE ARBITRARY

POINTS. (1) Let the nine given points be a, b, c, d, e> f g, A, i\ and let
the cubic be (xaAa1. xbBkGbx. xc) = 0. Then the curve obviously goes
through the points a, b,
Let , which lies on the cubic [cf. § 134 (4)], be the point d; and let
A, B, G he concurrent in the point e, which is therefore on the cubic by
§ 134 (7). Hence we may write A = de.
Let the point aaji lie on bjc and therefore be on the cubic by § 134 (7) :
let it be the point f so that (fbjc) = 0. Hence both e and ƒ lie on ; there-
fore we may write = ef. Also a±cA = d now becomes .de = d; hence d
is the point of intersection of and de and therefore (a^cd) = 0. And
{axaB) = ƒ becomes aYa. ef=f; hence (a^f) = 0. Therefore, since aY lies both
in cd and in a/, we may assume = af. cd.
It has been assumed that no three of a, c, d, e, ƒ, are collinear ; for other-
wise some of these equations become nugatory.

(2) We have kt G, still partially at disposal: the conditions to be

satisfied by them being only,
(Ce) = 0f {fb1k) = 0.
Now let gY = ,gc=ga (de) (af. cd). ge,
hx = haAax .hc=ha (de) (af. cd) . Ac,
' = . ie = ia (de) (af. cd) . ie,
g2 = gbB =gb.ef,
A2 = hbB = lib. ef
i2 = ibB = ib. ef.
Thus the six points glt hly ilt g2, A2, 2 can be obtained by linear construc-
tions from the nine given points a, b, c,... i. We proceed to choose , , ,
so that the following equations hold [cf. § 134 (3)]
( 2 1 1) = 0, (A2&C&A) = 0, (i2kCbA) = 0.
236 DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY OF CONICS AND CUBICS. [CHAP. V.

(3) Let and be chosen, if possible, to satisfy the equation

(iJbCkiz) = 0
without conditioning blt Then for this purpose we must write ijbfi = ; that
is to say, G must be assumed to pass through . But e lies in C, hence we
must assume = eilt
Hence is given by (kiYi2) = 0. Further, except in the special case in
which (fei1)=0, and bx are also [cf. subsection (1)] related by (fkb1) = 0.
Thus k^ifa.fbi, where bx is as yet any arbitrarily assumed point.
(4) The remaining equations can be written
(kgjCgA) = 0, (kh2ChA) = .
Hence must also be such that the three lines kf, kg2Cg1} kh2Ghx intersect in
the same point ò2 ; also lies in ixi2. Therefore is one of the points in
which ixi2 intersects the cubic curve,
(xf. 2 . œh^Chj) = 0.
(5) But this curve is formed of three straight lines. For if x be any
point in C> then
xgJJ = x, xh2G = x,
and hence (xf. 2 . xh2Gh^) = (xf. xgx. xh^) = 0.
Thus G is part of the locus.
Now g2(—gbB) and h2 (= hbB) both lie on B, also ƒ lies on B. Thus if x
be any point on B,
xf = B, xg2Cgx = BCg1} xh2Ghx = BGhx.
Hence (xf. 2 ,. xh2GhY) = ( . . BCh,) = 0.
Thus JB is part of the locus.
(6) Hence the remainder of the locus is another straight line.
To find this required line, let = xf. xg2Cgx.
Then (y. xh^GKi) = (xh2Ghxy) = — (yh^Gh.^x).
Hence the equation of the three straight lines is
(xf\ xg2GgY. xh2Gh^) = [xf\ 2 ^) hfih^x) = 0.
This equation is satisfied by any value of x for which
of(xg2Cg1)h1 = 0',
that is, by any value of x making xf and xg2Ggx intersect in hY ; that is,
if x satisfies (xfh^ = 0, and (xg2CgJi^) = 0. But (xg2Gg1h1) = (h^g-fig^ac) ; hence
x must lie in the intersection of/A 2 and h^g-fig^. Therefore
x = h1g1Gg2. fhx.
Similarly another point on the third line is gih1Ch2.fg1. Hence the
required line which completes the locus is
QhgYCg2 ./\) (gACh2 .fgj.
1 3 5 ] LINEAR CONSTRUCTION OF CUBIC THROUGH NINE ARBITRARY POINTS. 237

(7) Put K^(h1g1Cg2Jh1)(g1h1Ck2.fg1).

Then must lie in iYi2 [by subsection (3)] and in or or K.
Now the assumed equation of the cubic is
( . xbBWbj. xc) = 0.
Assume that lies in B. Then xbBk = (xbk) B.
Hence the equation of the cubic becomes
(xbk) ( . . xc) = 0.
Accordingly the cubic degenerates into the straight line bk and a conic
section ; and cannot therefore be made to pass through any nine arbitrarily
assumed points.
Assume that lies in C. Then xbBkC = {xbBG) k.
Hence the equation of the cubic becomes
{xbBG) ( . kbt. xc).
Thus in this case also the cubic degenerates in a conic section and a
straight line, namely, BCb.
Therefore the only possibility left is that lie in K. It will be shown
that this assumption allows the cubic to be of the general type by showing
that the cubic passes through the nine arbitrarily assumed points.
Hence let it be assumed that = ^ .
Accordingly with these assumptions the equations
(gAGkg2) = 0, ( 2) = 0, (iACki2) = 0,
are satisfied.
Again, has been determined, for by subsection (4) it is the point of
intersection of
kf kg2Cgly khzCh,]
hence 61 = kg2Cgx. kf.
(8) Finally, therefore, it has been proved that the equation,
xaAaY. xbBkCb^. xc = 0,
denotes a curve passing through the nine arbitrarily assumed points , , , d,
e, f, g, h, , provided that , , , , bly k are determined by the linear
constructions,
A = de, B — ef, = eiv = af. cd, k = i^K, = 2 . kf ;
where
g1 = ga (de) (af. cd). gc, hY = ha (de) (af. cd) . he, = (de) (af. cd). ie,
g2=gb . ef, h2 = hb . ef i2 = ib . e f
and = (Kg^ .f\) (gACh2. f g,).
(9) This linear construction satisfied by any point x on the cubic repre-
sents the general property of any ten-cornered figure x, a, b, c, dt e, f g, h, ,
inscribed in a cubic. It is the analogue for cubics of Pascal's Theorem for
conies.
238 DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY OF CONICS AND CUBICS. [CHAP. V.

136. SECOND TYPE OF LINEAR CONSTRUCTION OF THE CUBIC. (1)

Equation (2) § 133, namely
(xaAaY. xbBbY. xc) = 0
is a simplified form of (1), which has just been discussed. I t can be derived
from (1) by putting = . For in this case
xbBb.Cb, = (xbBbA) - {Ob,) xbBb,
^-iCbJxbBb^xbBh.
(2) Hence as in § 134 (4) and (7) the points , b, , a^A, AB, are
seen to lie on the curve.
Similarly, from the symmetry of the equation, b^B, bbxA are seen to be
points on the curve.
Also it is easy to see that aaY. bb, is a point on the curve.
Let these nine points be denoted by a, 6, c, d, e, ƒ, g, h, respectively ; so
that
d = a1cA) e = ABy f= aaxBy g = b^cB, h = , = aa x . .
(3) To prove that the cubic denoted by this equation is of the general
type.
Take any cubic, and inscribe in it any quadrilateral khef as in the
figure 3.

FIG. 3.

Let the side kh meet the curve again in b, the side he meet the curve
again in dy the side ef in g, the side f in a. Assume to be any other
point of the curve not collinear with any two of the other points. Then
136, 1 3 7 ] SECOND TYPE OF LINEAR CONSTRUCTION OF THE CUBIC. 239

the assumed points on it determine the cubic. Join cd cutting kfm a1} and
eg cutting hk in . Then if f e = B,he= A, the equation
xaAax. xbBbx. xc = 0,
has been proved to represent a cubic through the nine points. Hence by a
proper choice of constants the equation can represent any cubic.
(4) The construction represented by this equation is exemplified in
figure 4.

/^ / \ ^ ^ ^

FIG. 4.

137. THIRD TYPE OF LINEAR CONSTRUCTION OF THE CUBIC. (1) The

equation (3) of § 133 is
7MTX = (xaBcDxD^B^x) = 0.
The points a and obviously lie on the curve.
To discover other points on the curve, notice that by § 132 (1)
axBcDx = (xa. DB) ex + (xB) (cD) ax.
Hence = (xa. DB) (cxD^B^a^ + (xB) (cD) (axD^B^a^ (A).
But (cxD^B^a^ = 0 is, by § 131 (4) and (5), a conic through the five
points , 1} , CAA, ^ .
Also (axD1c1B1xa^) = 0 is, by § 131, a conic through the five points ,
, , ^ .
Hence the points B1D1 and lie on both conies and therefore also on
the cubic.
But = xa^B^DvxDoBax.
Hence BD and caD are also points on the curve.
240 DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY OF CONICS AND CUBICS. [CHAP. V.

(2) As a verification notice that, if x — BD, then

xaB = x, xaBcD = xcD = x, xaBcDx = xx = 0:
also, if x = ca . then
xa = ca, # = = ca, xaBcDx = 2)# = ## = 0.
(3) find where D cuts the curve a third time; note that axBcD
is a point in D ; hence if # be also in axBcDx = excluding the case
when axBcDx is zero.
Hence, by substituting D for axBcDx in the equation of the curve, we
see that x satisfies (DD&B^x) = 0, and (Dx) = 0 : therefore x = DD&B^D.
Hence D cuts the curve in the three points BD, caD, DD&B^D, and
similarly cuts the curve in the three points , ^ , D1DcBaD1.
(4) The two conies (cxD^B^a^ = 0, and (axD^Bxa^ = 0, have been
proved to intersect in the three points aly , ^ . The fourth point
of intersection is caD1c1B1a1. ca ; since by § 132 (5) this is the point in
which the line ca meets either conic.
Hence the three points in which the line ca meets the cubic are a,
caD, ^ »!. ca. Similarly the three points in which the line meets
the cubic are au ^ , c^DcBa . c ^ .
(5) It is easy to obtain expressions for the three points in which the
line BDa cuts the cubic. Two of the points are already known, namely, a
and BD. To find the third notice that from equation (A) of subsection (1),
the required point is the point, other than a, in which the line cuts the conic
(xaD&B^x) = 0. By § 132 (5) this is the point (BDa) ^ ^ (BDa), which
can also be written
BDaD^B.a,. BDa.
Thus the three points in which BDa meets the cubic are a, BD,
BDaD1c1B1a1. BDa. Similarly the three points in which D1a1 meets the
cubic are a1} , B-JD^aJicBa . ^
(6) To find the three points in which cuts the curve, notice that
if (xB) = 0, then from equation (A) of subsection (1) the equation of the
curve reduces to
(xa . DB) (cxD&BiXa^ = 0.
Hence either xa. DB = 0, and x= BD, which has been already discovered;
or (xcD&B^x) = 0. Therefore the two remaining points in which meets
the cubic are the points in which meets the conic (xcDjCjB^x) = 0.
These points can be immediately expressed, if B = . In this case the
cubic becomes
(xaBcDxD^Ba^) = 0;
and it will be proved [cf. subsection 13] that the equation still represents any
cubic curve.
137] THIRD TYPE OF LINEAR CONSTRUCTION OF THE CUBIC. 241

The points where meets the conic, {xcD^Ba^x) = 0, have been proved
in § 131 (5) to be and ccxB. Hence meets the simplified cubic in
the three points BD, BD1} ccß.
(7) The transformation
= — x . xaBcD . xa-ß-fi-J)-^
is established as follows.
Let = xaBcDxD^^, then ZJX = xYaYx = — . ; since the product
of three points is associative.
Let X2 = xaBcDxD-fil9 then = — 2 . xaY = X2. xa1B1 ; since the pro-
duct of three linear elements is associative.
Let x3 — xaBcDxDx, then = xzcx. xa1B1 = — xz. xaYBYcx.
Let X4 = xaBcDx, then TSTX = — 4 . xa^B^ = X 4 . ^ .
Hence wx — (xaBcD) x. xa1B1c1D1 = — x . xaBcD. xa1B1c1D1.
The previous results can be easily obtained by means of this form of
the equation.
(8) The geometrical meaning of the equation is that x, xaBcD, and
^ ^ are collinear. This property is shown in the annexed figure 5.

/ \xaBcD x / \
/ / \ ~^H ~/ —^\xafi]c1Dl

\ /xa^i \
Bl
/ \ \
\ \ 0 l
FIG. 5.

Hence if two variable triangles have a common variable vertex, and

two sides, one of each triangle, which meet in the common vertex lie in
the same straight line, and if also the four remaining sides pass respectively
through four fixed points, and the four remaining vertices lie respectively on
four fixed straight lines, then the locus of the common vertex is a cubic.
(9) The four lines A (= ca\ D, AY (= ), have a special relation to
the cubic
(xaBcDxD^B^x) = 0,
in addition to the fact that the points caD and c1a1B1 both lie on the curve
[cf. subsection (1)].
For suppose that the lines A, Aly are arbitrarily assumed. Then
the points AD (= e) and AJ)^ (= ) are determined.
w. 16
242 DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY OF CONICS AND CUBICS. [CHAP. V.

Also suppose that the remaining points in which A and A, cut the curve
are arbitrarily assumed on these lines, namely [cf. subsection (4)],
ƒ ( = AD,c,B,a,A)y f (= A,DcBaA,\ a and a,.
Thus a, (h,f>fi a r e supposed to be known, and the equations ƒ = AD,c,B,a,A
and f, = A,DcBaA, partially determine c, and , and and which are
the remaining unknowns.
Again the arbitrarily assumed lines D and Z>2 are supposed to meet the
curve in two arbitrarily assumed points e(=AD) and e,(= A,D,). Let two
other points and k, in which D and respectively meet the curve be
arbitrarily assumed, so that [cf. subsection (3)] we may assume
k = DD1c1Ba1D, and k, = D,DcBaD,.
Then the remaining points in which D and respectively meet the
curve are [cf. subsection (3)] BD and . Call these points g and g,. I t
will now be shown that g and g, are both determined by the previous
assumptions of the eight points a, a„ e, e„ff,y , ,', and that accordingly
the group of four lines A, D, ,, must bear some special relation to the
cubic curve which passes through the eight assumed points.

(10) For if L, and L2 are linear elements and p, and p2 are points, the
extended rule of the middle factor gives,
L,L2p, = (L,p,)L2-(L2p,)L„ and p,p2L, = (p1L,)p2-(p2L,)p,.
Remembering these formulae we see that
fa, = AD,c,B,a,Aa, = — (Aa,) AD,c,B,a, = AD,c,B,a, ;
fa,B, = AD,c,B,a,B, = -(a,B,)AD,c,B, = AD,c,B,;
fa,B,c, = AD,c,B,c, = — (Bid) AD,c, = AD,c,.
Hence D,c, . fa,. = 0.
Similarly DD,c, . ,. = 0.
Hence passes through the points AD,c, .fa, (==p) and DD,c, . ka, (= q).
Therefore we may write = (AD,c, .fa,) (DD,c, . ka,) = pq.
Hence g, = = (AD,c,. fa,) (DD,c,. ka,) = pqD, = (pD,) q - (qD,)p.
Now (pD,) = (ABlCl .fa,. A ) = - (AD,c,. . fa,)
= (Cl A ) ( A A . /a,) = ( , ) ( 4 A fa,).
And ( j A ) = (BD,c,. *»!. A ) = - (DD,c,. A . ka,) = (c,D,) (DD,ka,).
Hence #! = (AD,fa,) q - (DDJca,) p.
But £> = A D,c, .fa, = (AD,fa,) c, - (c,fa,) AD,;
and q = D A d . ka, = (DD,ka,) c, - (c,ka,) DD,.
Also (cj/dj) = - (A, f ), and (c^aO = - ( J . ^ ) by subsection (9).
Thus g, = (A,k) (AD,fa,) DD, - (A,f) (DD,ka,) AD,.
137] THIRD TYPE OF LINEAR CONSTRUCTION OF THE CUBIC. 243

Hence the position of gx is completely determined by the arbitrarily

assumed elements.
Similarly the position of g is completely determined.
(11) Hence ten points on the cubic are now known. The cubic is there-
fore independent of the positions of and on A and A1; except that
must not coincide with a or AD, nor cx with a± or A±Dlf in which cases some
of the previous equations become nugatory.
(12) We will now prove that the specialized form of equation introduced
in subsection (6), namely
(xaBcDxD^Ba^x) = 0,
where ( ) = 0 = (^D) represents the most general form of cubic.
The three points in which D cuts the curve are [cf. subsection (3)], BD,
caD, DD&BcbD.
But since (dD) = 0, DD&BcbD = DBa.D = DB.
Hence D touches the curve at BD and cuts it again in caD. Similarly
DY touches the curve at BDY and cuts it again in c1a1Dl.
Also [cf. subsection (6)] cuts the curve in the points BD, BD1} c^B.

\ ^

FIG. 6.

(13) Now (cf. fig. 6) take any cubic curve and draw the lines D and
tangents to it at any two points g and . Join ggY by the line which cuts
the curve in another point h. Through h draw any line cutting D in cY and
Dj in c. The tangents D and D± cut the curve again in two points e and ex.
16—2
244 DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY OF CONlCS AND CÜBICS. [CHAP. V.

Now join ec\ this line cuts the curve in two points. Call one of the two a.
Similarly call one of the two points, in which e^ cuts the curve, ax.
Then by construction h = cCjB, e = caD, eY = c^aJD-^
Now the tangents D, Dx at g and and the points h, e, ely a, ax completely
determine the cubic.
But (xaBcDxD&Ba^) = 0 is a cubic satisfying these conditions. Hence
this equation represents the assumed cubic.

138. FOURTH TYPE OF LINEAR CONSTRUCTION OF THE CUBIC. (1) The

equation (4) of § 133 is
(xaA . xbB. xcC) = 0;
and it represents the fact that the points xaA, xbB, xcC are collinear. The
construction is shown in figure 7.
It will be shown that any cubic can be thus described.

/ \ / ^ ^ \ B

x4— i—V ^"~^x^

/\^ \ ^^^^

Fm. 7.

(2) To find where A cuts the cubic, note that if x lies in A, xaA = x.
Hence (xaA . xbB . xcC) = (x . xbB . xcG) = (xB) xb . xcC
= (xB)(xC)(xbc);
where the sign of congruence means that only constant factors have been
dropped.
Therefore the three points in which A cuts the cubic are AB, AG, bcA.
Hence by symmetry, BG} caB, abG also lie on the cubic. Also obviously
a, b, lie on the cubic. Thus the two triangles respectively formed by a, 6,
as vertices, and by A, B, G as sides are both inscribed in the cubic and their
corresponding sides, namely A and be, and ca, G and ab, intersect also on
the cubic.
138] FOURTH TYPE OF LINEAR CONSTRUCTION OF THE CUBIC. 245

(3) We have to prove that, given any triangle abc inscribed in a cubic,
a triangle , , always exists with these properties relatively to abc and
the cubic.
Take a, b, any three points on a given cubic, not collinear. Let be cut
the cubic again in ƒ, ca in g, ab in h.
Let a, b, be the reference triangle, and let £, 77, £ be the co-ordinates
of any point x. Then we can write x — fa + + £c.
Let , B, G be any straight lines through ƒ, g, h. Then, since any
numerical multiples of , B, and G can be substituted for them, we may
write A = \bc + 7lca + &aò,
= yjbc + fica + o^aò,
G = ß3bc + a3ca + vab ;
where X, //,, V are at our disposal and ßlt y1} y2, a2, ß3, a3 are known from the
equations, ƒ = be A, g = caB, h = aò(7 and from the fact that one of the letters
with each subscript can be assumed arbitrarily without affecting anything
except the intensities of A, B, G, which are immaterial.
Now xaA = (xA) a — (aA) x
= (abc) {(X£ + ylV + - X (fa + + fc)}
= (abc) {(y^ + a- - Xfcj.
Similarly #6 = (abc) {— /xfa + (a2f + y2f ) b — JJLÇC},
xcG = (abc) {- v%a — + (ߣ + )}.
Hence, (#a.A . #£>i? . , ) = 0 be written as the ordinary algebraic
equation,
I w + ß^, -Xv, - X £ , 1=0.
-fiÇ, a 2 f+y 2 f, -fiÇ,
I - V%, -V7J, ßsC+CLtf, I
This becomes on expanding the determinant
+ 0 («»?+ 72 (Af + ) - ^ £ + A?)
- ^ f f (« ? + 7«f ) - V ^ (A£ + ) - 2 ^ £ = 0.
This is the equation to a cubic through the six points a, 6, c, f, g, h: it is
required to determine X, //,, 1/ so that it may be the given cubic through
these points.
The given cubic is determined by any other three points on it flt g1} hY
forming another triangle. Now X, //,, v can be so determined that the above
equation is satisfied by the co-ordinates of these points. For by substituting
successively the co-ordinates we find three linear equations to determine
X, / , v, each of the form

— + — + — = — + Pe,
X fju v Xfiv
where Plf P 2 , . . . , P5 do not contain X, fi, v.
246 DESCRIPTIVE GEOMETRY OF CONICS AND CUBICS. [CHAP. V.

Now put a for X/jLv, and solve these three linear equations for X-1, /A-1, P~\
Then we may assume

, a fi a v a
where Hlf H2ì... K3 do not contain X, /x, v.
Hence multiplying and replacing Xpv by <r, an equation of the form,
i V 3 + Pi<r2 + P2<r +i>3 = 0,
is found; where p0i plt p2, p3 do not contain \, fi, v. Thus there are three
values of a, one of which must be real. Hence there are three systems of
values of \ fi, v ; and one system must consist of real values. Thus three
systems of values can be found for A, B, G; and one of these systems must
make A, B, G to be real lines.
Thus three triangles, of which one must be real, can be found related to
a, b, and to the given cubic in the required manner.
Let , , be one of these triangles. Then
{xaA . xbB . xcG) = 0
is the given cubic.
The above proof of the required proposition is different from that which
is given by Grassmann*.

139. CHASLES' CONSTRUCTION. (1) Another construction for a cubic

given by Chasles-f-, without knowledge of Grassmann's results or methods is
represented by
xeDpEdF . xfB . xdC = 0,
where (Ff) = 0 = (Bd).
(2) It is easy to prove J the following relations:
The points d, e, ƒ, BG, GF lie on the curve.
The third point in which de cuts the curve is
deDpEdF (deG) Bf(de).
The third point in which ef cuts the curve is
efDpEdF(efB) Gd(ef).
The third point in which BG/ cuts the curve is
FGdEpDe{BCf).

* Creile, vol. LII.

t Comptes Rendus, vol. xxxvi., 1853.
X Cf. Grassmann, loc. cit.
139] CHASLES' CONSTRUCTION. 247

The third point in which BCd cuts the curve is

BFdEpDe(BCd).
Also if we put a = deDpEdF(deC) Bf(de\
b = e/DpEdF (e/B) Cd (ef), c = FG, A = BCf,
a, = cdEpDeAc (de), = BFdEpDeBc (ef) ;
then the given cubic can be expressed by the construction
xaAaY . xbBbx . xc = 0.