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 CONTENTS

AL
Preface xvii

RI
PART I BASIC PRINCIPLES

TE
MA
1 2.3.5 Occupational Safety and Health
INTRODUCTION 3 Act, 12
2.3.6 Marine Protection, Research and
1.1 Emergence of Geoenvironmental Sanctuaries Act, 13
D
Engineering, 3 2.3.7 Federal Insecticide, Fungicide and
1.2 Types of Geoenvironmental Problems, 4 Rodenticide Act, 13
TE

1.2.1 Contaminated Site Remediation, 4 2.3.8 Clean Air Act, 13

1.2.2 Waste Containment, 5 2.3.9 Clean Water Act, 14
GH

1.2.3 Waste Minimization by Recycling, 6 2.3.10 Safe Drinking Water Act, 14

1.3 Book Organization, 7 2.3.11 Toxic Substances Control Act, 16
1.4 Summary, 7 2.3.12 Resource Conservation and Recovery
RI

Questions/Problems, 7 Act, 16
References, 8 2.3.13 Hazardous and Solid Waste
PY

Amendments, 16
2.3.14 Comprehensive Environmental
2 Response, Compensation and
CO

RELEVANT ENVIRONMENTAL LAWS AND Liabilities Act or Superfund, 17

REGULATIONS 9 2.3.15 Superfund Amendments and
Reauthorization Act, 18
2.1 Introduction, 9 2.3.16 Pollution Prevention Act, 18
2.2 Development of Laws and Regulations, 9 2.3.17 Small Business Liability Relief and
2.3 Federal Environmental Laws and Brownfields Revitalization Act, 19
Regulations, 10 2.4 State and Local Laws and Regulations, 19
2.3.1 Rivers and Harbors Act, 10 2.5 Impact of Regulations on Geoenvironmental
2.3.2 Atomic Energy Act, 10 Practice, 19
2.3.3 Solid Waste Disposal Act, 12 2.6 Summary, 21
2.3.4 National Environmental Policy Questions/Problems, 21
Act, 12 References, 23

v
vi CONTENTS

3 4.3.1 Solid Phase, 46

CHEMICAL BACKGROUND 24 4.3.2 Liquid Phase, 57
4.3.3 Gas Phase, 62
3.1 Introduction, 24 4.4 Soil Fabric, 63
3.2 Toxic Chemicals, 24 4.5 Summary, 65
3.2.1 Toxic Inorganic Chemicals, 24 Questions/Problems, 65
3.2.2 Toxic Organic Chemicals, 24 References, 66
3.2.3 Toxic Radionuclides, 25
3.3 Inorganic Chemistry Background, 25
3.3.1 Atoms, Elements, and the Periodic 5
Table, 25 SOIL PROPERTIES 68
3.3.2 Molecules and Chemical
5.1 Introduction, 68
Compounds, 25
5.2 Geotechnical Properties, 68
3.3.3 Concentration of Chemical
5.2.1 Mass–Volume Relationships, 68
Compounds, 28
5.2.2 Index Properties and Soil
3.3.4 Chemical Reaction, 28
Classification, 68
3.3.5 Chemical Reaction Balance, 28
5.2.3 Compaction Characteristics, 70
3.3.6 Equilibrium, 29
5.2.4 Hydraulic Characteristics, 75
3.3.7 Types of Chemical Reactions, 29
5.2.5 Consolidation (Compressibility)
3.3.8 Chemical Kinetics, 35
Characteristics, 76
3.3.9 Gas Laws, 36
5.2.6 Shear Strength, 81
3.4 Organic Chemistry Background, 36
5.3 Chemical Properties, 82
3.4.1 Characteristics of Organic
5.3.1 pH or Hydrogen-Ion Activity, 84
Compounds, 37 5.3.2 Surface Charge and Point of Zero
3.4.2 Classification of Organic Charge, 85
Compounds, 38 5.3.3 Cation Exchange Capacity, 86
3.4.3 Properties of Organic Compounds, 40 5.3.4 Anion Exchange Capacity, 87
3.5 Nuclear Chemistry Background, 40 5.3.5 Specific Surface, 87
3.6 Chemical Analysis Methods, 40 5.4 Summary, 88
3.6.1 Methods Used to Measure Toxic Questions/Problems, 88
Inorganic Chemicals, 41 References, 94
3.6.2 Methods Used to Measure Toxic
Organic Chemicals, 41
3.7 Summary, 41 6
Questions/Problems, 42 GEOCHEMISTRY BACKGROUND 95
References, 42
6.1 Introduction, 95
6.2 Inorganic Geochemistry, 95
4 6.2.1 Metal Contamination, 95
COMPOSITION OF SOILS 44 6.2.2 Distribution of Metals in Soils, 95
6.2.3 Geochemical Processes Controlling the
4.1 Introduction, 44 Distribution of Metals in Soils, 96
4.2 Soil Formation, 44 6.2.4 Predictive Methods for Metal
4.3 Soil Composition, 46 Distribution in Soils, 100
 CONTENTS vii

6.2.5 Chemical Analysis of Metals in 7.8 Pumping and Slug Testing, 135
Soils, 100 7.8.1 Pumping Tests, 136
6.3 Organic Geochemistry, 101 7.8.2 Slug Tests, 140
6.3.1 Organic Contamination, 104 7.9 Two- and Three-Dimensional Groundwater
6.3.2 Distribution of NAPLs in Soils, 109 Flow, 147
6.3.3 Processes Controlling Distribution of 7.9.1 Groundwater Flow Nets, 149
NAPLs in Soils, 109 7.9.2 Groundwater Flow Modeling, 153
6.3.4 Chemical Analysis of NAPLs in 7.10 Summary, 158
Soils, 114 Questions/Problems, 158
6.4 Summary, 116 References, 165
Questions/Problems, 116
References, 117 8
CONTAMINANT TRANSPORT AND FATE 167
7 8.1 Introduction, 167
GROUNDWATER FLOW 119 8.2 Transport Processes, 167
8.2.1 Advection, 167
7.1 Introduction, 119 8.2.2 Diffusion, 168
7.2 Hydrologic Cycle and Groundwater, 119 8.2.3 Dispersion, 171
7.3 Aquifer, Aquiclude, and Aquitard, 119 8.3 Chemical Mass Transfer Processes, 174
7.4 Hydraulic Head and Aquifer Properties, 121 8.3.1 Sorption and Desorption, 175
7.4.1 Hydraulic Head, 121 8.3.2 Precipitation and Dissolution, 180
7.4.2 Porosity, 122 8.3.3 Oxidation–Reduction (Redox)
7.4.3 Specific Yield, 122 Reactions, 181
7.4.4 Hydraulic Conductivity, 123 8.3.4 Acid–Base Reactions, 183
7.4.5 Transmissivity, 123 8.3.5 Complexation, 188
7.4.6 Specific Storage and Storativity, 123 8.3.6 Ion Exchange, 188
7.5 Groundwater Flow in Aquifers, 124 8.3.7 Volatilization, 188
7.5.1 Flow in Confined Aquifer, 124 8.3.8 Hydrolysis, 190
7.5.2 Flow in Unconfined Aquifer, 125 8.4 Biological Process (Biodegradation), 190
7.5.3 Methods to Solve Groundwater Flow 8.5 Contaminant Transport and Fate
Equation, 126 Modeling, 192
7.6 One-Dimensional Steady Flow, 126 8.5.1 Analytical Methods, 193
7.6.1 Uniform Aquifer, 126 8.5.2 Numerical Methods, 196
7.6.2 Stratified Aquifer, 126 8.6 Applications, 199
7.6.3 Spatial Variation of Hydraulic 8.6.1 Landfills and Surface
Conductivity, 127 Impoundments, 199
7.7 Flow Toward a Pumping Well, 128 8.6.2 In-Situ Barriers, 201
7.7.1 Confined Aquifer, 129 8.6.3 Groundwater Contamination, 203
7.7.2 Unconfined Aquifer, 132 8.7 Summary, 204
7.7.3 Effects of Multiple Wells and Questions/Problems, 208
Boundaries, 134 References, 209
viii CONTENTS

PART II REMEDIATION TECHNOLOGIES

9 10.5 Detailed Site Investigation, 237

SUBSURFACE CONTAMINATION: SOURCES, 10.5.1 Methods of Obtaining Soil and Rock
CONTAMINANTS, REGULATIONS, AND Data, 237
REMEDIAL APPROACH 215 10.5.2 Methods of Obtaining Hydrogeologic
Data, 249
9.1 Introduction, 215 10.5.3 Methods of Obtaining Chemical
9.2 Sources of Contamination, 215 Data, 264
9.2.1 Sources Originating on the Ground 10.5.4 Data Analysis and Evaluation, 273
Surface, 215 10.6 Expedited or Accelerated Site
9.2.2 Sources Originating above the Water Characterization, 273
Table (Vadose Zone), 217 10.7 Summary, 281
9.2.3 Sources Originating below the Water Questions/Problems, 281
Table (Saturated Zone), 218 References, 282
9.3 Types of Contaminants, 218
9.4 Relevant Regulations, 221
11
9.4.1 Comprehensive Environmental
RISK ASSESSMENT AND REMEDIAL
Response, Compensation and Liabilities
STRATEGY 284
Act, 221
9.4.2 Resource Conservation and Recovery 11.1 Introduction, 284
Act, 223 11.2 Risk Assessment Procedures, 284
9.4.3 State Voluntary Site Remediation 11.3 USEPA Procedure, 284
Programs, 224 11.3.1 Data Collection and Evaluation, 284
9.5 Other Considerations, 224 11.3.2 Exposure Assessment, 285
9.6 Remediation Approach, 226 11.3.3 Toxicity Assessment, 285
9.6.1 Site Characterization, 226 11.3.4 Risk Characterization, 286
9.6.2 Risk (Impact) Assessment, 230 11.4 ASTM Procedure, 290
9.6.3 Remedial Action, 230 11.4.1 Tier 1 Evaluation, 292
9.7 Summary, 231 11.4.2 Tier 2 Evaluation, 292
Questions/Problems, 232 11.4.3 Tier 3 Evaluation, 296
References, 232 11.5 Other Risk Assessment Methods, 300
11.6 Remedial Strategy, 307
10 Questions/Problems, 328
CONTAMINATED SITE References, 329
CHARACTERIZATION 234
12
10.1 Introduction, 234 IN-SITU WASTE CONTAINMENT 331
10.2 General Methodology, 234
10.3 Preliminary Site Assessment, 236 12.1 Introduction, 331
10.3.1 Literature Review, 236 12.2 Vertical Barriers, 331
10.3.2 Site Visit, 236 12.2.1 Description, 331
10.4 Exploratory Site Investigation, 237 12.2.2 Compacted Clay Barriers, 333
 CONTENTS ix

12.2.3 Slurry Trench Barriers, 333 13.2.2 Fundamental Processes, 399

12.2.4 Grouted Barriers, 350 13.2.3 System Design and
12.2.5 Mixed-in-Place Barriers, 358 Implementation, 401
12.2.6 Steel Sheet Pile Barriers, 359 13.2.4 Predictive Modeling, 409
12.3 Bottom Barriers, 361 13.2.5 Modified or Complementary
12.3.1 Description, 361 Technologies, 409
12.3.2 Permeation Grouting, 361 13.2.6 Economic and Regulatory
12.3.3 Jet Grouting, 362 Considerations, 412
12.3.4 Bottom Barriers by Directional 13.2.7 Case Studies, 412
Drilling and Grouting, 364 13.3 Soil Washing, 413
12.3.5 Bottom Barriers Using 13.3.1 Technology Description, 413
Hydrofracturing and Block 13.3.2 Fundamental Processes, 416
Displacement Method, 364 13.3.3 System Design and
12.3.6 Sheet Pile Combined with Injection Implementation, 416
Grouting, 365 13.3.4 Predictive Modeling, 417
12.4 Surface Caps or Covers, 366 13.3.5 Modified or Complementary
12.4.1 Description, 366 Technologies, 417
12.4.2 Configuration and Materials, 366 13.3.6 Economic and Regulatory
12.4.3 Design, 368 Considerations, 418
12.4.4 Construction, 370 13.3.7 Case Studies, 418
12.4.5 Performance and Economic 13.4 Stabilization and Solidification, 421
Considerations, 371 13.4.1 Technology Description, 421
12.5 Groundwater Pumping Systems, 371 13.4.2 Fundamental Processes, 422
12.5.1 Description, 371 13.4.3 System Design and
12.5.2 Design, 374 Implementation, 422
12.5.3 Construction, 377 13.4.4 Predictive Modeling, 427
12.5.4 Performance Assessment: A Case 13.4.5 Modified or Complementary
History, 377 Technologies, 427
12.6 Subsurface Drains, 377 13.4.6 Economic and Regulatory
12.6.1 Description, 377 Considerations, 428
12.6.2 Design, 379 13.4.7 Case Studies, 430
12.6.3 Construction, 389 13.5 Electrokinetic Remediation, 432
12.6.4 Performance and Economic 13.5.1 Technology Description, 432
Considerations, 391 13.5.2 Fundamental Processes, 434
12.7 Summary, 392 13.5.3 System Design and
Questions/Problems, 395 Implementation, 437
References, 395 13.5.4 Predictive Modeling, 439
13.5.5 Modified or Complementary
13 Technologies, 439
SOIL REMEDIATION TECHNOLOGIES 398 13.5.6 Economic and Regulatory
Considerations, 439
13.1 Introduction, 398 13.5.7 Case Studies, 441
13.2 Soil Vapor Extraction, 399 13.6 Thermal Desorption, 445
13.2.1 Technology Description, 399 13.6.1 Technology Description, 445
x CONTENTS

13.6.2 Fundamental Processes, 446 13.10.2 Fundamental Processes, 487

13.6.3 System Design and 13.10.3 System Design and
Implementation, 447 Implementation, 491
13.6.4 Modified or Complementary 13.10.4 Predictive Modeling, 494
Technologies, 451 13.10.5 Modified or Complementary
13.6.5 Economic and Regulatory Technologies, 495
Considerations, 454 13.10.6 Economic and Regulatory
13.6.6 Case Studies, 454 Considerations, 495
13.7 Vitrification, 456 13.10.7 Case Studies, 495
13.7.1 Technology Description, 456 13.11 Summary, 496
13.7.2 Fundamental Processes, 459 Questions/Problems, 497
13.7.3 System Design and References, 499
Implementation, 460
13.7.4 Predictive Modeling, 464
14
13.7.5 Modified or Complementary
GROUNDWATER REMEDIATION
Technologies, 464
TECHNOLOGIES 505
13.7.6 Economic and Regulatory
Considerations, 465 14.1 Introduction, 505
13.7.7 Case Studies, 465 14.2 Pump and Treat, 505
13.8 Bioremediation, 467 14.2.1 Technology Description, 505
13.8.1 Technology Description, 467 14.2.2 Fundamental Processes, 506
13.8.2 Fundamental Processes, 468 14.2.3 System Design and
13.8.3 System Design and Implementation, 510
Implementation, 469 14.2.4 Predictive Modeling, 513
13.8.4 Predictive Modeling, 475 14.2.5 Modified or Complementary
13.8.5 Modified or Complementary Technologies, 519
Technologies, 475 14.2.6 Economic and Regulatory
13.8.6 Economic and Regulatory Considerations, 522
Considerations, 475 14.2.7 Case Studies, 523
13.8.7 Case Studies, 477 14.3 In-Situ Flushing, 524
13.9 Phytoremediation, 478 14.3.1 Technology Description, 524
13.9.1 Technology Description, 478 14.3.2 Fundamental Processes, 526
13.9.2 Fundamental Processes, 480 14.3.3 System Design and
13.9.3 System Design and Implementation, 527
Implementation, 482 14.3.4 Predictive Modeling, 529
13.9.4 Predictive Modeling, 484 14.3.5 Modified or Complementary
13.9.5 Modified or Complementary Technologies, 532
Technologies, 484 14.3.6 Economic and Regulatory
13.9.6 Economic and Regulatory Considerations, 534
Considerations, 484 14.3.7 Case Studies, 536
13.9.7 Case Studies, 485 14.4 Permeable Reactive Barriers, 538
13.10 Soil Fracturing, 485 14.4.1 Technology Description, 538
13.10.1 Technology Description, 485 14.4.2 Fundamental Processes, 542
 CONTENTS xi

14.4.3 System Design and 14.6.3 System Design and

Implementation, 544 Implementation, 577
14.4.4 Predictive Modeling, 553 14.6.4 Predictive Modeling, 584
14.4.5 Modified or Complementary 14.6.5 Modified or Complementary
Technologies, 554 Technologies, 585
14.4.6 Economic and Regulatory 14.6.6 Economic and Regulatory
Considerations, 554 Considerations, 585
14.4.7 Case Studies, 554 14.6.7 Case Studies, 587
14.5 In-Situ Air Sparging, 555 14.7 Bioremediation, 587
14.5.1 Technology Description, 555 14.7.1 Technology Description, 587
14.5.2 Fundamental Processes, 556 14.7.2 Fundamental Processes, 592
14.5.3 System Design and 14.7.3 System Design and
Implementation, 560 Implementation, 593
14.5.4 Predictive Modeling, 565 14.7.4 Predictive Modeling, 594
14.5.5 Modified or Complementary 14.7.5 Modified or Complementary
Technologies, 566 Technologies, 595
14.5.6 Economic and Regulatory 14.7.6 Economic and Regulatory
Considerations, 568 Considerations, 595
14.5.7 Case Studies, 568 14.7.7 Case Studies, 595
14.6 Monitored Natural Attenuation, 574 14.8 Summary, 596
14.6.1 Technology Description, 574 Questions/Problems, 597
14.6.2 Fundamental Processes, 575 References, 598

PART III LANDFILLS AND SURFACE IMPOUNDMENTS

15 15.3.3 Radioactive Waste, 612

SOURCES AND CHARACTERISTICS OF 15.3.4 Infectious (Medical) Waste, 613
WASTES 605 15.4 Waste Characterization, 613
15.4.1 Chemical Characterization, 614
15.1 Introduction, 605 15.4.2 Physical Characterization:
15.2 Sources of Wastes, 605 Engineering Properties of
15.2.1 Dredging and Irrigation, 605 Wastes, 614
15.2.2 Mining and Quarrying, 605 15.5 Environmental Concerns with Wastes, 624
15.2.3 Farming and Ranching, 605 15.5.1 Growing Quantities, 626
15.2.4 Residential, Commercial, and 15.5.2 Improper Handling and Disposal, 626
Institutional, 606 15.5.3 Toxic Chemicals, 626
15.2.5 Industrial, 606 15.5.4 Health Effects, 629
15.2.6 Nuclear Power and Nuclear 15.5.5 Effects on Ecosystems, 629
Defense, 607 15.6 Waste Management Strategies, 630
15.3 Classification of Wastes, 607 15.6.1 Pollution Prevention, 630
15.3.1 Solid Waste, 607 15.6.2 Waste Minimization, 630
15.3.2 Hazardous Waste, 610 15.6.3 Recycling, 630
xii CONTENTS

15.6.4 Incineration, 630 17

15.6.5 Landfilling, 630 WASTE CONTAINMENT LINER SYSTEMS 659
15.7 Engineered Waste Disposal Facilities, 631
15.8 Summary, 632 17.1 Introduction, 659
Questions/Problems, 632 17.2 Low-Permeability Soil Liners, 662
References, 633 17.2.1 Hydraulic Conductivity, 662
17.2.2 Laboratory Hydraulic Conductivity
Testing, 669
16 17.2.3 Laboratory Compatibility
LANDFILL REGULATIONS, SITING, AND Testing, 672
CONFIGURATIONS 635 17.2.4 Field Hydraulic Conductivity
Testing, 672
16.1 Introduction, 635 17.2.5 Low-Permeability Compacted Clay
16.2 Federal Regulations, 635 Liners, 681
16.2.1 Resource Conservation and Recovery 17.2.6 Low-Permeability Soil-Admixed
Act, 635 Liners, 686
16.2.2 Clean Water Act, 640 17.3 Geomembrane Liners, 687
16.2.3 Clean Air Act, 640 17.3.1 Material Properties and Tests, 689
16.2.4 Comprehensive Environmental 17.3.2 Geomembrane Seams and Their
Response, Compensation and Liability Properties, 696
Act, 640 17.4 Geotextiles, 700
16.3 State and Local Regulations, 640 17.4.1 Material Properties and Tests, 700
17.4.2 Geotextile Seams and Their
16.4 Siting Methodology, 641
Properties, 710
16.4.1 Calculating Landfill Acreage, 641
17.5 Geosynthetic Clay Liners, 711
16.4.2 Review of the Literature, 642
17.5.1 Technical Equivalency Issues of
16.4.3 Regulatory Location Restrictions, 643
GCLs and CCLs, 711
16.4.4 Map Overlay Procedure to Identify
17.5.2 Material Properties and Tests, 713
Potential Sites, 645 17.6 Geonets and Geocomposite Drains, 715
16.4.5 Identification of Specific Sites Based 17.6.1 Material Properties and Tests for
on Local Features, 645 Geonets, 715
16.4.6 Preliminary Site Exploration to 17.6.2 Geocomposite Drains, 716
Determine Site Hydrogeology, 646 17.7 Geogrids, 717
16.4.7 Conceptual Design of a Landfill, 646 17.7.1 Material Properties and Tests, 717
16.5 Site Permit Application, 646 17.8 Interface Strengths among Various Liner
16.6 Landfill Configurations, 646 Components, 718
16.6.1 Footprint and Cell Layout, 647 17.8.1 Direct Shear Test Methods: ASTM
16.6.2 Base Grading, 648 D 5321 and ASTM D 6243, 719
16.6.3 Final Cover Grading, 656 17.8.2 Interface Shear Strength: Shear
16.6.4 Other Facilities and Site Development Strength Envelopes, 719
Master Plan, 656 17.9 Manufacturing and Construction Quality
16.7 Summary, 656 Assurance, 721
Questions/Problems, 656 17.10 Estimation of Leakage through Liner
References, 657 Systems, 722
 CONTENTS xiii

17.10.1 Leakage Mechanisms, 722 19.4.4 Erosion Assessment, 778

17.10.2 Leakage through Composite 19.4.5 Drainage Layer Capacity, 779
Liners, 724 19.4.6 Cover Geomembrane Analysis, 781
17.11 Performance of Liners in Waste 19.4.7 Cover Slope Stability Analysis, 784
Containment Systems, 725 19.5 Summary, 788
17.12 Summary, 726 Questions/Problems, 788
Questions/Problems, 726 References, 789
References, 728
20
18 GAS GENERATION AND MANAGEMENT 791
LEACHATE COLLECTION AND REMOVAL
SYSTEMS AND LINER DESIGN 733 20.1 Introduction, 791
20.2 Gas Generation Mechanisms, 792
18.1 Introduction, 733
20.3 Gas Characteristics, 794
18.2 Design Criteria, 733
20.4 Gas Production Rates, 795
18.3 Leachate Generation and Management, 734
20.5 Gas Migration, 797
18.3.1 Leachate Quantity Estimation, 735
20.6 Gas Collection Systems, 801
18.3.2 Leachate Collection Pipes, 744
20.6.1 Passive Gas Collection Systems, 802
18.3.3 Selection of Drainage Layer Material
20.6.2 Active Gas Collection Systems, 806
and Thickness, 747
20.6.3 Comparison of Various Gas
18.3.4 Leachate Management, 751
Collection Systems, 809
18.4 Containment System Liner Design, 752
20.7 Gas Flaring and Energy Recovery, 810
18.4.1 Material Stresses, 752
20.7.1 Gas Flaring, 810
18.4.2 Geomembrane Puncture
20.7.2 Energy Recovery, 812
Resistance, 762
20.8 Summary, 814
18.5 Summary, 765
Questions/Problems, 816
Questions/Problems, 765
References, 816
References, 768

19 21
FINAL COVER SYSTEMS 770 GROUNDWATER MONITORING 818
19.1 Introduction, 770 21.1 Introduction, 818
19.2 Purpose and Design Criteria, 770 21.2 Regulatory Requirements, 818
19.3 Regulatory Minimum Requirements, 770 21.3 Groundwater Monitoring Systems, 820
19.3.1 Cover System for MSW 21.3.1 Characterization of Site
Landfills, 770 Hydrogeology, 820
19.3.2 Cover System for Hazardous Waste 21.3.2 Placement of Monitoring Wells, 822
Landfills, 772 21.3.3 Monitoring Well Design and
19.3.3 Alternative Final Cover Systems, 774 Construction, 824
19.4 Design Procedure, 775 21.3.4 Sampling and Analysis, 824
19.4.1 Layout and Grading, 775 21.3.5 Statistical Analysis of Monitoring
19.4.2 Cover Profile and Material Data, 827
Selection, 776 21.4 Detection Monitoring Program, 831
19.4.3 Infiltration Analysis, 777 21.5 Assessment Monitoring Program, 831
xiv CONTENTS

21.6 Corrective Action Program, 832 22.2.5 Emergency Repairs: Contingency

21.7 Summary, 834 Plans, 838
Questions/Problems, 834 22.2.6 Closure and Postclosure Care, 839
References, 835 22.3 Liner Systems, 839
22.4 Surface Impoundment Design, 841
22.4.1 Predesign Activities, 841
22 22.4.2 Surface Impoundment
SURFACE IMPOUNDMENTS 837 Configuration, 842
22.4.3 Component Design, 843
22.1 Introduction, 837 22.5 Cover Design, 845
22.2 Regulatory Setting, 837 22.5.1 Nonremovable Covers, 845
22.2.1 Design and Operating 22.5.2 Removable Covers, 847
Requirements, 837 22.6 Closure and Postclosure Care, 847
22.2.2 Action Leakage Rate, 838 22.7 Summary, 850
22.2.3 Response Action Plan, 838 Questions/Problems, 854
22.2.4 Monitoring and Inspection, 838 References, 854

PART IV EMERGING TECHNOLOGIES

23 23.4.3 Potential Reuses, 863

BENEFICIAL USE OF WASTE MATERIALS: 23.4.4 Chemical Composition and
RECYCLING 857 Engineering Properties, 863
23.1 Introduction, 857 23.4.5 Environmental Concerns, 863
23.2 Types and Evaluation of Waste 23.4.6 Economic Considerations, 864
Materials, 857 23.4.7 Field Applications and
23.2.1 Types of Waste Materials, 857 Demonstrations, 864
23.2.2 Evaluation Process, 858 23.4.8 Summary, 865
23.2.3 Common Waste Materials, 858 23.5 Foundry Sand, 865
23.3 Fly Ash, 859 23.5.1 Sources and Quantities
23.3.1 Sources and Quantities Generated, 865
Generated, 859 23.5.2 Problems with Disposal, 865
23.3.2 Problems with Disposal, 859 23.5.3 Potential Reuses, 865
23.3.3 Potential Reuses, 859 23.5.4 Chemical Composition and
23.3.4 Chemical Composition and Engineering Properties, 865
Engineering Properties, 860 23.5.5 Environmental Concerns, 866
23.3.5 Environmental Concerns, 860 23.5.6 Economic Considerations, 866
23.3.6 Economic Considerations, 861 23.5.7 Field Applications and
23.3.7 Field Applications and Demonstrations, 866
Demonstrations, 861 23.5.8 Summary, 867
23.3.8 Summary, 862 23.6 Papermill Sludge, 867
23.4 Blast Furnace Slag, 862 23.6.1 Sources and Quantities
23.4.1 Sources and Quantities Generated, 867
Generated, 862 23.6.2 Problems with Disposal, 867
23.4.2 Problems with Disposal, 863 23.6.3 Potential Reuses, 867
 CONTENTS xv

23.6.4 Physical and Chemical 23.10.2 Problems with Disposal, 879

Properties, 867 23.10.3 Potential Reuses, 879
23.6.5 Environmental Concerns, 867 23.10.4 Physical and Chemical
23.6.6 Economic Considerations, 867 Properties, 880
23.6.7 Field Applications and 23.10.5 Environmental Concerns, 880
Demonstrations, 868 23.10.6 Economic Considerations, 880
23.6.8 Summary, 868 23.10.7 Field Applications and
23.7 Municipal Sludge, 868 Demonstrations, 880
23.7.1 Sources and Quantities 23.10.8 Summary, 881
Generated, 868 23.11 Scrap Tires, 881
23.7.2 Problems with Disposal, 869 23.11.1 Sources and Quantities
23.7.3 Potential Reuses, 869 Generated, 881
23.7.4 Physical and Chemical 23.11.2 Problems with Disposal, 881
Properties, 869 23.11.3 Potential Reuses, 881
23.7.5 Environmental Concerns, 869 23.11.4 Physical and Chemical
23.7.6 Economic Considerations, 870 Properties, 883
23.7.7 Field Applications and 23.11.5 Environmental Concerns, 884
Demonstrations, 870 23.11.6 Economic Considerations, 887
23.7.8 Summary, 872 23.11.7 Field Applications and
23.8 Incinerator Ash (Sewage Sludge Ash), 872 Demonstrations, 887
23.8.1 Sources and Quantities 23.11.8 Summary, 888
Generated, 872 23.12 Demolition Debris and Recycled
23.8.2 Problems with Disposal, 872 Concrete, 888
23.8.3 Potential Reuses, 873 23.12.1 Sources and Quantities
23.8.4 Physical and Chemical Generated, 888
Properties, 873 23.12.2 Problems with Disposal, 888
23.8.5 Environmental Concerns, 873 23.12.3 Potential Reuses, 888
23.8.6 Economical Considerations, 873 23.12.4 Physical and Chemical
23.8.7 Field Applications and Properties, 889
Demonstrations, 874 23.12.5 Environmental Concerns, 889
23.8.8 Summary, 874 23.12.6 Economic Considerations, 889
23.9 Glass, 874 23.12.7 Field Applications and
23.9.1 Sources and Quantities Demonstrations, 889
Generated, 874 23.12.8 Summary, 890
23.9.2 Problems with Disposal, 875 23.13 Wood Wastes, 890
23.9.3 Potential Reuses, 875 23.13.1 Sources and Quantities
23.9.4 Physical and Chemical Generated, 890
Properties, 876 23.13.2 Problems with Disposal, 890
23.9.5 Environmental Concerns, 876 23.13.3 Potential Reuses, 890
23.9.6 Economic Considerations, 877 23.13.4 Physical and Chemical
23.9.7 Field Applications and Properties, 891
Demonstrations, 877 23.13.5 Environmental Concerns, 891
23.9.8 Summary, 878 23.13.6 Economic Considerations, 892
23.10 Plastics, 879 23.13.7 Field Applications and
23.10.1 Sources and Quantities Demonstrations, 892
Generated, 879 23.13.8 Summary, 892
xvi CONTENTS

23.14 Summary, 892 25.5.4 Management of Nutrients and Other

Questions/Problems, 892 Supplement Addition, 927
References, 893 25.5.5 Monitoring Program, 927
25.6 Case Studies, 927
25.7 Research Issues, 933
24 25.8 Summary, 935
END USES OF CLOSED LANDFILLS 898 Questions/Problems, 935
References, 936
24.1 Introduction, 898
24.2 Various End Uses of Closed Landfills, 898 26
24.2.1 Methane Gas Energy Generation SUBAQUATIC SEDIMENT WASTE:
Uses, 899 IN-SITU CAPPING 938
24.2.2 Reopening after Closure, 900
26.1 Introduction, 938
24.2.3 Recreational Uses, 901
26.2 Relevant Terminology and Definitions, 941
24.2.4 Commercial and Industrial Uses, 903
26.2.1 Water Properties, 941
24.3 Design Considerations, 903
26.2.2 Soil or Sediment Properties, 941
24.3.1 Design Process, 903
26.2.3 Flux Properties or Flux-Determining
24.3.2 Design Issues, 906
Properties, 942
24.4 Case Studies, 910 26.3 Site Evaluation, 943
24.5 Summary, 912 26.3.1 Site and Surrounding Area
Questions/Problems, 912 Characterization, 944
References, 912 26.3.2 Evaluation of Hydrodynamic
Conditions, 944
25 26.3.3 Geotechnical and Geological
BIOREACTOR LANDFILLS 915 Conditions, 944
26.3.4 Characterization of the
25.1 Introduction, 916 Sediments, 944
25.2 Types and Advantages of Bioreactor 26.3.5 Chemical Characterization, 944
Landfills, 916 26.4 Cap Design, 944
25.3 Regulatory Issues, 918 26.4.1 Selection of Capping Materials, 946
25.4 Bioreactor Design, 919 26.4.2 Cap Components, 946
25.4.1 Cell Size, 919 26.4.3 Erosion Potential, 946
25.4.2 Liner and Leachate Collection 26.4.4 Settlement Analysis, 947
26.4.5 Stability Analysis, 948
System, 919
26.4.6 Contaminant Release Analysis, 950
25.4.3 Liquid Injection System, 919
26.5 Construction and Monitoring, 952
25.4.4 Gas Extraction System, 921
26.5.1 Construction Methods, 952
25.4.5 Final Cover System, 921
26.5.2 Monitoring, 953
25.4.6 Slope Stability, 922 26.6 Regulatory and Economic
25.4.7 Settlement, 924 Considerations, 954
25.5 Bioreactor Landfill Operations and 26.7 Case Studies, 954
Maintenance, 926 26.8 Summary, 957
25.5.1 Solid Waste Pretreatment or Questions/Problems, 958
Segregation, 926 References, 959
25.5.2 Leachate Seeps, 926
25.5.3 Daily and Intermediate Cover, 926 Index 961

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