Chap 02 PDF
Chap 02 PDF
Chap 02 PDF
2 Functions
Introduction
The objective of a drilling operation is
to drill, evaluate and complete a well
that will produce oil and/or gas effi-
ciently. Drilling fluids perform numer-
ous functions that help make this
possible. The responsibility for perform-
ing these functions is held jointly by
the mud engineer and those who direct
The duty the drilling operation. The duty of
of those those charged with drilling the hole —
including the oil company representa-
charged with tive, drilling contractor and rig crew — drilling environment. The mud engi-
drilling the is to make sure correct drilling proce- neer should also recommend drilling
hole… dures are conducted. The chief duty of practice changes that will help reach
the mud engineer is to assure that mud the drilling objectives.
properties are correct for the specific
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The use Most drilling muds are thixotropic, a) The use of shear-thinning, thixo-
of shear- which means they gel under static con- tropic fluids with high Low-Shear-
ditions. This characteristic can suspend Rate Viscosity (LSRV) and laminar
thinning, cuttings during pipe connections and flow conditions. Examples of these
thixotropic other situations when the mud is not fluid types are biopolymer systems,
fluids with being circulated. Fluids that are shear- like FLO-PRO,T and flocculated ben-
thinning and have elevated viscosities tonite slurries like the Mixed Metal
high Low- at low annular velocities have proven Hydroxide (MMH) system. Such
Shear-Rate to be best for efficient hole cleaning. drilling fluid systems provide a high
Viscosity… Velocity. Generally, higher annular viscosity with a relatively flat annular
velocity improves cuttings removal. Yet, velocity profile, cleaning a larger
with thinner drilling fluids, high veloci- portion of the wellbore cross section.
ties may cause turbulent flow, which This approach tends to suspend cut-
helps clean the hole but may cause tings in the mud flow path and pre-
other drilling or wellbore problems. vent cuttings from settling to the low
The rate at which a cutting settles in side of the hole. With weighted muds,
a fluid is called the slip velocity. The cuttings transport can be improved
slip velocity of a cutting is a function by increasing the 3 and 6 RPM Fann
of its density, size and shape, and the dial readings (indications of LSRV)
viscosity, density and velocity of the to 1 to 11⁄2 times the hole size in
drilling fluid. If the annular velocity inches and to use the highest
of the drilling fluid is greater than the possible laminar flow rate.
slip velocity of the cutting, the cutting b) The use of a high flow rate and
The rate will be transported to the surface. thin fluid to achieve turbulent
at which The net velocity at which a cutting flow. Turbulent flow will provide
moves up the annulus is called the good hole cleaning and prevent cut-
a cutting transport velocity. In a vertical well: tings from settling while circulating,
settles in Transport velocity = Annular but cuttings will settle quickly when
a fluid… velocity – slip velocity circulation is stopped. This approach
(Note: Slip velocity, transport velocity, works by keeping the cuttings sus-
and the effects of rheology and hydraulic pended with turbulence and high
conditions on cuttings transport will be annular velocities. It works best with
discussed in detail in another chapter.) low-density, unweighted fluids in
Cuttings transport in high-angle and competent (not easily eroded) for-
horizontal wells is more difficult than in mations. The effectiveness of this
vertical wells. The transport velocity as technique can be limited by a num-
defined for vertical wellbores is not rele- ber of factors, including large hole
vant for deviated holes, since the cut- size, low pump capacity, increased
tings settle to the low side of the hole depth, insufficient formation integ-
across the fluid’s flow path and not in rity, and the use of mud motors and
the direction opposite to the flow of downhole tools that restrict flow rate.
drilling fluid. In horizontal wells, cut- Density. High-density fluids aid hole
tings accumulate along the bottom side cleaning by increasing the buoyancy
of the wellbore, forming cuttings beds. forces acting on the cuttings, helping to
These beds restrict flow, increase torque remove them from the well. Compared
and are difficult to remove. to fluids of lower density, high-density
Two different approaches are used for fluids may clean the hole adequately
the difficult hole-cleaning situations even with lower annular velocities and
found in high-angle and horizontal lower rheological properties. However,
wellbores: mud weight in excess of what is needed
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muds must tings, weight materials and additives Permeability refers to the ability of fluids
under a wide range of conditions, yet to flow through porous formations; for-
suspend drill allow the cuttings to be removed by mations must be permeable for hydro-
cuttings… the solids-control equipment. Drill cut- carbons to be produced. When the mud
tings that settle during static condi- column pressure is greater than forma-
tions can cause bridges and fill, which tion pressure, mud filtrate will invade
in turn can cause stuck pipe or lost cir- the formation, and a filter cake of mud
culation. Weight material which settles solids will be deposited on the wall of
is referred to as sag and causes a wide the wellbore. Drilling fluid systems
variation in the density of the well fluid. should be designed to deposit a thin,
Sag occurs most often under dynamic low-permeability filter cake on the for-
conditions in high-angle wells, where mation to limit the invasion of mud fil-
the fluid is being circulated at low trate. This improves wellbore stability
annular velocities. and prevents a number of drilling and
High concentrations of drill solids production problems. Potential prob-
are detrimental to almost every aspect lems related to thick filter cake and
_______________________
of the drilling operation, primarily drill- excessive filtration include “tight” hole
_______________________ ing efficiency and ROP. They increase conditions, poor log quality, increased
_______________________ the mud weight and viscosity, which torque and drag, stuck pipe, lost cir-
in turn increases maintenance costs culation, and formation damage.
_______________________
and the need for dilution. They also In highly permeable formations
_______________________ increase the horsepower required to with large pore throats, whole mud
_______________________ circulate, the thickness of the filter may invade the formation, depending
cake, the torque and drag, and the on the size of the mud solids. For such
_______________________
likelihood of differential sticking. situations, bridging agents must be
_______________________ Drilling fluid properties that suspend used to block the large openings so
_______________________ cuttings must be balanced with those the mud solids can form a seal. To
_______________________
properties that aid in cuttings removal be effective, bridging agents must be
by solids-control equipment. Cuttings about one-half the size of the largest
_______________________
suspension requires high-viscosity, shear- opening. Bridging agents include cal-
_______________________ thinning thixotropic properties, while cium carbonate, ground cellulose and
_______________________ solids-removal equipment usually works a wide variety of seepage-loss or other
more efficiently with fluids of lower fine lost-circulation materials.
_______________________
viscosity. Solids-control equipment is
_______________________
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Depending on the drilling fluid sys- annular velocity, poor hole cleaning,
tem in use, a number of additives can increased solids loading, fill, increased
be applied to improve the filter cake, treating costs, poor formation evalua-
thus limiting filtration. These include tion, higher cementing costs and
bentonite, natural and synthetic poly- inadequate cementing.
mers, asphalt and gilsonite, and organic Hole enlargement through sand and
deflocculating additives. sandstone formations is due largely to
mechanical actions, with erosion most
often being caused by hydraulic forces
and excessive bit nozzle velocities. Hole
enlargement through sand sections may
be reduced significantly by following a
more conservative hydraulics program,
particularly with regard to impact force
and nozzle velocity. Sands that are
poorly consolidated and weak require
a slight overbalance to limit wellbore
enlargement and a good-quality filter
cake containing bentonite to limit
wellbore enlargement.
5. MAINTAIN WELLBORE STABILITY In shales, if the mud weight is suffi-
Wellbore Wellbore stability is a complex balance cient to balance formation stresses,
wells are usually stable — at first. With
stability is of mechanical (pressure and stress) and
water-base muds, chemical differences
chemical factors. The chemical composi-
a complex tion and mud properties must combine cause interactions between the drilling
balance… to provide a stable wellbore until casing fluid and shale, and these can lead
can be run and cemented. Regardless of (over time) to swelling or softening.
the chemical composition of the fluid This causes other problems, such as
and other factors, the weight of the sloughing and tight hole conditions.
mud must be within the necessary Highly fractured, dry, brittle shales,
_______________________ range to balance the mechanical forces with high dip angles, can be extremely
acting on the wellbore (formation pres- unstable when drilled. The failure of
_______________________
sure, wellbore stresses related to orienta- these dry, brittle formations is mostly
_______________________
tion and tectonics). Wellbore instability mechanical and not normally related
_______________________ is most often identified by a sloughing to water or chemical forces.
formation, which causes tight hole con- Various chemical inhibitors or addi-
_______________________
ditions, bridges and fill on trips. This tives can be added to help control
_______________________ mud/shale interactions. Systems with
often makes it necessary to ream back to
_______________________ the original depth. (Keep in mind these high levels of calcium, potassium or
same symptoms also indicate hole- other chemical inhibitors are best for
_______________________
cleaning problems in high-angle and drilling into water-sensitive formations.
_______________________ Salts, polymers, asphaltic materials, gly-
difficult-to-clean wells.)
_______________________ Wellbore stability is greatest when cols, oils, surfactants and other shale
_______________________ the hole maintains its original size inhibitors can be used in water-base
and cylindrical shape. Once the hole drilling fluids to inhibit shale swelling
_______________________
is eroded or enlarged in any way, it and prevent sloughing. Shale exhibits
_______________________
becomes weaker and more difficult such a wide range of composition and
_______________________ to stabilize. Hole enlargement leads sensitivity that no single additive is
to a host of problems, including low universally applicable.
_______________________
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transferring this heat away from the drillstring, liner or casing string is sus-
source, distributing it throughout the pended in drilling fluid, it is buoyed
well. Drilling fluid circulation cools by a force equal to the weight of the
the drillstring to temperatures lower mud displaced, thereby reducing hook
than the bottom-hole temperature. In load on the derrick. Buoyancy is directly
addition to cooling, drilling fluid lubri- related to the mud weight, so an
cates the drillstring, further reducing 18-lb/gal fluid will provide twice
frictional heat. Bits, mud motors and the buoyancy of a 9-lb/gal fluid.
drillstring components would fail more The weight that the derrick can
rapidly if it were not for the cooling support is limited by its mechanical
and lubricating effects of drilling fluid. capacity, a consideration that becomes
The lubricity The lubricity of a particular fluid is increasingly important with increased
of a partic- measured by its Coefficient of Friction depth as the weight of the drillstring
(COF), and some muds do a better job and casing becomes tremendous. While
ular fluid than others at providing lubrication. most rigs have sufficient capacity to
is measured For example, oil- and synthetic-base handle the drillstring weight without
by… muds lubricate better than most water- buoyancy, it is an important considera-
base muds, but lubricants can be added tion when evaluating the neutral point
to water-base muds to improve them. (where the drillstring is in neither ten-
On the other hand, water-base muds sion nor compression). However, when
provide more lubricity and cooling running long, heavy strings of casing,
ability than air or gas. buoyancy can be used to provide a sig-
The amount of lubrication provided nificant benefit. Using buoyancy, it
by a drilling fluid varies widely and is possible to run casing strings whose
depends on the type and quantity of weight exceeds a rig’s hook load capac-
drill solids and weight material, plus ity. If the casing is not completely filled
the chemical composition of the sys- with mud as it is lowered into the hole,
tem — pH, salinity and hardness. the void volume inside the casing
Altering mud lubricity is not an exact increases buoyancy, allowing a signifi-
science. Even after a thorough evalua- cant reduction in hook load to be used.
tion, with all relevant factors consid- This process is referred to as “floating
ered, application of a lubricant may in” the casing.
not produce the anticipated reduction
8. TRANSMIT HYDRAULIC ENERGY
in torque and drag.
TO TOOLS AND BIT
Indications of poor lubrication are
Hydraulic high torque and drag, abnormal wear, Hydraulic energy can be used to maxi-
energy can and heat checking of drillstring compo- mize ROP by improving cuttings
nents. But be aware that these prob- removal at the bit. It also provides
be used to power for mud motors to rotate the bit
lems can also be caused by severe
maximize doglegs and directional problems, bit and for Measurement While Drilling
ROP… balling, key seating, poor hole cleaning (MWD) and Logging While Drilling
and incorrect bottom-hole assembly (LWD) tools. Hydraulics programs are
design. While a lubricant may reduce based on sizing the bit nozzles properly
the symptoms of these problems, the to use available mud pump horsepower
actual cause must be corrected to (pressure or energy) to generate a maxi-
resolve the problem. mized pressure drop at the bit or to
The drilling fluid helps to support optimize jet impact force on the bot-
a portion of the drillstring or casing tom of the well. Hydraulics programs
string weight through buoyancy. If a are limited by the available pump
2 Functions
horsepower, pressure losses inside the oil-stained cuttings plus other important
drillstring, maximum allowable surface geological and drilling parameters.
pressure and optimum flow rate. Nozzle
sizes are selected to use the available
pressure at the bit to maximize the
effect of mud impacting the bottom
of the hole. This helps remove cuttings
from beneath the bit and keep the
cutting structure clean.
Drillstring pressure losses are higher
in fluids with higher densities, plastic
viscosities and solids. The use of small-
ID drill pipe or tool joints, mud motors
and MWD/LWD tools all reduce the
amount of pressure available for use
at the bit. Low-solids, shear-thinning
drilling fluids or those that have drag-
reducing characteristics, such as polymer
fluids, are more efficient at transmit-
ting hydraulic energy to drilling tools
and the bit. Electric wireline logging is performed
In shallow wells, sufficient hydraulic to evaluate the formation in order to
horsepower usually is available to clean obtain additional information. Sidewall
the bit efficiently. Because drillstring cores also may be taken with wireline-
pressure losses increase with well depth, conveyed tools. Wireline logging
a depth will be reached where there is includes measuring the electrical, sonic,
insufficient pressure for optimum bit nuclear and magnetic-resonance proper-
cleaning. This depth can be extended by ties of the formation to identify lithol-
carefully controlling the mud properties. ogy and formation fluids. For continuous
logging while the well is being drilled,
9. ENSURE ADEQUATE LWD tools are available. Drilling a cylin-
FORMATION EVALUATION drical section of the rock (a core) for lab-
Accurate Accurate formation evaluation is essen- oratory evaluation also is done in target
formation tial to the success of the drilling opera- production zones to obtain desired
tion, particularly during exploration information. Potentially productive
evaluation is drilling. The chemical and physical zones are isolated and evaluated by per-
essential to properties of the mud affect formation forming Formation Testing (FT) or Drill-
the success… evaluation. The physical and chemical Stem Testing (DST) to obtain pressure
wellbore conditions after drilling also and fluid samples.
influence formation evaluation. During All of these formation evaluation
drilling, the circulation of mud and cut- methods are affected by the drilling
tings is monitored for signs of oil and fluid. For example, if the cuttings dis-
gas by technicians called mud loggers. perse in the mud, there will be noth-
They examine the cuttings for mineral ing for the mud logger to evaluate at
composition, paleontology and visual the surface. Or, if cuttings transport is
signs of hydrocarbons. This informa- poor, it will be difficult for the mud
tion is recorded on a mud log that shows logger to determine the depth at
lithology, ROP, gas detection and which the cuttings originated. Oil
2 Functions
muds, lubricants, asphalts and other drilling fluid are susceptible to various
Dissolved additives will mask indications of forms of corrosion. Dissolved gasses
gasses…can hydrocarbons on cuttings. Certain such as oxygen, carbon dioxide and
electrical logs work in conductive fluids, hydrogen sulfide can cause serious cor-
cause serious while others work in non-conductive rosion problems, both at the surface
corrosion fluids. Drilling fluid properties will affect and downhole. Generally, low pH
problems… the measurement of rock properties by aggravates corrosion. Therefore, an
electrical wireline tools. Excessive mud important drilling fluid function is to
filtrate can flush oil and gas from the keep corrosion to an acceptable level.
near-wellbore region, adversely affect- In addition to providing corrosion pro-
ing logs and FT or DST samples. Muds tection for metal surfaces, drilling fluid
that contain high potassium ion con- should not damage rubber or elastomer
centrations interfere with the logging goods. Where formation fluids and/or
of natural formation radioactivity. High other downhole conditions warrant,
or variable filtrate salinity can make special metals and elastomers should
electrical logs difficult or impossible be used. Corrosion coupons should be
to interpret. used during all drilling operations to
Wireline logging tools must be run monitor corrosion types and rates.
from the surface to bottom, with the Mud aeration, foaming and other
actual measurement of rock properties trapped-oxygen conditions can cause
being performed as the tools are pulled severe corrosion damage in a short
up the hole. For optimum wireline log- period of time. Chemical inhibitors
ging, the mud must not be too thick, it and scavengers are used when the cor-
must keep the wellbore stable and it rosion threat is significant. Chemical
must suspend any cuttings or cavings. inhibitors must be applied properly.
In addition, the wellbore must be near- Corrosion coupons should be evalu-
gauge from top to bottom, since exces- ated to tell whether the correct chemi-
sive bore enlargement and/or thick cal inhibitor is being used and if the
filter cakes can produce varying logging amount is sufficient. This will keep the
responses and increase the possibility corrosion rate at an acceptable level.
_______________________ of sticking the logging tool. Hydrogen sulfide can cause rapid,
Mud for drilling a core is selected catastrophic drillstring failure. It is
_______________________
based on the type of evaluation to also deadly to humans after even
_______________________ be performed. If a core is being taken short periods of exposure and in low
_______________________ only for lithology (mineral analysis), concentrations. When drilling in high
mud type is not a concern. If the core H2S environments, elevated pH fluids,
_______________________
will be used for waterflood and/or wet- combined with a sulfide-scavenging
_______________________ tability studies, a “bland,” neutral-pH, chemical like zinc, should be used.
_______________________ water-base mud without surfactants or
11. FACILITATE
CEMENTING
thinners will be needed. If the core
_______________________ AND COMPLETION
will be used for measuring reservoir
_______________________ water saturation, a bland oil mud with The drilling fluid must produce a well-
minimal surfactants and no water or bore into which casing can be run and
_______________________
salt is often recommended. Many cor- cemented effectively and which does
_______________________ not impede completion operations.
ing operations specify a bland mud
_______________________
with a minimum of additives. Cementing is critical to effective zone
_______________________
isolation and successful well comple-
10. CONTROL CORROSION tion. During casing runs, the mud must
_______________________
Drillstring and casing components remain fluid and minimize pressure
_______________________ that are in continual contact with the surges so that fracture-induced lost
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