Process STD 509 PDF

PROCESS STD 509
FOSTER WHEELER PAGE 1

INSTRUMENTATION REV 10
PROCESS PLANTS DIVISION COMPRESSORS DATE JULY 2002
CONTENTS
PAGE
1.0 GENERAL 3
2.0 CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR CONTROLS 4
2.1 Pressure Controls 4

2.2 Anti-Surge Control 5
2.2.1 Minimum Flow Anti-Surge Control 5

2.2.2 Flow/Differential Pressure Anti-Surge Control 6
2.2.3 Anti-Surge Control for Two or Multi Stage Compressors 6
3.0 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR CONTROLS 7
3.1 Clearance Control 7

3.2 Inlet Valve Unloading 9
3.3 External Bypass 10
3.4 Throttling Control 11
3.5 Speed Control 11
3.6 Automatic Capacity Control 12
3.7 Controlling Suction Pressure 12
4.0 INSTRUMENTATION 13
4.1 Compressor Process Instrumentation 13
4.1.1 Establishing Process Alarm Settings 13

4.1.2 Compressor Shutdown System 14
4.1.3 Safety Relief Valves 14
4.2 Instrumentation for Gas Engine Drivers 15

4.3 Reciprocating Air Compressor Monitors 16
5.0 EXAMPLES 30
FOSTER WHEELER ENERGY LIMITED 2002

PROCESS STD 509
CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURE FIGURE DESCRIPTION PAGE
1 Centrifugal Compressor Pressure Control 17

2 Centrifugal Compressor Performance Curve 18
3 Minimum Flow Anti-Surge Control 19
4 Minimum Flow Anti-Surge Control Curve 20
5 Air Compressor Anti-Surge Control 21
6 Flow/Differential Pressure Anti-Surge Control 22
7 Flow/Differential Pressure Anti-Surge Control Curve 23
8 Anti-Surge Control for Two Stage 24
Centrifugal Compressor
9 Anti-Surge Control for Two Stage 25
Centrifugal Compressor (No Condensing
Between Stages)
10 Reciprocating Compressor Capacity Control 26
11 Reciprocating Compressor Suction 27
Pressure Control
12 Centrifugal Compressor Instrumentation 28
13 Reciprocating Compressor Instrumentation 29
14 Atmospheric Tower Off-Gas Compressor 31
15 HDS Unit Make-up Gas Compressor 32
16 HDS Unit Recycle Gas Compressor 33
17 Light Ends Recovery Gas Compressor 34
18 Combined Recycle Gas/Make-Up Compressor 35
19 Regeneration Air Compressor for Cat 36
Cracking Unit
20 Propane Refrigeration Compressor 37

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1.0 GENERAL
The function of process control systems is to maintain yields and product quality by
holding certain operating variables at the desired values, and to return them to those
values after an upset. The operating variables concerned with compressors are
flowrate, temperature and pressure.
This standard presents ways in which the operating variables of centrifugal and
reciprocating compressors can be controlled. It deals only with situations that are
encountered most frequently by process engineers, and is devoted mainly toward
petroleum refining applications. Nevertheless, it may be used as a general
reference and a guide involving control of compressors.
The systems presented represent a starting point for the development of a proper
compressor control system, both for load and for the prevention of surge on
centrifugal or axial machines. Each application must be carefully considered as to
the details of the machine selected and its use in the process system.

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2.0 CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR CONTROLS

In controlling centrifugal compressors, the main concerns are to maintain suction
and discharge pressures and to avoid operating under surge conditions. The
following sections briefly describe these control objectives.
2.1 Pressure Controls

Pressure controls must be provided on both the suction and discharge to
maintain the required pressure levels and assure stable operation of the
compressor. Generally, one of the two pressures is set by process
requirements and is controlled elsewhere. The suction pressure is usually
controlled upstream of the compressor using a split range controller.
Controlling the suction pressure is an indirect way of controlling the capacity
and head output of the compressor and can be done by one of the following
two ways:
a) Speed variation (for turbine drivers)
b) Suction throttling (for motor drivers)
Both of these pressure control schemes are shown in Figure 1.
When a steam turbine driver is used, the operating speed of the compressor
can be varied directly to allow more or less gas through the compressor. If
increasing the compressor speed does not decrease the suction pressure,
the Upstream vent valve will open and gas will be vented. This valve should
be sized for 40% of normal suction flow. When more accurate control is
required, a smaller vent valve sized for 10% of the suction flowrate should be
provided in parallel with the large vent valve.
When a motor driver is used, suction pressure is reduced at the compressor

inlet by throttling the suction flow using a butterfly valve. If this valve is wide
open and the suction pressure is still too high, gas will be vented from the
upstream suction system.

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2.2 Anti-Surge Control

Anti-surge control systems for centrifugal compressors are provided to
protect the machine from damage caused by pulsations in flow or “surge.”
Surge is an unstable, pulsating condition that can occur when a compressor
is improperly operated. If the flowrate decreases to the compressor, the
compression ratio (Pd/Pi) will increase to a point where a momentary flow
reversal occurs within the machine. Surge is detected by an audible boom,
piping vibrations and pressure pulsations.
The anti-surge control system maintains a minimum flow through the
compressor at a value safely away from the surge point. A typical
compressor performance curve is illustrated in Figure 2. The anti-surge
control system maintains the compressor operation in the “safe operating
zone” by allowing some gas to be recycled from the discharge back into the
suction which increases the flow through the compressor. The recycled gas
must be cooled before it flows to the compressor suction. This type of anti-
surge control is normally applied to closed processes such as gas plant or
refrigeration system compressors.
2.2.1 Minimum Flow Anti-surge Control

The anti-surge control system shown in Figure 3 consists of a single
flow controller which can be located either on the compressor suction
or discharge line (discharge is preferred to minimize power
consumption). A fixed minimum flow through the compressor is
maintained by varying the flow through the anti-surge valve. In Figure
4, the vertical control line represents the fixed minimum flowrate. If a
turbine driven compressor is normally operating at point A, no
recirculation is required. If at turndown conditions, the net flowrate to
the compressor is at point B, the anti-surge valve will open and
recirculation will be established until flow is maintained at point C.
Air compressors which take suction from the atmosphere do not
require any recirculation of gas to the suction. An anti-surge control
scheme for this type of service is shown in Figure 5. The air supply to
the compressor is measured and maintained at a fixed rate above the
surge point. If the demand flow approaches the surge rate, the vent
control valve is opened and excess air is vented to the atmosphere.

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2.2.2 Flow/Differential Pressure Anti-Surge Control

A more sophisticated system for anti-surge control is shown in Figure
6. Flowrate through the compressor and differential pressure are
measured and sent to an anti-surge control microprocessor. The
controller compares the operating point to the “control line” which is
shown in Figure 7. The control line is programmed into the control
algorithm to provide safe operation from actual surge conditions. If
the compressor is operating in the region to the right of the control
line, recirculation is not required. However, if the operating point is to
the left, the recirculation valve opens and operation is re-established
along the control line. One of the advantages of this control system is
that the control line is shaped like the surge limit line. This minimizes
recirculation and saves power.
2.2.3 Anti-Surge Control for Two or Multi-Stage Compressors
There are two ways to control surge in multi-stage compressors. The

first is to recycle gas from the discharge of each stage back to the
preceding suction. This is the preferred anti-surge control scheme for
compressors with condensing intercoolers and is shown in Figure 8. If
an external feed is introduced at the interstage, this scheme must be
used. As an alternative, a flow/differential pressure anti-surge
controller can be used on each stage. The second method is to
recycle gas from the last stage discharge back to the first stage
suction. This scheme should only be used when no condensing takes
place in the interstage cooler and no additional feeds are introduced
at the interstage. The molecular weight of the gas will remain
unchanged and will not cause operating problems when it is recycled
back to the inlet. This type of control scheme is shown in Figure 9.

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3.0 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR CONTROLS
There are several methods of controlling reciprocating compressors and the mode
selected will usually depend on the process requirements and the type of driver.
The control point may be discharge pressure, intake pressure of a system being
evacuated, temperature of a fluid being cooled (refrigeration) or flow. The control
methods are:
1) Clearance Control
2) Inlet Valve Unloading
3) External Bypass Control
4) Throttling Control
5) Speed Control (including on/off Control)
It should be noted that due to mechanical and design limitations, the method and
range of control suggested by process to regulate compacity may not always be
obtainable. The Mechanical Equipment Engineering Group should be consulted
regarding the type and range of control before selecting the method.
3.1 Clearance Control
Clearance Control is based on the fact that the greater the clearance volume
in a cylinder end, the lower will be the volumetric efficiency of that end and,
therefore, the lower the cylinder output.
Volumetric efficiency is the ratio of the actual delivered capacity to the piston
displacement and is expressed by:
VE = C - CL (r 1/k -1)
Where:
VE = Volumetric Efficiency (expressed as fraction)

C = Constant, ranging from 0.93 to 0.98, depending on
properties of gas, compression ratio, etc. (determined
by vendor)
CL = Ratio of clearance volume (defined below) to cylinder
swept volume (piston travel) (expressed as a decimal)
r = Compression ratio
k = Empirical value of cp/cv ranging from 1.0 to 1.4
depending on gas properties.

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During compression the piston does not travel to the end of the cylinder but
leaves a clearance volume. Clearance control operates simply by increasing
cylinder clearance over the normal volume by means of clearance pockets.
These pockets may be either fixed or variable volume and can be located as
follows:
a) One or two separate pockets built into the head end of the cylinder
head, which are usually limited in volume to about 20% of the total
cylinder swept volume.
b) Externally mounted (“bottle“) on the top or sides of the cylinder.
Capacity regulation can then be accomplished by opening the separate

valving to each pocket permitting passage of gas between the cylinder and
the volume pockets. The additional volume of gas at discharge pressure
trapped in the clearance pockets serves to reduce the volumetric efficiency
and, therefore, the cylinder output. The pockets may be opened and closed
manually or automatically. The following sketch shows how the pockets can
be opened and closed to attain various steps of control.

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It should be noted that this sketch showing 4 pockets per cylinder is for
illustration purposes only. Due to the large volume usually required for
clearance pockets and other mechanical limitations, the number of pockets
which can be built into a cylinder of a typical process compressor is usually
limited to two. Generally more than two pockets may be mechanically and
economically feasible only for small air compressors. A combination of
control methods may sometimes be employed to obtain the required capacity
regulation.
Clearance control method provides efficient operation since the energy

required for compression of the gas in the clearance pockets is returned in
the re-expansion step with little power loss. There are some limitations and
disadvantages. Clearance volumes must be built into the machine and will
provide design capacity reduction only when operating at the design
compression ratio. This limits its flexibility in alternate services. Also, if
condensate is present it may accumulate in the pockets and result in possible
slugging problems or introduce a corrosion problem if the liquid is corrosive.
3.2 Inlet Valve unloading
Inlet valve unloading is accomplished by suction valve lifters which

completely unload their end of the cylinder by holding the valve plates off of
their seats whenever they are opened. All the gas taken into the cylinder on
the suction stroke is pushed back through the intake valves on the discharge
stroke. With two intake valves per cylinder it is possible to (a) have both
valves operating normally (b) hold open one valve and (c) hold open both
valves. This permits a maximum of three steps per double-acting cylinder,
full load, and no load. The following sketch illustrates the three steps
capacity control through inlet valve unloading.

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3.1 Inlet Valve Uploading (Cont’d)
Five step control may be attainable if:

a) Two double acting cylinders are used for one compression stage.
b) Inlet valve unloading in combination with another method of control
such as clearance pockets.
However, while multiple step control is possible, it is not always feasible to
operate with more than two steps - namely full load torque required on one
stroke and low torque on the other, operation is apt to be rough and will
increase bearing loads due to the unbalanced forces. In addition, excessive
rod loads may develop and this should be carefully determined. Depending
upon the severity of the compression loads, and other process conditions,
these unbalanced forces may possibly be overcome in the design of the
compressor. Valve seating may sometimes be a problem since one can
never be certain that a lifted valve will tightly reseat itself.
A modification, obtainable only as an automatic control provides for an infinite

number of steps by (1) allowing inlet valves to open normally (2) holding them
open for a timed interval of the compression stroke then (3) releasing them to
close so that compression may begin.
3.3 External Bypass
External bypass is a relatively simple and smooth acting control method. If a
process review indicates the need for bypassing significant quantities of gas,
a cooler and KO drum will be necessary to prevent excessively high
discharge temperatures. This should be checked by determining the blend

PROCESS STD 509
temperature of intake and recycle gas and calculating a new discharge

temperature. Experience indicates that the bypass control valve is seldom
sized for 100% intake flow conditions, except for 100% flexibility, and
normally is in the range 30 - 60% of intake flow.
Incidentally, the expense for a bypass cooler has been avoided in some low
temperature refrigeration systems by controlled injection of liquid refrigerant
into the hot bypass gas line using the latent heat to effect cooling. Adequate
piping length should be provided between the injection point and the
compressor inlet to assure complete vaporization.
3.4 Throttling Control
Capacity reduction with this method is obtained by throttling the intake flow
by means of a valve. The BHP per unit gas volume as well as the discharge
temperatures increase. This method of control is used in a few special
applications, generally vacuum services or very small compressors. For
large size machines, the suction valve cannot always give tight enough shut-
off to permit unloading during start-up.
3.5 Speed Control
This is an ideal means for controlling the capacity of a reciprocating
compressor. Since variable speed drivers are required, internal combustion
and steam engines are indicated although turbines and motors coupled with
speed reducers have been used. The table below indicates the possible
speed variation of various drivers.
DRIVERS SPEED VARIATION
Induction Motors Constant
Synchronous Motors Constant
Steam Engine 20 - 100%
Steam Turbines 25 - 100%*
Combustion Gas Turbines 55 - 100%
Integral Gas Engine 60 - 100%*
Integral Diesel. Engine 60 - 100%*
Coupled Gas or Diesel
Engine 60 - 100%*
! Depends on design and existence of critical shaft speeds and should
be checked by the vendor. The lower speed limit is dictated by the
ability of the driver to produce sufficient torque at low speed to
accelerate in response to a load variation.

PROCESS STD 509
On-Off
On-off control is generally used with compressor storage drum combinations

under conditions of intermittent demand. Electric motors are mostly used in
this service and since these have a limited permissible number of starts per
hour without overheating, the storage or surge capacity must be adequately
specified.
3.6 Automatic Capacity Control
Controlling the capacity of a reciprocating compressor can be accomplished

using a combination of inlet valve unloaders and/or variable volume
clearance pockets with an external bypass. For example, if the process
demand varies between 60 - 80% of the compressor capacity, the
compressor capacity can be reduced to 80% by adjusting the inlet valve
unloaders and variable volume clearance pockets. The external bypass can
then be varied by a flow controller to obtain more accurate control (see
Figure 10). This control method conserves energy because the compressor
does not have to operate at 100 percent capacity at turndown conditions.
It is also possible to have the process controller automatically adjust the

clearance pockets and unloaders to control capacity directly. This control
method requires minimum power at any turndown capacity but is seldom
used in refining applications.
3.7 Controlling Suction Pressure
Figure 11 shows the control scheme to be used when suction pressure is to

be controlled. When the suction pressure decreases, the split range
controller opens the recycle valve and gas is returned to the suction. When
the suction pressure rises, the vent valve opens and gas is vented from the
suction system.
At turndown conditions, the compressor capacity should be reduced using

clearance pockets and inlet valve unloaders as much as possible and allow
the external recycle to vary as process conditions change.

PROCESS STD 509
4.0 INSTRUMENTATION
4.1 Compressor Process Instrumentation
The following process instrumentation is normally provided for both

centrifugal and reciprocating compressors (see Figures 12 and 13).
- High and low pressure alarms on the inlet suction line (control room).
- Very low inlet suction pressure alarm (control room).
- Suction drum high level alarm (control room).
- Suction drum very high level alarm (control room).
- Pressure indicator and controller on inlet suction line.
- Pressure indicator on each discharge line (local and control room)
- Pressure indicator on each suction line (local).
- Temperature indicator on each discharge line (local and control room).
- Temperature indicator on each suction line (local and control room).
- High discharge temperature alarm on each stage (control room).
- Very high discharge temperature alarm on each stage (control room).
- Flow indicator for each anti-surge recycle line (control room).
4.1.1 Establishing Process Alarm Settings
A guideline for establishing compressor process alarm settings is

given below. These guidelines are not rules and may not apply to
every compressor application. In establishing process alarm settings,
the Process Engineer must use judgement for the particular system
involved.
High discharge temperature alarm: Normal discharge

temperature + 25°F
Very high discharge temperature alarm: Normal discharge

temperature + 50°F (compressor vendor should confirm).
Low suction pressure alarm: Normal suction pressure

(absolute) - 10%.
Very low suction pressure alarm: Normal suction pressure
(absolute) - 20%.
High suction pressure alarm: Normal suction pressure

(absolute) + 10%.

PROCESS STD 509
4.1.2 Compressor Shutdown System

A compressor shutdown system must be provided to protect the
compressor against potential damage caused by misoperation or
equipment failure. The shutdown system will be activated by any of
the following process variables:
- Very high suction drum liquid level (for each stage).
- Very low inlet suction pressure.
- Very high discharge temperature (for each stage).
4.1.3 Safety Relief Valves
A safety relief valve must be provided on the discharge of each stage

of a reciprocating compressor inside the block isolation valve and
must be set high enough to prevent its discharge during normal
operation.
For moderate pressure levels, the usual set pressure is either a

minimum of 10% or 25 psi above the maximum operating pressure
whichever is greater. However, at very high pressures, a modification
of this rule can be applied to avoid the unnecessary cost penalty
incurred by the normal 10% pressure accumulation increment.
For example, if the operating pressure is 3000 psig, the 10% safety
factor would require equipment to be good for 3300 psig. This is
equivalent to operating at 90% of the operating and accumulative
pressure and considering the fact that a conventional PSV will
commence discharging before that total pressure is reached, is
entirely reasonable. However, since a pilot operated valve is either
closed or full open and can be more accurately set, the accumulation
pressure increment can be safely reduced. Using a valve of 95%
instead of 90%, equipment can be safely specified for 3000/.95 =
3160 psig instead of 3300 psig and at lower cost.
When this type safety relief valve is used on reciprocating

compressors, it is important to control the intake pressure within
narrow limits to avoid safety valve poping. Attenuation devices are
also indicated to modulate pulsation pressure peaks to prevent
unwanted valve action. Pressure regulators have been successfully
used to control intake pressures.

PROCESS STD 509
A safety relief valve must also be provided for knockout drums. The
set pressure must be consistent with the discharge relief valve. The
discharge drum may be protected by a relief valve on downstream
equipment as long as there is no block valve between the relief valve
and the drum.
Centrifugal compressors do not require discharge relief valves

however, the knockout drums will require their own relief valves. The
compressor casing and lines are designed for the maximum discharge
pressure at surge (maximum suction pressure plus head at surge).
Sometimes a small relief valve is provided to protect the casing if high
pressure nitrogen is used for purging.
4.2 Instrumentation For Gas Engine Drivers
The following instrumentation is normally provided for a gas engine driver for
a reciprocating compressor.
Pressure Temperature
Service Indication Indication
Oil Cooler Inlet and Outlet X

Differential Pressure Across Oil Filter X
Water Inlet & Outlet of each Oil Cooler X
Gas Engine Driver Inlet Manifold X
CW Inlet and Outlet of Gas Engine X
Gas Engine Exhaust X
Alarms and Shutdowns may be provided as follows:
Service Instrument
Low Lube Oil Pressure Shutdown (S.D.) Switch
High Compressor Cyl. CW Temp. Alarm and/or S.D. Switch
High Engine CW Temperature Alarm and/or S.D. Switch
Excessive Vibration Alarm and/or S.D. Switch
Low Oil Level and Drive Alarm and/or S.D. Switch
Failure on Forced Feed Lubricator Alarm and/or S.D. Switch
Excessive Rod Packing CW Temp. Alarm and/or S.D. Switch

PROCESS STD 509
4.3 Reciprocating Air Compressor Monitors
In typical 100 psig service, monitors which activate lights and alarms may
also shutdown the compressor. A typical panel will have the following:
Condition Lights Alarm Shutdown
1. High frame lube oil temp. X X

Excessively high frame
lube oil temperature X X X
2. High Intercooler Outlet X X

air temperature
Excessively high intercooler
outlet air temp. X X X
3. High air discharge temperature. X X

Excessively high air
discharge temperature X X X
4. High air discharge pressure X X

Excessively high air discharge
pressure X X X
5. High intercooler condenser
separator level X X
Excessively high intercooler
condenser separator level X X X
6. Low frame lube oil pressure X X X
7. Low cylinder lube oil level X X X
8. Cylinder lubricator rotation
stopped X X X
9. Excessive vibration X X X
In addition, an hour meter (10,000 hr range) which registers only when the
unit is running will provide information that facilitates sound maintenance
(optional).

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FIGURE 4
MINIMUM FLOW ANTI-SURGE CONTROL CURVE

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% INLET FLOW
FIGURE 7
FLOW/DIFFERENTIAL PRESSURE ANTI-SURGE CONTROL CURVE

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5.0 EXAMPLES
The figures in this section show typical compressor services and their control
systems. It is not meant to contain all possible schemes and they are not the only
ones that can be used. This section is provided as a quick reference and guide
when specifying control systems on Process Flow Diagrams, P&ID’s, sketches, etc.

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PROCESS STD 509

FOSTER WHEELER PAGE 1

2.0 CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR CONTROLS 4

2.1 Pressure Controls 4

2.2.1 Minimum Flow Anti-Surge Control 5

3.0 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR CONTROLS 7

3.1 Clearance Control 7

4.1 Compressor Process Instrumentation 13

4.1.1 Establishing Process Alarm Settings 13

4.2 Instrumentation for Gas Engine Drivers 15

FOSTER WHEELER ENERGY LIMITED 2002

FIGURE FIGURE DESCRIPTION PAGE

1 Centrifugal Compressor Pressure Control 17

FOSTER WHEELER ENERGY LIMITED 2002

FOSTER WHEELER ENERGY LIMITED 2002

2.0 CENTRIFUGAL COMPRESSOR CONTROLS

2.1 Pressure Controls

When a motor driver is used, suction pressure is reduced at the compressor

FOSTER WHEELER ENERGY LIMITED 2002

2.2 Anti-Surge Control

2.2.1 Minimum Flow Anti-surge Control

FOSTER WHEELER ENERGY LIMITED 2002

2.2.2 Flow/Differential Pressure Anti-Surge Control

There are two ways to control surge in multi-stage compressors. The

FOSTER WHEELER ENERGY LIMITED 2002

3.0 RECIPROCATING COMPRESSOR CONTROLS

3.1 Clearance Control

VE = Volumetric Efficiency (expressed as fraction)

FOSTER WHEELER ENERGY LIMITED 2002

b) Externally mounted (“bottle“) on the top or sides of the cylinder.

Capacity regulation can then be accomplished by opening the separate

FOSTER WHEELER ENERGY LIMITED 2002

Clearance control method provides efficient operation since the energy

3.2 Inlet Valve unloading

Inlet valve unloading is accomplished by suction valve lifters which

FOSTER WHEELER ENERGY LIMITED 2002

3.1 Inlet Valve Uploading (Cont’d)

Five step control may be attainable if:

A modification, obtainable only as an automatic control provides for an infinite

FOSTER WHEELER ENERGY LIMITED 2002

temperature of intake and recycle gas and calculating a new discharge

3.4 Throttling Control

FOSTER WHEELER ENERGY LIMITED 2002

On-off control is generally used with compressor storage drum combinations

3.6 Automatic Capacity Control

Controlling the capacity of a reciprocating compressor can be accomplished

It is also possible to have the process controller automatically adjust the

3.7 Controlling Suction Pressure

Figure 11 shows the control scheme to be used when suction pressure is to

At turndown conditions, the compressor capacity should be reduced using

FOSTER WHEELER ENERGY LIMITED 2002

4.1 Compressor Process Instrumentation

The following process instrumentation is normally provided for both

4.1.1 Establishing Process Alarm Settings

A guideline for establishing compressor process alarm settings is

High discharge temperature alarm: Normal discharge

Very high discharge temperature alarm: Normal discharge

Low suction pressure alarm: Normal suction pressure

High suction pressure alarm: Normal suction pressure