Running head: LITERATURE REVIEW – CHEMICAL WARFARE 1

Literature Review Research Report – Chemical Warfare

Breuer, Eric

University of Texas At El Paso

Abstract

This literature review research report paper was based on the answers of three research

questions that are also mentioned below. The research questions were, “How do politicians

interact with this topic”, “Are there any regulations on Chemical Warfare / Weapons” and “How

many incidents occurred around the world, that involved chemical weapons or chemical

substances”. To answer these three research questions, it is necessary to do appropriate research

and it is necessary to have good and corresponding sources. But it can be said that the public

doesn’t really has knowledge about this important topic, no one talks about it in public nor brings

awareness of the dangers in today’s century.

Introduction

Before research was done on this topic, it was clear that this would be an interesting topic

to write about. Not only that the weapons itself are interesting to do research on, in fact, it is also

a great subject due to the rising danger of these weapons in today’s society. It was known that the

use reaches back to the first world war and were used by German forces and its allies. These

chemical weapons are dangerous toxins, that different and almost every nation tries to

modernize, it can be seen as an arms race. The opinion within the civilized nations is clear:

Chemical weapons should be banned, and the production of these weapons should be forbidden.

But there are still political leaders and groups in the world, who are still doing research to

optimize chemical weapons and who are willing to use them to harm other nations. In the recent

past there was the confirmed use of chemical weapons in Iraq (1980’s) from Saddam Hussein, in

1995 in Tokyo by a single person, and most recently the attack on the citizens of Syria by the

Assad regime in 2013. These examples show the importance of the topic.

Figure 1: This figure shows the historical timeline of the use of chemical substances in wars, including the first,
and second world war. It can be seen that the invention, or discovery, can be traced back to the Germans and
that it was use by German forces and, or allied forces of the Germans. The use also reaches todays century and
is a serious threat to the human race due to the enormous power that comes with these weapons.
https://www.economist.com/news/briefing/21584397-how-whole-class-weaponry-came-be-seen-indecent-
shadow-ypres
LITERATURE REVIEW – CHEMICAL WARFARE 4

The purpose of this literature review is to increase the awareness of readers about the

topic of chemical weapons and their use. The past has shown that the ignorance of the population

can have a fatal image of the chemical weapons and their impact a fatal effect. Despite the

terrible images of World War I, the population continued to be misinformed by politicians,

industrialists, scientists, and militants. The effect of chemical weapons on soldiers was estimated

to be less than the impact of conventional weapons. Long-term damage was denied. Despite

various agreements banishing or banning chemical weapons, production has continued into the

recent past. The simplicity of the production of chemical weapons has even led to individual

terrorist groups or poor countries being able to equip themselves with chemical weapons.

Although most nations have now stopped production and thus the use of chemical weapons, the

danger remains. Despite the terrible experiences of the first world war involving the use of

chemical weapons, there has been a constant effort to modernize chemical weapons and keep

them for deterrence.

Stated Research Questions:

 How do politicians interact with this topic?

 Are there any regulations on Chemical Warfare / Weapons?

 How many incidents occurred around the world, that involved chemical weapons or

chemical substances?

Primary Research

Primary research was conducted by the author of this Literature Review Research Report.

Students of the University of Texas at El Paso were interviewed about a series of questions. If

they knew something about chemical warfare in general, and if they knew anything related to

this topic. Questions were asked such as, if they knew any regulations that prohibit the use of
LITERATURE REVIEW – CHEMICAL WARFARE 5

chemical weapons on today’s century or if they know some of the substances that are used for

the production of the dangerous weapons in today’s society. About twenty students, from all kind

of majors, nursing, engineering, history, were asked and interviewed on this topic. About 50% of

these students knew something about chemical warfare in general and round about 6 students out

of these 10 remaining people were able to answer my questions, not in detail but they had

general knowledge about this topic. Even one student knew the answer to the question “Are there

any regulations on Chemical Warfare/Weapons?”, his answer was: “There is a kind of a

Chemical Weapons Convention that regulates the production and use of these weapons”. This

primary research, that was conducted on the campus of the University of Texas at El Paso

showed that the knowledge about Chemical Warfare is a topic that not a lot of people know

about. It is quite important to know about so many things related to this kind of subject due to the

reason that it is becoming more and more dangerous with the growth of conflicts around the

world.

How do politicians interact with this topic?

In the aftermath of the use of chemical weapons against Kurdish people during the first

gulf war (Iraq vs. Iran) the House of Representatives held a hearing and passed a bill on

September 22nd, that finds, that the Kurdish people are ethnic group of some 20 million, which

have an ancient history and a cultural history. The Iraqi Army conducted a military campaign

against the approximately four million Kurdish people on Iraqi soil. There is “substantial

evidence that the Iraqi Army has been using chemical weapons against Kurdish insurgents and

unarmed Kurdish civilians.” (Page 4). The bill also states, that sanctions against Iraq will be

imposed. It is mentioned, that the export of any goods, material or technology, that could be used

to produce chemical weapons, should be prohibited. The law also mentions that non-compliance
LITERATURE REVIEW – CHEMICAL WARFARE 6

with applicable rules on the use of chemical weapons requires supplementary sanctions. Only

when the Iraqi government adheres to the applicable laws and regulations, the sanctions will not

be pronounced (Legislation to impose sanctions against iraqi chemical use, p. 4).

During the hearing, controversial opinions were also expressed by politicians who feared

the sanctions would negatively affect the American economy. For example, Toby Roth, a

Republican representative of Wisconsin, expressed concerns against sanctions. “But the real

point here is that, by applying export restrictions as sanctions we are not doing anything to Iraq.

We are not doing anything to punish the Japanese or European suppliers; all we are doing is

shooting our own exporters in the foot.” (Page13) James Bilbray, a Democratic representative of

Nevada stated, that the Iraqi army's attempt to destroy the Kurds is equivalent to the genocide of

Germany during the Hitler regime, and this must be prevented. The impact of these sanctions on

the Iraqi government has been contrasted with its impact on the US economy. Nevertheless, the

law was passed. For the benefit of the Kurdish population (Legislation to impose sanctions

against iraqi chemical use, p. 13).

From the 22nd until the 26th October, 2003, several scientists from all over the world and

representatives from the NATO held the socalled NATO-Russia advanced research workshop on

the “Ecological risks associated with the destruction of chemical weapons” at the University of

Lueneburg in Germany. This workshop was held to address the difficult issue of the destruction

of chemical weapons and the ecological risks of this destruction. In praise of renowned scientists,

the destruction of chemical weapons from different perspectives was presented. In his welcome

speech, the then German Minister of Defense, Dr. med. Peter Struck, mentioned

the importance of this workshop. He also mentioned that the destruction of chemical

weapons is probably the most difficult destruction of weapons in the world. “The aim of the
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policy is to eliminate military threat potentials (chemical weapons) and eradicate their political

and social causes as well as to build lasting stability.” It was said in the welcome address by the

Federal Minister of Defense, Dr. Peter Struck. During this workshop there were presentations

about predictions of ecological risks of toxic substances, ecological risks of chemical weapons

destruction facilities, but also about personal monitoring of dismantling of chemical weapons. It

is quite remarkable that the destruction of chemical weapons is also without alternative for high-

ranking military, defense politicians and renowned scientists of NATO and Russia (Kolodkin, V.

M., & Ruck, W. (2006) p. xix).

Are there any regulations on Chemical Warfare / Weapons?

McCamley and Mills mentioned the need for regulations on the use of chemical weapons.

Here, the views of both authors differed. N.J. McCamley described in his book the expiration of

the Washington Naval Conference of 1922. There, the American delegation, on the express

instruction of US President Harding, made the suggestion that the civilized world condemns the

use of chemical weapons in wars. This proposal was adopted in the contract between the US, the

British Empire, France, Italy and Japan and all parties signed this agreement on February 6, 1922

(McCamley, N. J, Chapter 3). Mills argued in his article the opposite opinion that, if the use of

Chemical Weapons would be condemned, the defending nation would be the heaviest sufferer,

since this nation could not use chemical weapons for defense. Mills concludes this argument

with the sentence: "No treaty should forbid a nation to protect its territory with the use of any

weapon" (Mills, J.E, p. 447-448).

The full name of Chemical Weapons Convention (CWC) is the Convention on the

Prohibition of the Development, Production, Stockpiling and Use of Chemical Weapons and on

their Destruction. It is administered by the Organization for the Prohibition of Chemical

Weapons (OPCW). The convention prohibits the development, production, stockpiling, use or

transfer of chemical weapons. The CWC should also effect the destruction of chemical weapons.

The Chemical Weapons Convention treaty (CWC) was ratified by the U.S. Senate in 1997. To

establish a treaty that prohibits the development, use and destruction of Chemical Weapons is

superficially a good thing. But contracts must also be designed so that they can be monitored.

This monitoring or compliance with the Chemical Weapons Convention treaty (CWC) is almost

impossible, as Frank J. Gaffney Jr. stated in his essay in the book "Biological and Chemical

Weapons" mentioned. “It is a hollow piece of international legislation that contains no effective

measures for banning chemical weapons.” (Page 73). The potential misuse or “dual-use” of

chemical infrastructure is almost impossible to prohibit or even to control. West Germany’s

assistance to Libya in building and outfitting a chemical factory in the town of Rabta in the mid

1980’s was supposedly for peaceful purpose only, but in truth, Libya was suspected of producing

chemical weapons in this facility (Haugen, D. M. (2001), p. 77).

How many incidents occurred around the world, that involved Chemical Weapons

or Chemical Substances?

To the question of how many incidents occurred around the world, involving the use of

Chemical Agents, it can be said that the use of Chemical substances reaches back all the way to

the first world war in 1915. Chlorine gases were introduced on the battlefield in Ypres, Belgium.

It is known that during this time countermeasures were nonexistent due to the reason that the

initial chemical weapons included the use of phosgene and chlorine. Due to the fact that the

upcoming wars could include the use of many Chemical weapons, gas masks were developed

and produced as one of the defense against these weapons. Another Chemical gas that was used

is called “Mustard Gas”. This gas was the reason of the majority of casualties during World War
LITERATURE REVIEW – CHEMICAL WARFARE 9

I, it attacked the eyes, skin and lungs. Three years later, the United States of America started the

production of lewisite, but never really used it against actual humans. In France and Austria,

experiments with cyanide were conducted. By World War II, Germany had such a big advance in

the field of area of Chemical substances. They had various nerve agents such as the G-Series

(tabun and sarin). Over the years, nations across the globe increased, improved and made

progress in developing Chemical agents, just in case that another World War breaks out. In 1997,

the 1993 Paris convention, also known as the “Chemical Warfare Convention”, were effective

and resulted in many disarmament of nations (Tuorinsky, S. D. (2008), Chapter 1).

In mid-March, 1988, the most brutal chemical attack against Kurds took place, Saddam

Hussein gave the order to put down the Kurdish rebellion and the city of Halabja, which is

located around 150 miles NE of Baghdad. Iraqis Mirage fighter-bombers launched several

attacks on civilians in Halabja, the

bombers dropped high explosive

bombs filled with chemical agents

such as mustard gas, which was

used by Germans in World War II.

The Iraqi chemical attack on

Halabja killed between two and

five thousand people including

thousand were injured.

In 1995, five members of Aum Shinrikyo launched an attack on the Tokyo Subway which

is part of nowadays Tokyo Metro system. In five separate attacks the traitors released sarin on
LITERATURE REVIEW – CHEMICAL WARFARE 10

three lanes during the rush hour, the attack killed 12 people and injured about 50 people. Another

thousand-people suffered from temporary vision problems (Tucker, J. B. (2006), Chapter 14 p.

282-283 and Chapter 17 p. 344-347). Meanwhile, a terrorist group in 2002 at the Nord-Ost

Moscow theater held about 850 hostages. The Russian Government during that time decided to

start an attempt to free these hostages with Chemical agent called “Kolokol-1”, this operation

was a failure due to the reason that out of the 850 hostages, 129 died (Tuorinsky, S. D. (2008),

Chapter 1).
LITERATURE REVIEW – CHEMICAL WARFARE 11

Conclusion

The importance of the subject of chemical warfare is undisputed. It is all the more

surprising that the global public does not consider this topic important enough. Only when

chemical weapons or substances have been used in Syria since 2013 does the world cry out and

politics begins to act. However, politics and its military and scientists must know all too well

what dangers chemical weapons pose, which risks are involved and how good their own

protective measures are. The dangers were known before there were any chemical weapons. The

chemical industry, which has developed and produced substances for everyday use, has certainly

recognized the deadly danger in accidents in their own factories and in animal experiments. It

was only a matter of time that the desire of the military for weapons-grade chemical substances

arose from this deadly danger. So, it was German scientists of the "IG Farben", a civilian

company, that helped the military to save the last chance to win the first world war, but that

ultimately failed. Because even the Allies quickly recognized the possibilities of chemical

weapons. Thus, the arms race began in an area that was largely unknown. Protective measures of

one's own soldiers, let alone the civilian population, were not so intensively researched. It even

went so far that the dangers were downplayed on the part of the military, the scientists and the

chemical industry. Bilateral or global agreements, such as the 1922 Washington Agreement, were

in place, but were less effective. The later Second World War and the time of the cold war were

also a perfect breeding ground for the rearmament, also with chemical weapons. Only after the

collapse of the Warsaw Pact, the reunification of Germany and the policy of detente in the West

and in the East did politics reorient itself. The reduction and destruction of chemical weapons

were just as much on the agenda as nuclear disarmament. In addition, so-called third countries

(Iraq, Iran, Syria, etc.), states that were not as developed as the Western world, in the 1980s, got
LITERATURE REVIEW – CHEMICAL WARFARE 12

access to the chemical industry and thus to chemical weapons. Only then did the "big" countries

realize how great the danger really is. As terrorist groups exploited the possibilities of using

chemical weapons, the military and the politicians began to discuss the destruction of chemical

weapons. But even that took place off the public, which was still not aware of the great danger.

NATO, Russia and many other countries are working hard to make access to chemicals for the

production of chemical weapons more difficult and impossible. But the public must also be more

involved by politics, scientists and the military. It may help to show images of gas victims from

the world wars, Iraq, Syria, and other theaters of war more frequently to increase awareness.
LITERATURE REVIEW – CHEMICAL WARFARE 13

References

Haugen, D. M. (2001). Biological and chemical weapons San Diego, Calif. : Greenhaven Press,

c2001.

Kolodkin, V. M., & Ruck, W. (2006). Ecological risks associated with the destruction of

chemical weapons Dordrecht : Springer, c2006. Retrieved from

Legislation to impose sanctions against iraqi chemical use : Markup before the committee on

foreign affairs, house of representatives, one hundredth congress, second session, on H.R.

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Congressional Sales Office, U.S. G.P.O., 1988.

McCamley, N. J. (2006). The secret history of chemical warfare. Barnsley: Pen and Sword.

Mills, J. E. (1932). Chemical warfare. Foreign Affairs, 10(3), 444-452. 10.2307/20030448

Tucker, J. B. (2006). War of nerves : Chemical warfare from world war I to al-qaeda New York

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editor, shirley D. tuorinsky Falls Church, Va. : Office of the Surgeon General, U.S. Army ;

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Supt. of Docs., U.S. G.P.O., 2008.