Chemical Process

Industries
Outline

 Introduction
 Review on Industries/Processes
 Solutions to Objective Type Qs
 Problem Solving
Introduction

Manufacturin
g
Process

Unit Operations Unit Processes

Common BE Questions

 given reaction, identify the industrial process

 provide the products for a given industrial reaction
 given the equipment or raw material, identify what
industry
 given the industrial product, identify the scientist
who discovered the chemical/process
 for problem-solving: usually Mass Balance Problems
Chemical Process Industries

1. Alkali (Chlor-Alkali) 10. Water Conditioning

2. Electrochemical 11. Metallurgical
3. Acid (Oxidation) 12. Industrial Gases
4. Paper and Paperboard 13. Fertilizer
5. Ceramics 14. Fats and Oils
6. Fermentation 15. Paints and Pigments
7. Glass 16. Cement
8. Sugar 17. Petroleum
9. Nitrogen 18. Rubber
19. Plastic
Alkali Industries

 Manufacture of
o Caustic Soda (NaOH)
o Soda Ash (Na2CO3)
o Baking Soda (NaHCO3)
 Involves the following processes:
o Lime Soda Process
o Solvay Process
Alkali Industries

 Lime Soda Process

o Used for manufacturing caustic soda
o Lime and soda ash as raw materials

Chemical Reactions:
• CaO + H2O  Ca(OH)2
• Ca(OH)2 + Na2CO3  CaCO3 + NaOH
Alkali Industries

 Solvay Process
o Used for manufacturing soda ash
o Limestone and salt as raw materials

Chemical Reaction:
CaCO3 + NaCl  CaCl2 + Na2CO3
Electrochemical Industries

 Industries that heavily rely on oxidation-

reduction reactions
Two types:
o energy-requiring
o energy-producing
Electrochemical Industries

 Energy-requiring
o Electrolytic cells
o Production of metal from salt solutions
 Formation of metal at the cathode
o Production of gases

 Energy-producing
o Batteries
 Wet cell
 Dry cell
Sulfuric Acid Production

 H2SO4 produced thru contact process

Chemical Reactions:
• S + O2  SO2
• SO2 + O2  SO3
• SO3 + H2SO4  H2S2O7
• H2S2O7 + H2O  2H2SO4
Paper and Paperboard

 Paper
o From the word “papyrus”
o Matted or felted sheet usually composed of
plant fibers

 Paperboard
o Heavier and rigid paper with grammage
higher than 250 gsm
Paper and Paperboard

 Steps in Paper Production

1. Fiber preparation – 1% fiber
2. Forming – 20% solids
 Use of foudrinier or cylinder
3. Pressing – 40% solids
 Also called “calendering”
4. Drying
 Remaining water evaporated in steam-heated
cylinders
Clays and Ceramics

 Clays
o consist primarily of Al2O3 and SiO2
(aluminosilicates)
o typical formula is Al2O3 . 2SiO2 . 2H2O

 Ceramics
o heated clay
o interlocked SiO2-Al2O3 network
Fermentation Industry

 Conversion of sugar to alcohol and/or

acid with the aid of microorganisms
 Examples of fermented products are:
o Wine
o Beer / Lager
o Vinegar
o Yogurt
Fermentation Industry

 Beer Production
o Anaerobic conversion of sugar to alcohol
with the aid of Saccharomyces cerevisiae
 Vinegar Production
o Conversion of sugar to acetic acid
Chemical Reactions:
1a. C6H12O6  2C2H5OH + 2CO2
1b. C6H12O6  3CH3COOH
2. C2H5OH + O2  CH3COOH + H2O
Glass Industry

 Glass
o Normally a colorless, transparent solid
o Acquires color from other elements present
o Made of SiO2, Na2O and CaO
o Has low thermal stability and easily breaks
on impact
 Partial replacement of Na2O and CaO with
B2O3 gives rise to borosilicate glass, which has
greater heat and mechanical resistance
Ammonia Production

 Production of ammonia from atmospheric

nitrogen was developed by Fritz Haber (Nobel
Prize Winner)
Chemical Reaction:
N2 + H2  NH3
Metallurgical Industries

 Mining of ores, followed by refining process

o Bauxite/Cryolite - aluminum
o Hematite/Pyrite – iron
o Sphalerite – zinc
o Galena - lead
Metallurgical Industries

 Aluminum Production
o Wöhler process – isolation of aluminum from
aluminum chloride using potassium
o Deville process – modified Wöhler process;
used sodium instead of potassium
o Faraday – extracted aluminum from bauxite
thru electrolysis
Metallurgical Industries

 Baeyer’s process
o Process of refining bauxite to pure Al2O3
Al2O3 + NaOH  NaAlO2 + H2O
NaAlO2 + H2O  NaOH + Al(OH)3
Al(OH)3  Al2O3 + H2O

 Hall-Heroult Process
o Extraction of aluminum thru electrolysis with
the use of carbon electrodes
Al2O3 + 3C  2Al + 3CO
Industrial Gases

 Industrial gases are usually stored as liquid

(pressurized)
 Thru a process called liquefaction
Carried out in three ways:
Heat exchange at constant pressure
Expansion process
Throttling
Fertilizers

 Earliest fertilizers were natural organic

materials such as manure and waste materials
 Primary nutrients needed for plant growth are:
CHONPK
o CHO are readily available in the atmosphere
o NPK come exclusively from the soil
Fertilizers

 Ammonium nitrate
o An excellent nitrogen fertilizer
o Synthesized shortly after Fritz Haber discovered
ammonia production from atmospheric nitrogen
Chemical Reactions:
• N2 + 3H2  2NH3
• NH3 + 2O2  HNO3 + H2O
• HNO3 + NH3  NH4NO3
Fertilizers

 Superphosphate fertilizer
Treatment of phosphate rocks with sulfuric acid

 N-P-K blends
Combination of nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium
(listed in order)
Fats and Oils

 Soaps and Detergents

o Soap: a natural surfactant made from salt of fatty
acid; a good cleaning agent in soft water, but not in
hard water
o Detergent: a synthetic surfactant patterned after
soap’s structure; first commercially developed
detergent is a fatty alcohol sulfate
Paints and Pigments

 Paints are dispersions of

1. Binder - polymer
2. Solvent – water or organic liquid
3. Pigment – compound that either
 Gives color (prime)
 Makes the paint last longer (inert)
 Two kinds:
o Oil-based paints
o Latex paints – aqueous polymer dispersion
Paints and Pigments

 Typical prime pigments

o Titanium dioxide (TiO2)
o Iron oxides (Fe2O3 / Fe3O4)
o Phthalocyanines

 Typical inert pigments

o Talc
o Clay
o Calcium carbonate
Petroleum Industry

 Petroleum and petrochemical products

are produced from the distillation of crude
oil
 Petroleum fractions include
Fuel gas (C1-C4)
Gasoline (C5-C12)
Kerosene (C10-C16)
Diesel (C12-C20)
Fuel Oil (C15-C20)
Lubricating Oil (C16-C24)
Asphalt (C20+)
Petroleum Industry

 Catalytic cracking
Splitting of large molecule to smaller molecules

 Catalytic reforming
Conversion of one hydrocarbon to another
hydrocarbon, typically from lower octane HC to
higher octane HC
Petroleum Industry

 Octane Rating
o Based on the combustion of n-heptane (Octane 0)
and 2,2,4-trimethylpentane (Octane 100)
o Gasoline’s “burning characteristic” is measured
against mixture of n-heptane and isooctane
Rubber Industry
 Natural Rubber (rubber latex)
o Sourced from the sap of the tree
Hevea brasiliensis
o Made up of units of isoprenes
o White, sticky material
o Very difficult to use
 Vulcanization
o Accidentally discovered by Charles
Goodyear by mixing rubber with sulfur, creating
a cross-linked structure that is stronger, more
elastic, less sticky
Plastic Industry

 Properties of Plastics
 Thermal behavior  The “Big Six” of Plastics
Thermoplastic
 PET
Thermosetting
 HDPE
 Structure
Linear
 PVC
Branched  LDPE
Cross-linked  PP
 Preparation Method  PS
Addition Polymerization
Condensation Polymerization
 Objective Type Qs

Answers
Photo courtesy of cdms.com
Problem Solving

1) Catalysts used in the manufacture of sulfuric acid by

chamber and contact processes are respectively

a. V2O5 and Cr2O3

b. Oxides of nitrogen and Cr2O3
c. V2O5 on a porous carrier and oxides of nitrogen
d. oxides of nitrogen and V2O5 on a porous carrier
Problem Solving

2) In contact process, SO3 is absorbed in 97% H2SO3

and not in water because

a. SO3 gas is sparingly soluble in water

b. water forms an acid mist which is difficult to absorb
c. the purity of acid is affected
d. scale formation in absorber is to be avoided
Problem Solving

3) Contact process

a. yields acid of higher concentration than chamber

process
b. yields acid of lower concentration than chamber
process
c. is obsolete
d. eliminates absorber
Problem Solving

4) 20% oleum means that in 100 lb., there are 20 lb of

a. SO3 and 80 lb H2SO4

b. H2SO4 and 80 lb SO3
c. SO3 for each 100 lb of H2SO4
d. H2SO4 and 80 lb SO3
Problem Solving

5) Producer gas consists mainly of

a. CO, CO2, N2, H2

b. CO, H2
c. H2, CH4
d. C2H2, CO2, H2
Problem Solving

6) Oxygen is produced by fraction of air using

a. Linde’s process
b. Claude’s process
c. both Linde’s and Claude’s process
d. Bayer’s process
Problem Solving

7) Raw materials for “Solvay process” for manufacture

of the soda ash are

a. salt, limestone, ammonia, and coke oven gas

b. ammonia, salt, and limestone
c. ammonia, limestone, and coke
d. ammonia, and coke oven gas
Problem Solving

8) Economics of “Solvay process” depends upon the

efficiency of

a. carbonating tower
b. ammonia recovery
c. ammonia recovery and size of plant
d. ammoniation of the salt solution
Problem Solving

9) Cement mainly contains

a. CaO, SiO2, Al2O3, Fe2O3

b. MgO, SiO2, K2O
c. Al2O3, MgO, Fe2O3
d. CaO, MgO, K2O
Problem Solving

10) Gypsum is

a. calcium chloride
b. potassium sulfate
c. sodium sulfate
d. calcium sulfate
Problem Solving

11) Glauber’s salt is

a. calcium sulfate
b. potassium sulfate
c. potassium chlorate
d. sodium sulfate decahydrate
Problem Solving

12) Permanent hardness of water is due to the presence

of calcium and magnesium

a. bi-carbonates
b. sulfates and chlorides
c. carbonate
d. chlorides
Problem Solving

13) Widely used method for conditioning of boiler feed

water is

a. cold lime process

b. coagulation
c. hot-lime soda process
d. sequestration
Problem Solving

14) Hydrazine is largely used

a. as a starting material for “hypo”

b. in photographic industry
c. as rocket fuel
d. in printing industry
Problem Solving

15) Trinitro-toluene is

a. used in glycerin manufacture

b. an explosive
c. used in dye manufacture
d. used in paint manufacture
Problem Solving

16) Oil is

a. a mixture of glycerides
b. a mixture of glycerides of fatty acids
c. solid at room temperature
d. esters of alcohols other than glycerin
Problem Solving

17) Wax is

a. a mixture of glycerides
b. a mixture of esters of polyhydric alcohols except
glycerin
c. liquid at room temperature
d. a mixture of glycerides of fatty acids
Problem Solving

18) Unsaturated oils compared to saturated oils have

a. lower melting point and higher reactivity to oxygen

b. higher melting point and higher reactivity to oxygen
c. lower melting point and lower reactivity to oxygen
d. higher melting point and lower reactivity to oxygen
Problem Solving

19) Rancidity of oil can be reduced by

a. decoloration
b. hydrogenation
c. oxidation
d. purification
Problem Solving

20) Solvent used for the extraction of oil is

a. hexane
b. methyl ethyl ketone
c. furfural
d. benzene
Problem Solving

21) Catalyst used in hydrogenation of oil is

a. nickel
b. platinum
c. iron
d. alumina
Problem Solving

22) Metallic soap is

a. sodium salt of fatty acids

b. potassium salt of fatty acids
c. both sodium and potassium of salt of fatty acids
d. aluminum or calcium salt of fatty acids
Problem Solving

23) Fat splitting catalyst is

a. CaCO3
b. ZnO
c. Alumina
d. Iron
Problem Solving

24) Free alkali in toilet soap is

a. less than that in a laundry soap

b. more than that in a laundry soap
c. same as that in a laundry soap
d. not present in laundry soap
Problem Solving

25) Soap cannot be used with hard water because

a. hard water contains sulfate

b. they form insoluble calcium soaps which precipitate
c. they attach back the removed dirt
d. they increase the surface tension
Problem Solving

26) Builders are added in soap to

a. boost cleaning power

b. act as anti-redeposition agent
c. act as corrosion inhibitor
d. acts as fabric brightener
Problem Solving

27) Biodegradeable detergents

a. can be readily oxidized

b. pose problem in sewerage plant
c. have an isoparaffinic structure
d. should not be used as it spoils the cloth
Problem Solving

28) Which of the following is a detergent?

a. fatty alcohol
b. alkyl benzene sulfonate
c. fatty acids
d. methyl chloride
Problem Solving

29) Yellow glycerin is made into white using

a. activated carbon
b. diatomaceous earth
c. bauxite
d. bentonite
Problem Solving

30) Essential oils are usually obtained using

a. steam distillation
b. extractive distillation
c. solvent extraction
d. leaching
Problem Solving

31) Plasticizers are added to paints to

a. make it corrosion resistant

b. make glossy surface
c. give elasticity and prevent cracking of the film
d. increase atmospheric oxidation
Problem Solving

38) Function of thinner in a paint is to

a. accelerate the oxidation of oil

b. prevent gelling of the paint
c. suspend pigments and dissolve film-forming
materials
d. form a protective film
Problem Solving

39) Varnish does not contain

a. pigment
b. thinner
c. dryer
d. anti-skinning agent
Problem Solving

40) Enamels

a. give good glossy finish

b. are same as varnish
c. are prepared from non-drying oil
d. do not contain pigment
 Problem Solving

Solutions
Photo courtesy of cdms.com
Problem Solving
 Problem No. 41
A 20% aqueous solution of Na2CO3 and 25% aqueous
solution of Ca(OH)2 were reacted caustic soda solution.
The precipitate which formed was analyzed to contain
5% H2O, 1% NaOH, 94% CaCO3. The concentration of
NaOH solution produced is
a. 98.67%
b. 15.68%
c. 20.97%
d. 10.97%
Problem Solving
 Problem No. 42
A plant near Maria Christina Falls is to manufacture NH3
by using a stoichiometric mixture of N2 and H2.
Electrolytic H2 is to be reacted with air to produce NH3.
The moles of H2 present in the mixture when 100 moles
of pure electrolytic H2 is used is
a. 15.053 moles
b. 25.05 moles
c. 84.95 moles
d. 74.95 moles
Problem Solving
 Problem No. 44
In the lime soda process for caustic soda manufacture,
lime is made to react with water and then with soda ash.
Composition of raw materials: Lime: 54% CaO, 1.5%
MgO and inerts; soda ash: 50% Na2O and inerts. The
metric tons of lime that will be needed to produce 100
MT of 25% liquid NaOH is
a. 38.75 MT
b. 30.1 MT
c. 33.12 MT
d. 31.21 MT
Problem Solving
 Problem No. 45
In a liquid Cl2 plant, chlorine gas with some H2 gas is
liquified, with part of the Cl2 made to form HCl, according
to the following diagram. The Cl2 sent to HCl synthesis
plant is MT is
Feed
40.5 MT Liquefaction Exhaust
99 % Cl2
1 % H2 94 % Cl2
HCl synthesis 6 % H2
plant
15 MT liquid Cl2
a. 38.75 MT
b. 30.1 MT Milk of Lime
Absorber
c. 33.12 MT
d. 31.21 MT
Problem Solving
 Problem No. 46
The MT of CaCO3 needed to produce 100 MT of soda
ash daily by the solvay process is
a. 32.08 MT
b. 110.1 MT
c. 94.34 MT
d. 84.34 MT
Problem Solving
 Problem No. 48
A cement company uses 3000 MT of gypsum a month. If
40 MT of this gypsum are needed for every 1000 MT of
clinker to produce Portland cement, the MT of clinker
produced monthly by the cement plant is

a. 75,000 MT
b. 85,000 MT
c. 70,000 MT
d. 90,000 MT
Problem Solving
 Problem No. 49
A cement clinker with the following analysis:
CaO = 64% Fe2O3 = 6.5%
SiO2 = 21% Al2O3 = 7.5%
is produced at a rate of 2000 MT per day. The
materials used are limestone (CaCO3 and inert
materials) containing 97% CaO; iron oxide (Fe2O3 and
inert materials) containing 85% Fe2O3; Shale (SiO2,
Al2O3 and inerts) containing 60% SiO2 and 25% Al2O3
and silica with 90% SiO2 and 10% inerts.
Problem Solving
 Problem No. 49
The MT of silica required for a 300-day operation per
year is
a. 20,000 MT
b. 30,000 MT
c. 25,000 MT
d. 35,000 MT
Problem Solving
Al2O3 + 2NaOH → 2NaAlO2 + H2O
 Problem No. 50 SiO2 + 2NaOH → Na2SiO2 + H2O
Bauxite containing 61% Al2O3 and 8% SiO2 is roasted and
dissolved in caustic soda to form a solution from which iron present
is precipitated and filtered out. By suitable treatment, hydrated
Al2O3 is precipitated in very pure form with recovery of 80% of
the original Al2O3. The SiO2 remains behind as Na2SiO3. The
precipitated hydrated Al2O3 is dehydrated and forms the charge
to an aluminum furnace. If liquid caustic soda (50% NaOH) costs ₱
2,300 per MT, what will be the cost of the caustic soda needed for
producing 1000 kg of pure Al2O3 assuming 10% more than the
theoretical amount of NaOH needed is used?
a. ₱ 6065 c. ₱ 6030
b. ₱ 5035 d. ₱ 6080