EMPLOYMENT LAW OUTLINE

WHY REGULATE THE EMPLOYMENT RELATIONSHIP

A. Regulations of the employment relationship include requiring minimum benefits, putting

restrictions on what ER and EE can agree to, etc.
B. Possible reasons to regulate employment relationship:
1. Unequal bargaining power
i. ER usually in stronger bargaining position, especially w/r/t unskilled EEs.
ii. Could EEs still get what they wanted, just at a higher price? Depends.
iii. This reason doesn’t easily answer the question.
2. Distributive reasons
i. Make sure that EEs get more money/benefits b/c we value work?
ii. Societal desire to redistribute wealth from ERs to EEs.
3. Externalities – both costs and benefits
i. Free market imposes numerous external costs on society
ii. If EEs can’t work, there is cost on society of welfare & other services
iii. Regulation can provide external benefits as well as external costs – can
provide benefits to society as a whole. Exs:
1. Whistleblowing statute that protects EE who brings illegal/harmful
activity to public notice
2. Preventing discharge in violation of public policy
4. Paternalism
i. Belief that EEs may not understand all of the possible problems they could
face w/ ERs
ii. Since EE may never bargain for rights that he doesn’t know he needs, we
should require ERs to give them.
5. Market imperfections
i. Asymmetry of information b/t ER and EE
ii. Monopoly position of certain ERs (goes to unequal bargaining)
iii. Mobility restrictions. EEs can’t really travel anywhere to work.
iv. Collective action problems
6. Moral values of society - minimum values that we believe are necessary:
i. Working in a safe environment
ii. Getting a fair wage
iii. Preventing discrimination
C. Antidiscrimination laws as a model of why we regulate
1. Why do we proscribe discrimination based on certain categories, as outlined by
Title VII, ADEA and ADA?
i. Impact on victim individually
1. Look to the impact on individual of discriminating against him b/c
of that particular reason.
2. Is discrimination based on this reason going to prevent him from
getting a job somewhere else? Ex: difference b/t NYU
discriminating against race vs. left-handedness
 ii. Impact on victim status group
1. These categories particularly harm a group of people
2. Even though statues proscribe discrimination against individuals,
discrimination against an individual can cause harm to a group
3. Does this make a difference b/c of history of discrimination?
iii. Irrelevance
1. These categories are irrelevant to successfully performing job
2. But we don’t prevent discrimination against left-handedness and
that is irrelevant as well
3. Really goes towards history of discrimination.
iv. History of discrimination
1. Social problem of tradition of discrimination against people in
these categories
v. Inefficiency
1. Is discrimination really inefficient?
2. Statistical discrimination (p.51)
a. If discrimination was really inefficient the market would
naturally purge discrimination
b. In some cases, these categories correlate w/ other factors to
make discrimination rational
c. Coworker prejudice can make discrimination rational b/c
such prejudice could make the workplace less efficient
d. Customer prejudice – same rationale
3. Rational statistical discrimination is not an excuse under
discrimination laws
2. All of these are part of the reason why we prohibit discrimination against those
particular categories.
D. Policy discussion – should antidiscrimination laws be symmetrical?
1. Title VII protection is generally symmetrical
i. Protections against race, gender/sex, national origin, are symmetrical
ii. Doesn’t protect only class w/ history of discrimination but both sides
iii. Protects whites and blacks, men and women.
iv. Two caveats to symmetry:
1. Religion
a. Religion is both a status and an activity
b. Title VII has symmetrical protection for discrimination
against religious status but not activity
c. §2000e(j) or §701(j) – religion under Title VII includes
both observance and practice as well as belief and ER must
reasonable accommodate observance and practice.
d. Protection of practice is asymmetrical (?)
2. Pregnancy
a. SC originally held that “sex” did not include pregnancy
b. Congress then enacted Pregnancy Discrimination Act
(PDA) as an amendment to Title VII, including pregnancy
and childbirth in Title VII’s definition of sex (§2000e(k))
 c. However, SC held this was a floor, not a ceiling
d. ERs can give more benefits to pregnant EEs than non-
pregnant EEs if they choose
2. ADEA is asymmetrical and not inclusive
i. Language of statute clear that it only protects workers over 40; No
protection for younger EEs
ii. SC has held that ADEA only protects workers over 40. General Dynamics
Land System, Inc. v. Cline (2004) (p.446).
iii. Why is age different from race/sex/national origin?
1. There is very little actual discrimination against younger EEs
2. Sometimes we benefit age – seniority provisions
3. Older workers are less mobile, have roots where they live and can’t
move around as freely as younger EEs.
3. ADA is also asymmetrical and non-inclusive
i. ADA requires ERs to make reasonable accommodations – requires ERs to
give disabled workers more than neutral treatment
ii. ERs can certainly discriminate in favor of disabled EEs
iii. However b/c of this asymmetry, the protected class is narrowly defined.
We don’t want to protect every minor physical difference:
1. Bragdon v. Abbott (SC 1998) (p.510)
a. SC must decide whether HIV meets statutory definition of
disability. Ct holds that it does.
b. Test is very convoluted/complicated:
i. Must have an impairment that substantially limits a
major life activity (MLA); or
ii. Record of impairment; or
iii. Regarded as having an impairment
c. First part of test contains three parts:
i. Impairment
ii. Substantially limits
iii. MLA
d. This case deals w/ whether HIV limits MLA of
reproduction.
2. Sutton v. United Air Lines, Inc. (SC 1999) (p.524)
a. Is myopia or bad eyesight a disability?
b. EEOC regs define 3 elements of disability – (1) physical or
mental impairment; (2) substantially limits; (3) MLA
c. This case holds that corrective measures must be taken into
account when defining disability
d. If condition can be cured by corrective measures, this must
be taken into account in deciding whether the impairment
“substantially limits” a MLA.
e. ER can discriminate based on physical or medical
characteristics that do not rise to the level of disability as
well as decide that some limiting, but not substantially
limiting impairments make EEs less suitable.
DEFINITION OF EMPLOYMENT RELATIONSHIP

A. Who is an EE?
1. EE or Independent Contractor (IC)?
i. Nationwide Mutual Ins. Co. v. Darden (SC 1992) (p.9)
1. Darden was salesperson for Nationwide. Darden sued for benefits
that he claimed had already vested under ERISA. Nationwide said
Darden not covered by ERISA b/c he was an IC not an EE.
2. ERISA doesn’t define EE so SC looks to common law and adopts
common law control test.
3. SC summarized common law test in CCNV v. Reid
4. Basically comes down to the ER’s right to control, on a daily
basis, the manner and means of EE’s work.
5. Huge number of factors go towards right to control. Some factors
that are relevant:
a. Source of instrumentalities and tools, location of work
b. Extent of hired party’s discretion on when and how long to
work, whether he can assign work to third parties or
hire/fire assistants
c. Method of paying individual and benefits/tax treatment
d. See p.11 for more factors
6. Right to control standard is most important b/c it is derived from
agency law and tort standards of vicarious liability
ii. Common law test is default rule. Only when statute defines EE in a
different way will cts look to statutory purpose
iii. Can we apply the Darden control test to Fair Labor Standards Act?
iv. Secretary of Labor v. Lauritzen (7C 1987) (p.12)
1. Ct must decide if migrant pickle workers are EEs under FLSA.
2. Ct does not use the same “right to control” test from Darden.
3. FLSA defines EE different from ERISA – to employ means “suffer
or permit to work.”
4. This definition and the remedial purpose behind the statute justify
a broader definition of EE than under common law.
5. For FLSA, courts should look to the economic reality, which
includes many of the same factors as control test but also:
a. Opportunity for profit or loss
b. Capital investment
c. Degree of skill required
d. Permanency
e. Extent to which work is integral to ER’s overall business
6. Ct finds that decisive factor is really economic dependence of EEs
7. Economic dependence is the focus of all the other considerations
 8. Easterbrook concurrence – Doesn’t like dependence test and also
thinks origin of common law test (vicarious liability) doesn’t work.
Should look to purpose of FLSA to determine coverage. ?
v. Is this test really different from common law control test?
1. Harper thinks both tests get at the same thing substantively –
whether someone is operating an as an independent business
owner.
a. The factors of control test and many of the factors of
economic realities test ask whether party can control their
own time, control profits, make decisions, etc.
b. This matters b/c of Congressional intent
c. Policy distinction b/t independent entrepreneur and
someone who is economically dependent like EE
2. But formal law suggests more expansive scope under FLSA
2. EE or ER?
i. This question comes up for shareholders and directors
ii. Clackamas Gastroenterology Assoc., P.C. v. Wells (SC 2003) (p.23)
1. Question is whether doctors who are shareholders in medical
practice are EEs for deciding whether ADA covers the business.
2. SC rejects “economic realities” test in favor of EEOC guidelines
which focus on control over shareholder/director.
a. Whether business can hire or fire the individual or set rules
and regulations of individual’s work
b. Extent business supervises individual’s work
c. Whether individual reports to someone higher
d. Whether individual can influence the business
e. Whether parties intended individual to be an EE based on
written agreements or Ks
f. Whether individual shares in profits, losses and liabilities
3. Remands for ct to apply these factors. Basically just Darden test (is
individual in control of their own work situation?)
4. Ginsberg dissent: Control shouldn’t make a difference. For ADA
coverage should look at size of entire business, counting everyone
iii. How would this apply to a law firm w/ partners and associates?
1. This is a very fact specific test
2. Would have to look at compensation structure of the firm – is it an
amount set by management committee or based on formula where
partners can have more control/influence over how much they
make?
B. Problem of Joint ERs
1. Sometimes need to decide if EE has more than one ER to determine ER’s
responsibilities under various laws, like FLSA
2. Lopez v. Silverman (S.D.N.Y. 1998) (p.30)
i. Renaissance contracted out some phases of garment assembly process and
question is whether Renaissance is a joint ER of contractor’s EEs.
 ii. Joint employment arises when “employment by one ER is not completely
disassociated from employment by the other ER.”
iii. Ct will look to economic reality of situation under “totality of
circumstances.” This involves looking at a number of factors:
1. See list p.34-36
iv. Test comes down to whether putative ER takes the risk of loss for both
businesses or not. Does putative joint ER effectively operate the business?
v. It is the ER that takes the economic risks that operates the business (this is
the economic reality)
1. This involves investing capital, supervising, making
entrepreneurial decisions, etc.
vi. Also usually when one company invests capital and is taking economic
risks, it will want to supervise and control to make sure things going well.
vii. Key factor – Renaissance made entrepreneurial decisions for contractors
and took on risk of profit or loss.
3. This question can come up w/ farmers who contract out for workers, temp
agencies where both agency and client are ERs of individual temps, etc.
4. See Dunlop Commission Recommendations on p.39-40 on this issue

FAIR LABOR STANDARDS ACT

Regulation of Compensation

A. Fair Labor Standards Act in general

1. FLSA accomplishes 3 main goals:
i. Prohibits child labor
ii. Sets minimum wage (§206(a))
iii. Requires payment of overtime for more than 40hrs/week (§207(a))
2. New Deal statute from 1938, no max on hours but requires overtime pay.
Contains a private right of action so used against private ERs.
B. Policy discussion of Minimum Wage (MW)
1. MW is still at $5.15/hr. Has no increased w/ inflation
2. Economic theory that forcing increase in minimum wage reduces other market
factors like # of jobs, use of capital, etc.
3. Increase in MW has redistributive effect on income but taxes are better way to get
truly redistributive effect. MW is more politically feasible than tax redistribution.
4. Also has potential trickle up effect, if you increase bottom, higher salaries will
also go up.
5. If increasing MW really reduces # of jobs, there is potential to hurt poorest, least
skilled workers.
6. MW right now might not be enough to attract people away from black market
7. But if we increase MW, by raising costs of entry level jobs, we might actually
force ERs to train EEs and try to keep them, making them truly entry jobs.
C. When are you “working” for purposes of getting MW (also applies to overtime)?
1. IBP, Inc. v. Alvarez (SC 2005) (Supplement p.45)
 i. Question of whether time EEs spend walking from changing area to work
floor and also time waiting to don or doff protective clothing is
compensable under FLSA.
ii. Holding: If wearing protective gear is necessary for work, and is donned
or doffed at ER’s place of business, then walking from changing room to
work area and back are covered as part of the work day. Waiting before
donning not part of work day but waiting before doffing is (b/c of DOL’s
continuous workday rule).
iii. Ct had to construe FLSA and Portal-to-Portal Act which limited what
could be construed as workday. PP Act said that preliminary and
postliminary activities are not part of work day.
iv. Ct found that donning the protective gear in a locker room counted as
starting the workday at ER’s place of business.
v. Issue of deference to DOL regulations
1. Difference b/t interpretative regs and legislative regs
2. Here DOL is simply interpreting what Congress has already said
3. Didn’t go through administrative law making process which would
give it more deference
2. See also Bright v. Houston Northwest Medical Center below

Regulation of Hours of Work

A. Determining Overtime Compensation

1. What time counts as work-time beyond workday?
i. On-call time
1. Bright v. Houston Northwest Medical Ctr. Survivor, Inc. (5C 1991)
(p.965)
a. Technician asked to wear beeper b/c always on-call. When
he is not working, but on-call, he can generally do whatever
he wants except get drunk. Usually got called 2-3/wk.
b. Holding: On-call time is not working time b/c EE free to do
what he likes. Only restriction is staying close to home.
c. EE did not have to remain at ER’s place of business.
d. Definitive issue – can EE use the on-call time effectively
for his or her own purposes?
e. If called more often then more disruptive to your use of
time and might make it work-time.
ii. Commuting time
1. General rule is that this is not work-time b/c it is preliminary or
postliminary to work.
2. But if boss sent you to another office for 1 day, travel might count
3. If travel is part of job, travel time probably doesn’t count.
4. Very fact specific.
iii. Sleep time
1. Skidmore v. Swift & Co. (SC 1944) (p.971)
 2. DOL has specific regs for sleep time
2. What counts as regular rate of pay for determining overtime wage?
i. Must determine regular rate in order to determine overtime
ii. §207(e) – regular rate includes “all remuneration for employment paid to,
or on behalf of, the EE.”
iii. There are 7 statutory exclusions (listed on p.972 & p.385 of stat. supp.)
iv. Big issue here is whether bonuses are included in regular rate
v. Not included if given at sole discretion of ER and not pursuant to K or
prior agreement, or if part of bonafide profit sharing plan
vi. Regular rate of pay is calculated for each workweek.
vii. Unless you get a fixed salary for fluctuating work week. Then you figure
out hourly rate per week based on salary per week divided by hrs that
week
3. Compensatory time off vs. overtime
i. Currently this is only available to state and local govt EEs
ii. This assumes that EEs value leisure time more than overtime pay
4. Justification for overtime
i. Increase employment levels by making it cheaper to hire more workers
than overwork current EEs
ii. Expand leisure time by creating financial disincentive for work beyond
regular workweek
iii. What about EEs who might prefer work to leisure time?
B. FLSA Exemptions (§213 p.392 of stat. supp.)
1. §206 and §207 shall not apply “to any EE employed in a bona fide executive,
administrative, or professional capacity.”
2. DOL Regulations (Pre-2004 regs & new regs) Final regs start p.448 stat. supp.
i. Developed two-prong test for whether EE met §213 exemption:
1. Salary basis test – must be paid on a salary basis
2. Duties test –
a. Must meet salary minimum.
i. $455/wk which equals about $23,600 a year
ii. If you earn less than that, guaranteed overtime
b. Look at primary duties of EE
ii. Must meet both aspects of test to qualify for exemption
iii. New regulation for “highly compensated EEs” (p.468 stat. supp.)
1. Earn above $100,000/yr
2. Such high level compensation is strong indicator of exempt status
eliminating need for detailed analysis of duties
3. Duties go from being primary to just customary duties that they
regularly perform.
iv. New regs for computer EEs (p.462 stat. supp.)
1. Computer EEs can qualify as professionals
2. Must meet primary duties laid out on p.463
v. New regs affected the Duties Test as well as increasing salary, making
minor changes to “primary duty” portions for exec, admin and prof EEs.
3. Salary Basis –
 i. To qualify for exemption EE must be paid a salary and not a wage and that
salary must be over statutory minimum. $ can’t be keyed to quality
quantity of work.
ii. EE is paid on a salary basis if:
1. Regularly receives a predetermined amount constituting all or part
of his compensation; and
2. Amount is not subject to reduction because of variations in quality
or quantity of work performed
iii. Auer v. Robbins (SC 1997) (p.976)
1. Policemen said they did not meet salary basis test b/c their
compensation could be reduced for infractions related to quality or
quantity of work performed.
2. DOL thinks that EEs whose pay is adjusted for disciplinary reasons
do not deserve exempt status b/c true exec, admin and prof EEs are
not disciplined by pay deductions but fired or demoted.
3. Issue was whether EEs here were really “subject to” deductions
4. DOL says EEs are subject to deductions when there is an actual
practice of making deductions or employment policy creates a
significant likelihood of such deductions
5. Here the manual did not effectively communicate that deductions
were an anticipated form of punishment for this particular class of
EEs so EEs did not meet any exception to salary basis test.
6. Such deductions must be certain for specific acts, not just possible.
7. Since covered by salary basis, considered exempt from FLSA
overtime requirements.
iv. Exceptions: times when ER can deduct from salary w/o losing FLSA
exemption for EE. These things can be deducted b/c they are not about
discipline.
1. Absences for a day a more for personal reasons, or for
sickness/accident if according to bona-fide plan/policy
2. Penalties for infractions of major safety rules
3. Others listed p.981
v. Deductions should not be about the work that you do but about something
else you have done. If ER makes deductions from salary that are keyed to
quality or quantity, than the EE fails FLSA exemption.
4. Duties Test
i. Current Test: (all must meet min. salary of $455/wk)
1. Executive EEs (p.448 stat. supp.)
a. Primary duty must be management of the enterprise or
customarily recognized department.
b. Must direct work of 2 or more EEs
c. Must have authority to hire and fire other EEs
2. Administrative EEs (p.451 stat. supp.)
a. Primary duty must be performance of office or non-manual
work directly related to management or general business
ops of ER
 b. Must include exercise of discretion and independent
judgment w/r/t matters of significance
3. Professional EEs (p.457 stat. supp.)
a. Basically two kinds of professionals – creative and learned
b. Perform work requiring advance knowledge in a field of
science or learning customarily acquired over long course
of special study
c. Perform work requiring invention, imagination, originality
or talent in recognized field of artistic or creative endeavor
ii. Dalheim v. KDFW-TV (5C 1990) (p.982)
1. Ct must decide if various EEs who work on news show are exempt
from FLSA based on duties test.
2. Court analyzes general-assignment reporters, news producers,
directors and assignment editors under all three possible
exemptions – exec, admin and prof.
3. What does ct mean by primary duty?
a. Amount of time EE spends on each duty is a factor
b. But really about EE’s most important duty – what the EE
does that is most important to ER
4. Are news reporters professionals?
a. This is the most problematic category for the court.
Reporters are not learned profs so must be creative profs to
be exempt.
b. The law on who is creative prof is not necessarily set
c. Ct says general reporters use skill and experience but not
invention, imagination or talent.
d. No originality so not creative profs.
e. Should cts be judging who has sufficient talent to be
creative?
f. Who gets left out of professional exemption?
i. Self-learned craft person
ii. Traditional blue collar worker who earns a lot but
doesn’t meet duties test.
5. Are producers under administrators?
a. Not creative profs b/c work w/i well defined management
policies.
b. Ct found that producers did not exercise discretion w/r/t
matters of significant importance
c. Did not set policies, promote the business or negotiate
salary or benefits, just worked on segments for newscast.
6. Are directors executives?
a. To be executive duties should include training, disciplining,
evaluating, hiring/firing, etc. Must have authority.
b. No evidence that directors “managed” anything
C. State Wage Payment Laws
1. Can’t use FLSA as a wage payment law. States have own wage payment laws
 2. Truelove v. Northeast Capital & Advisory, Inc. (NY 2000) (p.995)
i. Article 6 of NY Labor Law addresses rights of EEs to payment of wages,
See stat. supp. p.481
ii. Wages are defined in §190(1) and under §193, ERs cannot make
deductions from EE wages (except for deductions authorized by EE or
made for EE benefit, like insurance, health, welfare, etc).
iii. Issue is whether bonuses are considered wages under §190(1)
iv. P had been given a bonus to be paid according to ER in 4 quarterly
installments the next year, each payment contingent on continued
employment. P resigned after 1st payment and ER did not pay other 3.
v. Bonus here not wages b/c dependent on ER’s overall financial success and
ER’s discretion, not EE’s personal productivity.
3. Frito-Lay, Inc. (NY 1997) (p.999)
i. Wages vs. Company Fund
ii. Is this really any distinction from supermarket cashiers who get charged
for discrepancies?

EMPLOYEE RETIREMENT INCOME SECURITY ACT OF 1974 (ERISA)

A. In General
1. Enacted by Congress to combat perception that state laws governing Ks and
pension trusts were incapable of protecting workers who lost jobs prior to
retirement age or whose ERs lacked funds to meet pension obligations
2. Mostly comprised of tax provisions
3. ERISA does not require ERs to provide pension plans. It simply protects promises
that have already been made.
4. Three basic categories of regulation:
i. Minimum standards to promote nonforfeitable pension rights (vesting,
benefit accrual, minimum age & service)
ii. Plan funding requirements to make sure plans can meet promised benefits
iii. Fiduciary standards and disclosure obligations
5. ERISA created Pension Benefit Guarantee Corp., a govt insurer of last resort to
cover payments in event of termination of underfunded plan.
6. Covers both “EE pension benefit” plans and “EE welfare benefit” plans
7. Provides for civil enforcement (private right of action) (§1132 p.418 stat. supp.)
B. Different types of plans
1. Defined-benefit
i. Plans were ERs promise to pay a specific or determinable benefit,
traditionally “final average pay” benefit.
ii. These kind of plans usually “backload” higher benefits w/ longer periods
of service
iii. Benefits are not portable from one ER to another so vesting requirements
are important to these plans
iv. ER bears risk of investment loss
2. Defined-contribution
 i. Creates an individual account for each participant
ii. ER makes contributions to account according to plan
iii. EE decides how to invest the account, sometimes within options provided
by the ER.
iv. Benefits are portable from one ER to another
v. EE bears risk of investment loss
3. Cash-balance
i. These are defined-benefit plans but benefits are determined by reference to
a hypothetical account which looks like a defined-contribution plan
ii. Contributions and interest are credited to hypo account but these
contributions are specified by plan document and do not depend on actual
earnings.
iii. ER bears risk of investment loss
iv. Best for EEs at beginning of career or young EEs. Sometimes bad for
middle age EEs.
v. ERs switching from defined-benefit to cash-balance have faced challenges
that these plans violate ADEA for age discrimination b/c older workers
have lower benefit than traditional defined-benefit plans.
1. Berger v. Xerox Corp. (7th C 2003) (p.1009)
a. As long as cash-balance plans provide same amount of
credit, regardless of age, and same amount of interest credit
for EEs at same level of service, no age violation. (?)
b. Plan must include future interest – interest on hypo account
that would accrue b/t time EE leaves firm and when EE
reaches age 65.

Regulation of Benefit Plans

A. What qualifies as a plan?

1. It is very important to determine which ER programs are ERISA plans b/c of
ERISA’s broad preemption.
2. If a program is a “plan,” state law cannot regulate it, only federal law.
3. ERs usually want programs to be “plans” b/c prefer federal regulation
4. Definition of plans (§1002 p.399 stat. supp.)
i. Welfare benefit plan (§1002(1))
1. Any plan, fund or program established for providing participants or
their beneficiaries, through the purchase of insurance, the
following benefits:
a. Health (medical, hospital, sickness, accident, disability),
b. Death or unemployment
c. Vacation
d. Training
e. Day care/child care or scholarships
ii. Pension benefit plan (§1002(2))
1. Any plan, fund or program that:
a. Provides retirement income; or
 b. Results in deferral of income by EEs to periods after
termination and beyond
2. Regardless of method of calculating contributions or benefits or
method of distributing benefits.
5. Williams v. Wright (11C 1991) (p.1010)
i. When Williams retired, ER Wright sent letter setting out retirement
benefits which included monthly cash payment, insurance for EE and
wife, car and country club membership. ER later terminated all of these
benefits when company was sold. Williams sued and ER claimed not plan.
ii. Ct uses Donovan analysis which says an ERISA plan is established if a
reasonable person can ascertain:
1. The intended benefits
a. Here letter clearly sets out benefits
2. A class of beneficiaries
a. Nothing in ERISA says you can’t over a single EE
b. Use of “class” not an absolute requirement of more than 1
3. The source of financing
a. Plan assets are required by ERISA to be held in trust
b. But ER’s failure to follow ERISA requirement will not
exempt a plan for coverage
c. Even though financed from ER’s general assets, can still be
covered.
4. Procedures for receiving benefits
a. Fort Halifax Packing v. Coyne – ERISA plans usually have
ongoing administrative scheme and one-time severance
payment does not qualify as a plan.
b. Situation here clearly had ongoing procedures – monthly
check and procedure for possible amendments.
iii. EE K vs. plan?
1. EE Ks that promise post-retirement payments incidentally to
current compensation/employment are not ERISA plans
2. Payments must be designated for retirement as they were here.
3. If this had been found to be an EE K, Williams could have brought
a state K action, but not an ERISA action.
iv. Holding: letter setting out retirement benefits constitutes an ERISA plan
B. Who are covered participants?
1. ERISA does not require ERs to provide all EEs w/ benefits
2. Depending on language of plan, it may be hard for ERs to limit plans to only
some EEs.
3. Vizcaino v. Microsoft Corp. (9C 1997) (p.1018)
i. IRS determined that certain workers were EEs and not ICs so workers
sued, wanting to participate in Microsoft’s ERISA plans.
ii. Ct must construe the plans to decide if these particular EEs are covered
iii. Savings Plus Plan (SPP) covers every EE who is 18 yrs old and employed
for at least 6 months. It defines EE as “common law EE who is on the U.S.
payroll of the ER.”
 iv. Ct finds that workers are clearly EEs but must remand to plan
administrator to make a determination of whether the EEs are then
covered by the SPP.
v. So plan administrator must construe “on the U.S. payroll” b/c EEs were
not actually paid from payroll but accounts payable. Administrator should
only being construing plan document, not employment K in making
determination.
vi. Ct is dubious that ER could just assign EEs to accounts payable instead of
payroll to avoid plan participation though.
vii. Plan administrator is set up by ER. Plan administrators must
interpret/construe plan before cts can. Look to intent of makers of plan.
Cts review administrator decisions using arbitrary and capricious standard.
4. Bronk v. Mountain States Tel. Inc. (10C 1998) (p.1026)
i. ERISA does not prohibit an ER from distinguishing b/t groups or
categories of EEs, providing benefits to some but not others.
ii. Just cannot make distinctions based on age or length of service
iii. IRS regs making ERs include “leased EEs” for plans to meet beneficial tax
purposes does not require inclusion for ERISA purposes
C. Disclosure obligations (§1021-1025)
1. Hughes Salaried Retirees Action Committee v. Administrator (9C 1995) (p.1028)
i. Retired Ps wanted list of names and addresses of retired plan participants
to communicate w/ them.
ii. ERISA §104(b)(4) [§1024(b)(4)] provides a right for any participant or
beneficiary to get a copy of the latest summary plan description (SPD),
plan description, annual report…or other instruments under which the plan
is established or operated.
iii. Ps claimed that names and addresses were an instrument b/c plan could
not operate w/o that information.
iv. Ct disagrees. §104(b)(4) requires only disclosure of documents explaining
the plan, the benefits received, procedures to follow, management, etc.
v. ERISA does not require total disclosure, only disclosure that will help EEs
participate in plan and monitor the plan administration. (those are the only
things that further the purpose of ERISA)
vi. Note that there is a real collective action problem here. Participants can’t
get together and finance operations if they don’t know who they are.
2. Firestone Tire & Rubber Co. v. Bruch (SC 1989) (p.1032)
i. ER sold 5 plants but plant EEs were rehired by buyer. ER also had 3
welfare and pension plans, one of offered termination pay if EE was
terminated b/c of a reduction in the workforce. Ps were former EEs who
were rehired by buyer but claimed they were owed benefits under
termination plan. Ps sought info regarding benefits under all 3 plans but
ER claimed they were no longer “participants” so ER had no disclosure
obligations.
ii. Ct of App said they should get info b/c anyone who claims to be a
participant or beneficiary should both be able to sue or get info b/c
otherwise how will they know if they are covered.
 iii. SC reverses. Congress only intended for participants to have access to
information.
iv. To get info, must be a participant or have a colorable claim of being a
participant or beneficiary.
v. Colorable claim that you will prevail in a suit for benefits or that eligibility
requirements will be fulfilled in the future.
vi. It would be too onerous to plans to require disclosure to anyone.
vii. Purpose of disclosure (from leg history): give individual participant info
so that he can enforce his own rights as well as fid obligations in general
viii. Difference b/t participant and beneficiary (both can bring suits):
1. Participant – EE or former EE who is or may become eligible to
receive a benefit
2. Beneficiary – Person designated by participant who may be
entitled to receive a benefit under plan
D. Fiduciary obligations
1. Plan administrators operate a trust so they have fiduciary obligations (laid out in
§1104 and §1106)
i. No mismanagement, misrepresentation, etc.
ii. Obligations apply when administrator is interpreting the plan or construing
the benefits (management & administration vs. setting or amending the
terms of plan)
2. Firestone Tire & Rubber Co. v. Bruch (SC 1989) (p.1037)
i. Question of what standard of review should cts give to decisions of plan
administrators concerning who is participant.
ii. SC looks to common law of trust (since ERISA statutory language makes
it look like a trust)
iii. Denial of benefits is to be reviewed de novo “unless the benefit plan gives
the administrator or fiduciary discretionary authority to determine
eligibility for benefits or to construe the terms of the plan.”
iv. Ct of App decided on de novo b/c of concern over conflict of interest since
ER was also plan administrator and plan was unfunded.
v. SC says that is not the rationale for de novo review (the rationale comes
from trust law) but if plan gives discretion to administrator and there is a
conflict of interest, that can be considered in determining whether there
has been abuse of discretion (arbitrary & capricious standard).
vi. When creating a plan, ER is the settler. ER sets up plan, provides assets,
etc., but ER is not necessarily the administrator/fiduciary.
vii. When administrator of plan is an EE of ER, there is potential conflict of
interest.
3. Lockheed Corp. v. Spink (SC 1996) (p.1042)
i. ER offered an early retirement program. S did not participate and then
retired w/o those extra benefits. Brought suit claiming ER violated duty of
care by amending Plan to create early retirement program. Also that plan
engaged in prohibited transaction b/c used fund assets to “purchase”
release agreements from retiring EEs, thereby benefiting ER, who Ps
claimed were a party in interest.
 ii. Two main issues:
1. Is ER acting as a fiduciary?
2. Is this a prohibited transaction?
iii. Holding: Plan sponsors who alter terms of plan are not fiduciaries.
iv. When ERs set up plan, or amend it, they are not fiduciaries but act as
settlers of a trust. Can adopt, modify, or terminate plan at any time.
v. Fiduciaries exercise discretionary authority or control over plan
management and administration
vi. Since not fiduciary, no duty of care to exercise when amending.
vii. If ER is not acting as fiduciary, section on prohibited transactions doesn’t
apply – that section only applies to fiduciaries.
viii. However, ct asks if this is a prohibited transaction and finds that it is not.
ix. Plan sponsors receive many benefits from offering plans and often require
EEs to do certain things to receive those benefits – that is not covered by
prohibited transactions. Prohibited transactions are bargains that pose a
special risk of plan underfunding b/c they are struck w/ plan insiders.
x. FN that if benefit payments were merely sham transaction for actually
prohibited transaction, that would be different story.
4. ER can br/fid duty by badly advising EEs as well. See Varity Corp v. Howe
(p.1051) where ER persuaded EEs to work for subsidiary claiming benefits would
stay the same but knowing that subsidiary was insolvent. Partly acting as plan
administrator in this case b/c administrators answer questions about plans.
5. Welfare benefit plans – retiree health care benefits
i. Welfare benefits are not subject to vesting requirements
ii. Can’t bring ERISA claims for welfare plans terminating
iii. Circuit split on whether EEs can bring K claims when ERs made
unqualified promise of post-retirement benefits. See Yard-Man (p.1053)
E. Non-interference/Anti-retaliation obligations – ERISA §510 (§1140 p.422 stat. supp.)
1. Antiretaliation provision has 2 parts:
i. Can’t fire EE for testifying or giving info in any inquiry under Act or
exercising any right entitled to under Act.
ii. Can’t discharge EE before vesting for purpose of preventing benefits from
vesting.
2. Inter-Modal Rail EEs v. Atchinson, Topeka & Santa Fe Rail (1997) (p.1057)
i. First ER offered more extensive welfare plan than second ER (who bought
company). EEs complained that they were discharged in violation of §510
b/c the transfer prevented them from getting those welfare benefits.
ii. Ct of App held that §510 did not apply to welfare benefit plans b/c welfare
benefits do not vest under ERISA (while upholding claim re pension plan)
iii. SC rejects this holding. §510 language only says plan, not pension plan
and uses word “rights” not nonforfeitable rights.
iv. ER may change/amend/terminate welfare plans but it must do so in
accordance w/ formal procedures set up by plan. ERs must have some
rationale not directed at specific individual.
v. If ER does not follow those procedures and changes plan in order to deny
particular Ps welfare benefits, Ps can bring §510 claim.
 3. Andes v. Ford Motor Co. (p.1061)
i. An ER’s decision to sell or close down an operation would not normally
implicate §510 merely b/c the action cause the termination of EEs.
ii. Language of §510 appears to be actions directed at individuals.
iii. Legislative intent is to prevent “economic sanctions” or “violent reprisals”
and selling a subsidiary is neither.
iv. In some occasions, selling a subsidiary could implicate §510 if an ER did
it b/c almost all the EEs at that plant were about to come into rights.
4. Gavalik v. Continental Can Co. (p.1062)
i. Some cts have read “specific intent” into §510.
ii. Ct found that pension eligibility was determinative factor in ER’s
challenged actions. There was interference here.
5. McGann v. H & H Music Co. (5C 1991) (p.1063)
i. ER had welfare benefit plan allowing lifetime benefits up to $1 mill.
McGann got AIDS and started claiming reimbursements. ER then decided
to change plan so that benefits for AIDS would only be up to $5000.
ii. Ct holds that ERs can change terms of welfare plans w/o violating §510
iii. Nothing in the welfare plan document indicated that coverage would
remain the same, in fact doc said ER could change at any time.
iv. Therefore $1 mil coverage was not a right EE was entitled to under §510.
v. ERs must be able to react to increasing costs. If couldn’t change terms of
welfare plans b/c of §510, ERs would never offer them in the 1st place.
vi. ERISA does not prevent ERs from discriminating in creation, alteration
and termination of benefit plans and can discriminate w/r/t diseases.
vii. ER can make rational business decisions.
6. Result – not all business decisions are reachable by §510. Business decisions
pretty much preempt §510 except in egregious cases.

Preemption - §514 (§1144)

A. ERISA §1144 is a statement of express field preemption. (stat. supp. p.422)

B. ERISA supersedes any and all state laws insofar as they relate to any EE benefit plan.
What is problematic is that ERISA does not require ERs to provide any minimum
benefits but state laws requiring minimum benefits could be superseded by ERISA
C. California Federal Savings & Loan Assn. v. Guerra (SC 1987) (p.1179)
1. Title VII has express conflict preemption, not express field preemption. This
means that it only preempts when there is a direct conflict b/t state and fed law.
§708 (§2000e-7) explains this conflict preemption.
2. CA requiring ERs to give unpaid leave and reinstatement to pregnant EEs is not in
direct conflict w/ PDA. Therefore not preempted.
3. Congress only intended the PDA to be a floor beneath which benefits may not
drop, not a ceiling above which they may not rise.
4. Most likely not preempted under ERISA either b/c not a “plan.” It is a benefit that
ERs must give but it is not part of an ongoing administrative plan.
5. If state law required ERs to give more benefits that made it look like an actual
plan, that might be preempted by ERISA.
D. Shaw v. Delta Airlines (SC 1983)
1. The words “relate to” in §1144 should be construed expansively to mean any law
that has a “connection with or reference to” any EE benefit plan.
2. But §1144(d) exempts from preemptions other fed laws like antidiscrimination.
Any state law that does not go beyond Title VII protections is really a part of the
fed antidiscrimination scheme and therefore not preempted by ERISA.
3. Preemption also does not apply to state laws regulating plans outside of ERISA,
those that are maintained for churches, govt, workmen’s comp, unemployment
comp and disability insurance (§1003(b))
4. Since disability benefits are not regulated by ERISA, no preemption.
E. Fort Halifax Packing Co. v. Coyne (SC 1987) (p.1184)
1. ME statute required ERs to provide one-time severance payment to EEs in event
of a plant closing. ERs said this statute was preempted by ERISA which includes
severance payments in the type of benefits that can be provided by welfare plans.
2. SC holds this is not preempted by ERISA preemption only applies to laws having
a connection with or reference to EE benefit plans.
3. Since one-time payment is not a plan, ME statute is not preempted.
4. Preemption ensures that ERs will not have to deal w/ complicated and conflicting
administrative schemes causing them not to give any benefits at all.
F. Massachusetts v. Morash (SC 1989) (p.1194)
1. Certain types of regular compensation and payroll practices including vacation
benefits are not preempted by ERISA.
2. Criminal prosecutions for unpaid vacation benefits are not preempted by ERISA
3. Such benefits are tied up w/ general payroll and therefore do not require the
separate administrative scheme that ERISA was intended to protect.
G. FMC Corp. v. Holliday (SC 1990) (p.1189)
1. PA law prevented EE welfare benefit plans for subrogating EE insurance claims.
ER here provided insurance on its own, did not have separate insurance to
administer benefit plan. Claimed that under ERISA, even though insurance laws
are not preempted, there is another clause saying no ER will be deemed an
insurer. (Ct must interpret preemption clause, saving clause and deemer clause)
2. The savings clause means that general insurance laws are not preempted. Except
that the deemer clause means that EE benefit plans shall not be deemed an insurer
for purposes of state insurance laws.
3. So even though PA’s law references and has a connection w/ benefit plans
governed by ERISA, it is saved from preemption by savings clause.
4. However, Ct reads deemer clause to exempt self-funded ERISA plans from state
laws regulating insurance. If plan uses a separate insurer, that insurer must
comply w/ state law even though providing insurance for ERISA purposes. But an
ER who insures plan themselves does not have to follow state insurance law b/c
of preemption.
5. Stevens dissent – doesn’t like distinction b/t self-insured plans and plans insured
by 3rd parties. Doesn’t think this was meant to be distinction in deemer clause and
goes against purposes of ERISA.
6. Ex: Metropolitan Life Ins. v. MA (p.1195) – state can require insurers to provide
minimum benefits in EE health-care plans that cover hospital stays.
H. NY State Conference v. Travelers (Handout)
1. SC cuts back slightly on ERISA preemption. Laws having indirect economic
impacts on plans will not necessarily be preempted.
2. NY law here regulated hospital charges, making hospitals charge commercial
insurers a surcharge to encourage use of Blue Cross/Blue Shield plans. ERs said
that this was preempted by ERISA b/c such plan increased the cost of commercial
insurance and therefore had a “connection with” EE benefit plans.
3. NY law has only an indirect economic effect on choices made by all insurance
buyers, both ERISA plans and others.
4. Such an indirect effect does not bind plan administrators to any choice and
therefore does not regulate plans themselves. Just goes to cost of plans.
5. If Ct preempted any law that indirectly effects in this way, nothing would be left.
I. Preemptive effect of ERISA §502 (§1132)
1. §502 carries force of “complete preemption” w/r/t claims for benefits related to an
EE benefit plan. This is even broader than “field preemption.”
2. This involves a kind of procedural preemption. ERISA claims can ONLY be
brought in federal court.
3. Pilot Life Insurance Co. v. Dedeaux (SC 1987) (p.1197)
i. §502 preempts tort and br/K claims for ER’s failure to pay benefits under
an ERISA regulated plan.
ii. Congress intended §502 to be the exclusive vehicle for claiming improper
processing of benefits.
iii. §502 provides exclusive remedy for §510 claims as well (Ingersoll-Rand)
4. Aetna Health Ins. v. Davila (Handout)
i. Plan participant & beneficiary brought suit against insurance co. (who
administered EE benefit plan) for refusing treatments, claiming br/duty of
care required by TX law.
ii. If an individual could have brought his claim under §502, where there is
no other independent legal duty implicated by D’s actions, the only cause
of action is under ERISA. All other actions completely preempted.
iii. Here Ps only received benefit as a result of being in the plan. The denial
was a denial of a plan benefit. The claim is not independent of the ERISA
plan. So state cause of action is preempted.
iv. Pegram v. Herdich – medical malpractice claims are not preempted. In this
case, physician made both treatment and eligibility determination. Mixed
administrative and medical decision so not preempted.
5. Under ERISA, only remedy provided is equitable. You can get reimbursement for
treatment you pay for yourself but not damages resulting from no treatment.
J. Summary: Requirements for ERISA preemption:
1. Is it a plan? Must have a separate ongoing administrative scheme.
i. Fort Halifax – one time payment not administrative scheme
ii. Morash – payments tied up w/ general payroll not a separate
administrative scheme for paying benefits
2. Does the state law “relate to” an EE benefit plan?
i. Shaw – Relate to means any “connection with or reference to” a plan.
ii. Travelers – Not all indirect impacts relate to a plan
 3. Is there an exception?
i. §1144 says that ERISA preemption does not apply to certain other areas.
ii. Criminal law, law regulating insurance, banking or securities, and law
regulating disability (SS benefits)
iii. Also no preemption for any state law in aid of federal law
iv. No preemption for state laws regulating plans outside of ERISA coverage
– govt plans, church plans, workers comp, unemployment comp, disability
insurance.
4. Is §502 the exclusive remedy?
i. A claim for benefits under any ERISA plan must be brought under §502.
ii. Cannot bring any state action to recover a benefit under an ERISA plan,
even if the theory is K, tort, common law, etc. (only something like
malpractice is not preempted).
iii. ERISA will force removal to federal ct for any state claim related to a plan
benefit.

TITLE VII AND DISCRIMINATION

Proving Motivation in Intentional Discrimination

A. McDonnell Douglas Corp. v. Green (SC 1973) (p.57)

1. Lays out model of proof for Title VII individual discrimination claim
2. Step 1 – Plaintiff makes prima facie case for discrimination
i. P can do this by showing the following:
1. P belongs to protected class (gender, race, religion, etc.)
2. P applied and was qualified for job/promotion for which employer
sought applicants
3. P was rejected despite qualifications
4. After rejection, position remained open and employer continued to
seek applicants
ii. P can also survive summary judgment w/ hard evidence of discrimination
like smoking gun stmt of intent. (but this is highly unlikely)
iii. This is just one way for P to prove intent of ER to discriminate. P doesn’t
have to do this but it is typical way to prove intent. (Title VII is
symmetrical and Ps that don’t belong to a protected class can still prove
discrimination, just must other ways to prove it)
iv. This proof model creates a presumption of discrimination.
3. Step 2 – Burden of production shifts to ER to articulate a legitimate
nondiscriminatory reason for the employment action.
i. Here ER claimed EE participated in unlawful conduct (“stall in”)
ii. If this is proven, then any probative effect the prima facie evidence would
have towards discrimination is gone.
4. Step 3 – Burden shifts back to P to show that proffered reason is simply a pretext
or for P to directly show bad motive (thru discriminatory stmts)
 i. P can show this by saying others who participated in unlawful conduct
were not similarly disciplined (comparative evidence) or by showing prior
poor treatment of minorities, etc.
B. Texas Dept. of Community Affairs v. Burdine (SC 1981) (p.60)
1. Clarifies McDonnell Douglas
2. P always retains the burden of persuasion as to discrimination!
3. Step 1 – P must first prove prima facie case. If D does not respond w/ any
legitimate reason, P has to win. This is unusual for prima facie case.
4. Step 2 – D need not persuade the ct it was actually motivated by proffered reason.
Articulating a reason will raise an issue of fact as to discrimination and if P does
not respond to this, D will win (even after Reeves)
5. Step 3 – P has burden of proving that reason is just pretext. This burden mergers
w/ P’s ultimate burden of persuading ct that ER intentionally discriminated.
i. Pretext can be shown in two ways, either directly or indirectly:
1. Direct evidence of discrimination (show discriminatory reason is
more likely – statistics of discrimination, bad stmts, poor treatment
of other minorities, etc.)
2. Indirectly by showing that articulated reason is unworthy of
credence (showing bad motive by absence of good)
6. Purpose of these models is to figure out real reason for employment decision.
7. Note: Ps never have to prove animus. Title VII is not about animus it is about
consideration of impermissible factors at some level of causation. Even rational
discrimination done w/o animus would be illegal under Title VII.
8. Note: Certain elements might work against inference of discrimination but are not
determinative one way or another (i.e. when discriminator is also from protected
class or discrimination is only against a subset of the protected class).
C. Reeves v. Sanderson Plumbing Products, Inc. (SC 2000) (p.69)
1. SC clarifies whether simply disproving pretextual reason is enough for a finding
of intentional discrimination.
2. Ct of App had rejected jury’s finding of age discrimination b/c found that while P
had shown that real reason was a pretext, P had not shown actual bad motive.
3. This was based on St. Mary’s Honor Center v. Hicks (p.76) – said that proof of
pretext alone does not require a finding of discrimination.
4. SC now clarifies that proof of pretext (showing reason was unworthy of
credence), combined by P’s prima facie evidence, may permit a finding of
intentional discrimination.
i. P does not always have to have independent evidence of discrimination.
ii. So based on disproving pretext, P can win but he doesn’t have to.
iii. If there is strong evidence of another motivation or evidence disproving
pretext is weak, this could lead to an inference of no discrimination.
5. Here P had evidence beyond pretext. Had some evidence that went directly to bad
motive – ageist comments.
D. ADEA cases
1. O’Connor v. Consolidated Coin Caterers Corp. (SC 1996) (p.443)
i. Ps don’t have to prove that person hired in their place was not from
protected class. This is not part of McDonnell Douglas proof model.
 ii. “The fact that one person in the protected class has lost out to another
person in the protected class is thus irrelevant, so long as he has lost out
because of his age.”
iii. However, this might weaken inference of discrimination.
2. Hazen Paper Co. v. Biggins (SC 1993) (p.470)
i. Taking into account eligibility for pension or vesting of benefits, while
correlated with age, is not the same as taking age into account.
ii. ADEA is aimed only at considerations based on age, not eligibility for
pensions (which is still illegal by ERISA §510).
iii. Firing someone b/c pension is about to vest does not implicate the
stereotypes about older workers that ADEA was meant to erase.
iv. Kennedy concurrence also implies that Title VII’s disparate impact model
is not appropriate for ADEA.
E. Price Waterhouse v. Hopkins (SC 1989) (p.354)
1. Sex stereotyping case. Developed framework for mixed motive cases. Two main
elements to the case – sex stereotyping as Title VII sex discrimination, and
models of causation for mixed motive cases.
2. Sex stereotyping:
i. Comments that Hopkins should act more femininely is exactly what Title
VII is intended to get rid of. Such stereotyping puts women in Catch-22.
ii. Note: difference b/t descriptive stereotypes (about way people actually do
act, which may be true but are still illegal under Title VII) and normative
stereotypes (about way you think people should act, also illegal).
iii. It is this Catch-22 that is the key thrust of the case and makes it different
from grooming code cases where ERs can impose different but equally
burdensome requirements on both men and women.
3. Mixed motive causation:
i. Brennan plurality:
1. Mixed motive cases are those where both legitimate and
illegitimate reasons motivated an ER decision.
2. When is an employment decision made b/c of sex in a mixed
motive case?
3. P must show that sex was a motivating factor.
4. If P can show it was motivating factor, D can then avoid liability
by showing it would have made the same decision even if it had
not taken that factor into account.
5. So suggestion as to how P must prove that sex was a motivating
factor.
ii. O’Connor concurrence:
1. O’Connor and White felt that P must prove that sex was a
substantial factor in the employment action in order for the burden
to shift to the D.
2. Also requires P to use direct evidence to show substantial factor.
F. Congress amended Title VII w/ Civil Rights Act of 1991 and one of the changes was
specifically directed at the affirmative defense that PWH set up for mixed motive cases.
This is §703(m) and §706(g)(2)(B).
G. Desert Palace v. Costa (SC 2003) (p.79)
1. This case deals w/ causation standard for Title VII cases. It interprets §703(m) and
§706(g)(2)(B) which Congress added to Title VII in order to overrule parts of
Price Waterhouse.
2. There are 4 levels of causation:
i. Contributory (motivating or substantial cause)
ii. Determinative (sufficient cause, more than 50%)
iii. But for (necessary cause, other causes less than 50%)
iv. Sole (the only cause)
3. Court agrees that causation standard for mixed motive cases is still contributing
factor (motivating or substantial) but this case clarifies what kind of evidence P
must introduce in order to demonstrate that impermissible considerations were a
motivating factor.
4. P does not have to show direct evidence of discrimination in order to receive a
mixed motive jury instruction. P can use both circumstantial and direct evidence.
5. This basically rejects O’Connor’s concurrence in PWH.
6. Ct notes that this motivating factor test might not be applicable outside of mixed
motive cases. This has created a dichotomy b/t pretext cases and mixed motive
cases. In fact, this case has not been applied outside of mixed motive context.
H. Pretext cases vs. mixed motive:
1. Every case could be a mixed motive case but it depends on the nature of P’s proof
of discrimination.
2. Pretext model of proof is still alive and well b/c of the indirect way that Ps can
prove discrimination. Under pretext, Ps can prove discrimination by showing an
absence of the supposedly legitimate motive (that it is unworthy of credence).
3. For pretext cases, Ps must show that b/c of the absence of any good motive, the
illegitimate consideration was the sole factor. (so not actually mixed motive)
4. For mixed motive cases, P usually has some kind of direct evidence of bad intent,
whereas under pretext cases, P does not have to have any direct evidence of bad
intent, can simply infer it from absence of good intent.
5. That is why there is continued bifurcation of pretext cases and mixed motive.
6. If P cannot totally rule out the “legitimate” reasons, or has some kind of more
direct evidence of discrimination, then must proceed as a mixed motive case. And
under Costa, P is entitled to a mixed motive jury instruction if can show by either
direct or circumstantial evidence that discrimination played a part.
7. Many Ps would prefer to go pretext route b/c can get more damages. In a mixed
motive case, if ER comes back and can show that he would have made same
decision even in the absence of the bad intent, P can only get limited remedies.
Remedies are not limited for pretext cases b/c there is only bad intent.
I. Damages for intentional discrimination (§706(g)):
1. Title VII originally limited remedies to equitable remedies b/c did not want to
have jury trials (necessary for legal remedies) in the South where juries might not
award anything to black EEs.
2. 42 U.S.C. §1981 was provision that can be used in race discrimination cases in
order to get more damages. It provided for jury trial and legal damages.
 3. However §1981 did not provide remedies for sex discrimination or sexual
harassment. So Congress added §1981A in 1991.
4. §1981A adds damages for all cases of intentional discrimination. It can include
compensatory and punitive damages (but only for malice or reckless indifference
to fed rights). It also caps the damage awards.
5. 1991 Amendments adding §706(g) affirmative defense limit the remedies
available under mixed motive cases to only equitable remedies.
6. §706(g) also requires Ps to mitigate their damages.
J. McKennon v. Nashville Banner Pub. Co. (SC 1995) (p.88)
1. “after acquired evidence of wrongdoing”
2. P is not barred from relief under Title VII or ADEA just b/c during litigation ER
discovered wrongdoing that would have provided legitimate reason to fire.
3. If P can prove illegal action at time of discharge, later discovery of wrongdoing
does not matter for purposes of ER liability.
4. However in such cases, reinstatement and front pay are inappropriate.
5. Purpose of Title VII and ADEA is to discourage discriminatory motivations. So
cts forgive unclean hands when it serves important public purposes.
K. Causation under ADEA
1. The 1991 Amendments and Desert Palace only apply to Title VII, not the ADEA.
2. So PWH model is controlling for ADEA.
3. So lower cts have followed Hazen in requiring Ps to show that age was a
substantial (perhaps even determinative) influence on the outcome and they must
do this through direct evidence.

Proving Pattern & Practice of Illegal Motivation

A. This highlights difference b/t systemic disparate treatment and individual disparate
treatment. Not a lot of case law though since hard to bring these cases.
B. Systemic discrimination is not disparate impact. It is individual discrimination but
throughout an entire business. A pervasive pattern of individual discrimination affecting
more than one individual.
C. These cases are brought by the US under §707. EEOC handles cases against private ERs
and AG handles public ERs.
D. All of these cases typically involve statistical evidence as well as evidence of individual
cases of discrimination.
E. Int’l Brotherhood of Teamsters v. U.S. (SC 1977) (p.94)
1. Govt must prove more than mere occurrence of isolated or sporadic
discriminatory acts.
2. Must establish that discrimination is ER’s standard operating procedure.
3. Govt introduced statistical evidence
i. Looking at % of minorities among all EEs
ii. Looking at % of minority EEs compared to population % where business
was located.
4. Bolstered statistical evidence w/ individual testimony of discrimination.
5. Ct reaffirms approval of statistical evidence in discrimination cases.
 6. Evidence of the racial composition of general population is not used to argue that
workforce must be racially balanced or reflect gen. pop. It is only used b/c such
imbalance is often a telltale sign of purposeful discrimination.
7. Partly asking whether the comparison should be to an internal labor market
(ILM) (% of minority line drivers compared to % of minorities in all jobs) or the
relevant labor market (RLM) outside of the company?
8. Is the RLM an internal one or an external one?
F. Hazelwood School District v. U.S. (SC 1977) (p.98)
1. Disagreement over proper comparison when using statistical evidence of racial
composition of teachers.
2. Dispute is over what is the RLM in this case – all schools in county including city
schools or just suburban schools?
3. City schools had set a goal of hiring 50% minorities so they had a much higher %
and Hazelwood looked much more discriminatory when compared w/ all county
schools than w/ just non-city schools.
4. SC remands for determination of which comparison is best.
5. Stevens dissent – before Title VII, Hazelwood had clearly discriminatory practices
and it has not significantly changed them since. That lack of change combined w/
disparity in % of minority teachers is enough for liability.
G. Teamsters, Part II (p.221)
1. Discusses why looking at the applicant pool to determine discrimination is not
appropriate. B/c of past discrimination, many minorities might have been deterred
from even applying.
2. Also discusses remedies available for individuals. Individual EEs get presumption
from finding of pattern & practice so burden shifts to ER.
H. Remedies for Pattern & Practice
1. EEOC can get much broader remedies enjoining and entire system of
discrimination and other equitable remedies as may be appropriate.
2. Individuals can get retroactive remedies by showing:
i. Member of the class
ii. Applicant who met minimum qualifications for job
3. D must then bear burden of proving that the individual was rejected for a
legitimate reason.

Proving Discriminatory Effects (Disparate Impact)

A. §703(k) explains disparate impact actions. Disparate impact is proved if complaining

party shows that a practice has a disparate impact and ER fails to demonstrate that the
practice is job related for the position in question and consistent w/ business necessity.
B. Complaining party can also demonstrate that an alternative practice is available and ER
has refused to adopt such alternative.
C. Griggs v. Duke Power Co. (SC 1971) (p.119)
1. D had segregated work force. After Title VII became effective, D instituted
aptitude tests for all depts. except “Labor” which was primarily black. Ps argued
that the aptitude test (and high school diploma requirement) had a disparate
impact on black EEs and was intended to discriminate against them.
 2. SC holds that Title VII prohibits both overt discrimination and also practices that
are fair in form but discriminatory in operation.
3. The deciding factor is business necessity. If the practice/test is not related to job
performance, the practice is prohibited.
4. EEOC regs say that only job related tests are permitted.
D. CT v. Teal (SC 1982) (p.123)
1. ER had test that all EEs must pass in order to get hired as permanent supervisors.
A higher % of blacks failed the test than whites. But from the % that passed, ER
hired a larger % of the blacks that passed than the whites that passed in order to
compensate for the discriminatory effect.
2. SC held that there was still a violation of Title VII.
3. No evidence that the test was job-related test and it clearly has a disparate impact
on black. ER efforts to compensate for this in terms of the “bottom line” does not
save the practice.
4. Purpose of disparate impact claim (and Title VII) is to “achieve equality of
employment opportunities and remove barriers that have operated in the past to
favor and identifiable group over others.”
5. Not a unanimous decision and has been criticized.
E. Dothard v. Rawlinson (SC 1977) (p.130)
1. AL statute had height and weight cut off for prison guards. This obviously had a
disparate impact on women.
2. Clear that there was no discriminatory intent here but a facially neutral standard
that has disparate impact still violates.
3. ER said this was actually job related b/c prison guards need a certain amount of
strength. But ct said that there are other ways to test for strength that would not
necessarily have a disparate impact. And if ER used an actual test of strength
instead of this proxy, then it really would pass definition of job related.
4. P may show that other selection devices w/o a similar discriminatory effect would
also serve the ER’s legitimate interest.
F. Watson v. Forth Worth Bank & Trust (SC 1988) (p.139)
1. Promotion decisions based on discretion of supervisors.
2. SC holds that disparate impact can apply both to practices using “objective”
criteria such as tests and “subjective” criteria such as interviews and evaluations
(and combinations of both).
3. If disparate impact could not also be applied to subjective decisions, ERs could
completely get around liability for disparate impact objective tests by combining
them w/ some subjective element.
4. Subjective or discretionary employment practices can be analyzed under disparate
impact analysis.
5. However, P should identify the specific employment practice that is challenged.
G. Wards Cove Packing v. Atonio (SC 1989) (p.143)
1. Two issues – what is relevant labor market for statistical comparison? And what
burden does P and ER have in showing practice is due to business necessity?
2. Proper statistical comparison:
 i. Proper comparison is not just b/t percentages in the internal labor market
but b/t the racial composition of the at-issue jobs and the racial
composition of the qualified population in the relevant labor market.
ii. Can’t just compare % of whites and blacks in cannery positions and
noncannery positions. Must ask what % of whites and blacks are qualified
to have cannery positions, etc.
iii. Otherwise any time workforce was racially imbalanced there would be a
finding of discrimination.
3. P must point to particular practices that have caused disparate impact, can’t just
show bottom line of racial imbalance.
4. Burden of proving business necessity
i. If Ps show a particular practice has disparate impact, burden shifts to ER
to show that such practice is a business necessity (job related)
ii. Ct here holds that ER only bears production burden, not persuasion.
5. Congress specifically rejected this holding in 1991 Amendments.
6. §703(k) says that ER must demonstrate that practice is job related and consistent
w/ business necessity.
7. Statute and legislative history make clear that “demonstrate” means bearing
burden of both production and persuasion.
8. ER bears burden of persuasion that practice is actually a business necessity.
9. If ER meets burden, P can then come back and show that there is an alternative
that meets business necessity but has less disparate impact. If ER refuses to adopt
alternative, still liable. P bears burden of persuasion w/r/t alternative practice.
H. Smith v. City of Jackson (SC 2005) (Supp p.6 )
1. Is disparate impact analysis available for ADEA cases? Yes.
2. Nothing in Hazen limits availability of disparate impact for ADEA. ADEA uses
same language that was interpreted in Griggs so disparate impact works here too.
3. However, scope of liability for disparate impact is narrower under ADEA
i. Inclusion of language in ADEA saying that differentiation among workers
can be based on “reasonable factors other than age” show that things like
seniority and position can be taken into account.
ii. So unlike business necessity test, ADEA only requires reasonableness.
iii. Lastly, since 1991 Act doesn’t apply to ADEA, Wards Cove is the rule and
ERs only have burden on production on showing business necessity.
I. Is Cost a Defense to Disparate Impact?
1. Cost is not a defense for intentional discrimination but it is a defense for disparate
impact. That is valid justification under disparate impact (?)
2. EEOC reg says that cost is not a defense for actually taking an impermissible
factor into account (Title VII factors or age) however, cost can be a possible
defense to disparate impact claims.
3. Cost is a valid business consideration so must be a balancing b/t impact of
practice on individuals against business as a whole.
J. Remedies available:
1. No compensatory or punitive damages. Only atty fees and back pay.
2. Plus injunction against practice.
K. Disparate impact summary:
 1. Proving disparate impact:
i. Typically appropriate comparison is % of qualified members of protected
class in relevant labor market (like geographical area) compared to % of
members of protected class actually holding job.
ii. Only use internal labor market for promotion cases (Teal)
2. Business necessity – ER must prove business necessity
3. Alternative – P must prove alternates are available.

Harassment

A. Harris v. Forklift Systems, Inc. (SC 1993) (p.360)

1. H’s boss made numerous sexual comments to her and other female coworkers so
she ended up quitting.
2. SC holds that even though there is no tangible job action, treatment that creates a
discriminatorily hostile or abusive work environment is actionable under §703(a).
3. Standard is “sufficiently severe or pervasive to alter the conditions of the victim’s
employment and create an abusive working environment.”
4. Looks to Meritor – mere utterance of an epithet that is offensive will not suffice.
A reasonable person must find environment hostile or abusive and victim must
subjectively perceive the environment to be so as well.
5. Standard is both objective and subjective.
6. However, P does not have to show actual psychological damage or that
harassment affected productivity. Harassment does not have to rise to the level of
constructive discharge.
7. Ginsberg concurrence – thinks P should show that harassment would affect a
reasonable person’s work performance (way to limit possible claims)
B. Oncale v. Sundowner Offshore Services (SC 1998) (p.364)
1. Nothing in Title VII necessarily bars a claim of sex discrimination or harassment
merely b/c the P and D are of the same sex (race, etc.)
2. There can be same-sex sexual harassment.
3. Harassing conduct need not be motivated by sexual desire to support an inference
of discrimination. But it must be harassment b/c of sex. If ER had also been
harassing women as well as men, Oncale probably would have failed.
4. The objective severity of the conduct should also be judged taking into account all
the circumstances and requires careful consideration of the social context of the
workplace.
C. Types of Harassment
1. Quid pro quo vs. hostile work environment
i. Quid pro quo – sleep with me or you won’t get the job. This only occurs in
sexual harassment cases.
ii. This is not such an important distinction anymore. All cases can be
considered hostile work environment.
2. Advances
i. This can only be in sexual harassment cases. Can’t make race advances.
ii. Advances are not necessary for sexual harassment (Oncale)
3. Directed Disparagement
 i. This can be based on any Title VII factor
ii. This is what was going on in Oncale. Disparaging your race, sex, etc., to
your face in order to make work environment uncomfortable.
4. Non-directed Disparagement
i. Not directed at a specific EE but just an environment of jokes/comments
ii. This is a much harder case to make though. (Lyle v. WB TV Prod., finding
that comedy writer’s sexually coarse and vulgar language did not
constitute sexual harassment b/c it was part of common workplace
environment of comedy writers, and not directed at individual).
D. Summary: Harassment (based on any Title VII factor) must be so severe or pervasive as
to be reasonably and subjectively perceived as creating a hostile or abusive work
environment.

STANDARDS FOR ER LIABILITY

A. Faragher v. City of Boca Raton & Burlington Industries v. Ellerth (SC 1998) (p.373)
1. Two cases decided on the same day and both using same standard.
2. The question was whether supervisor EEs are acting w/i scope of employment
when they harass so that under agency principles the ER is vicariously liable. But
b/c sexual harassment should never be in scope of employment, this created
problems for P recovery.
3. Ct says it is easy to hold ER vicariously liable when there are tangible actions,
like hiring, firing, promotion, compensation, etc. Tangible actions are clearly w/i
the scope of employment. It is harder when it is just creation of a hostile work
environment b/c not as easy to infer ER knowledge.
4. There are good reasons under Title VII to hold ERs vicariously liable for
supervisors actions. Often the ability to harass comes from the supervisory
authority given by ERs. Plus ERs have greater opportunity to guard against
supervisor misconduct than coworker misconduct b/c they are more likely to train
and screen supervisors.
5. Holding: An ER is subject to vicarious liability to a victimized EE for an
actionable hostile environment created by a supervisor w/ immediate (or
successively higher) authority over the EE. When no tangible employment action
is taken, a defending ER may raise an affirmative defense.
6. Affirmative defense contains 2 necessary elements:
i. ER exercised reasonable care to prevent and promptly correct any sexually
harassing behavior, and
ii. P EE unreasonably failed to take advantage of any preventative or
corrective opportunities provided by ER, or to otherwise avoid harm.
7. This is the only way for ERs to avoid liability in the face of supervisory
discrimination. ER must show had reasonable preventative and corrective policy
in place and EE was unreasonable in failing to invoke/use policy. ER carries
burden of persuasion.
8. No affirmative defense is available for tangible employment actions.
 9. This system creates incentives for ERs to develop anti-harassment programs. ERs
are in best position to balance costs here.
B. Pennsylvania State Police v. Suders (SC 2004) (Supp p.3)
1. Availability of ER’s affirmative defense under Faragher-Ellerth does not turn on
the severity of the harassment but whether harassment constituted a tangible
employment action or not.
2. Tangible actions usually involve the company’s internal process – documented in
official company records and may be subject to review by higher level
supervisors.
3. Constructive discharge is not necessarily a tangible action as it can happen w/o
“official conduct” such as termination – in such a case affirmative defense is
available. However, if constructive discharge is based on a transfer to a less
desirable position, that is tangible so no affirmative defense.
C. Coworker harassment vs. supervisor harassment
1. There is a different standard for ER liability when a coworker is the harasser
2. Standard for liability is only negligence. P must show that ER must have known
or should have known about the conduct and did not take affirmative action.
3. All that matters is whether ER acted reasonably. If so, no liability.
4. We have a different standard for a number of possible reasons:
i. Supervisors are often aided in harassment by their authority
ii. It is easier for ERs to monitor supervisors b/c there are fewer of them
iii. It is often easier for EEs to report coworker harassment – less fear of
retaliation. So place more burden on EEs to report.
5. This makes it important to figure out who is supervisor. EEOC reg says
supervisors have authority to undertake or recommend tangible employment
decisions affecting the EE or authority to direct EE’s daily work.
D. There are some rare cases where both ER and EE can act reasonably and ER might still
be vicariously liable:
1. Sudden assault cases like rape. ER may take immediate action but can still be
liable for creating situation where it could happen.
2. When EEs fear retaliation
3. Issues of when EE should complain – right away when harassment might not
actually be actionable? Might be labeled complainer. But if waits too long ER
might say not acting reasonably.
E. Kolstad v. American Dental Assoc. (SC 1999) (p.392)
1. What must P show in order to get punitive damages for harassment?
2. In order to get punitive damages P must establish two things:
i. Individual must act w/ malice or reckless indifference to P’s federally
protected rights.
1. The harassment does not have to be egregious. Egregious conduct
can help prove state of mind of malice but it is not necessary.
2. If P can establish discriminatory intent it basically automatically
shows reckless disregard/knowing indifference to rights.
3. But this only shows individual liability not ER liability.
ii. ER liability is limited by agency laws. So ER liable only if actor’s conduct
fits into one of the Restatement categories and ER acted w/o good faith:
 1. Principal authorized the doing and the manner of the act
2. Agent was unfit and principal was reckless in employing him
3. Agent was employed in managerial capacity and was acting in
scope of employment
4. Principal ratified or approved the act
3. Liability will almost always turn on 3rd category – was the agent acting in a
managerial capacity?
4. ER may not be vicariously liable for discriminatory employment decisions of
managerial agents where these decisions are contrary to ER’s good faith efforts to
comply w/ Title VII.
F. Summary: See Vicarious Liability Tree

PROTECTION OF PUBLIC EE EXPRESSION

A. Pickering v. Board of Ed. (SC 1968) (p.633)

1. P writes letter criticizing school board’s bond proposal and board fires him. Ct
holds that school cannot do this b/c P was exercising 1A rights.
2. Speech was on a matter of public concern and did not impair performance of daily
duties or interfere w/ regular operation of school. Given these considerations, the
interest in limiting his speech is no greater than for any member of general public.
3. Must seek “a balance between the interests of the EE, as a citizen, in commenting
on matters of public concern and the interest of the State, as an ER, in promoting
the efficiency of the public services it performs through its EEs.”
4. Factors to consider in Pickering balance:
i. Whether it is a matter of public concern?
ii. Impairment of duties or operation of ER?
1. Does it affect working relationships? Efficiency?
iii. Time, place and manner of speech? Was it done during working hours
using ER’s property, etc.?
iv. Falsity of the statements
5. Why give public EEs more or less 1A protection? B/c of their unique position in
being able to inform the public about matters of concern?
B. Givhan v. Western Line Consolidated School District (SC 1979) (p.637)
1. G complains to ER about possible racial discrimination.
2. Ct holds that even private speech can be protected by 1A.
3. However, private expression may require additional factors in Pickering balance.
Must not only consider the content of EE’s message but time, place and manner.
C. Connick v. Myers (SC 1983) (p.640)
1. Myers prepared questionnaire after being asked to transfer. Claimed questionnaire
was protected by 1A.
2. SC adds a public concern threshold. The speech must be on a matter of public
concern before Pickering balancing is applied.
3. If not on a matter of public concern, no protection from retaliation against that
speech. When public EE speaks not as a citizen but as an EE on matters of
personal interest, cts will not review ER’s actions.
 4. Whether speech addresses public concern must be determined by the “content,
form, and context of a given stmt, as revealed by the whole record,” not the
motivation of the speaker.
5. Ct applies Pickering balancing to one question on whether EEs felt pressured to
work on political campaigns. But since this was only minimal part of
questionnaire, it couldn’t protect her discharge.
6. Should courts be deciding what is a matter of public concern?
D. Garcetti v. Ceballos (SC 2006) (Supp p.18)
1. Deputy DA prepared a memo, as part of his official duties, that said warrant was
gotten by misreps and evidence should probably be excluded. Claimed that he
suffered retaliation as a result of this.
2. SC erects another hurdle to get over before Pickering balance applies
3. Speech cannot be made pursuant to official duties, must be speech made as a
citizen, not an EE.
4. Therefore preparing the memo was not protected b/c done as part of official duty
(but testifying about it and giving a speech about it could be protected).
5. If cts must review speech made as part of official duties, then really policing
personnel disputes instead of 1A.
6. Stevens dissent – this decision might remove whistleblower protections which are
very important. Under Givhan, no categorical difference between speaking as
citizen and in course of employment. This creates an odd incentive to speak
publicly first.

EXPRESS PROTECTIONS OF EE RIGHTS AND DUTIES

Statutory Rights – Antiretaliation

A. Burlington Northern v. White (SC 2006) (Supp p.34)

1. Deals w/ Title VII’s antiretaliation provision - §704.
2. §704 has two clauses – participation clause and opposition clause
i. Participation clause protects any EE from discrimination b/c EE has made
a charge, testified, assisted or participated in any investigation, proceeding
or hearing…” (mainly assisting in investigation)
ii. Opposition clause protects EE from discrimination b/c EE opposed any
practice made unlawful by Title VII. (mainly filing claim of discrim.)
3. This opposition clause makes antiretaliation provision extremely broad
4. Two important holdings:
i. Actions which might constitute illegal retaliation under §704 are broader
than actions which constitute illegal discrimination under §703 (dicta)
1. §704 protects activities as well as status. Does not just apply to
“terms, conditions, and privileges” of employment. Could include
stuff like bad references.
ii. For ER liability the retaliation action must be materially adverse to the EE,
which means that b/c of the action, a reasonable EE would be dissuaded
for making a charge/engaging in the activity.
 1. SC specifically rejects Mattern’s focus on tangible employment
action.
2. This, along w/ fact that §703 covers harassment and §704 is
supposed to broader, suggests that §704 will cover harassment
forms of retaliation.
5. Substantive standard for liability – materially adverse enough to dissuade a
reasonable EE from filing a claim.
6. Lower cts have applied Faragher-Ellerth test for vicarious liability.
7. Remaining questions
i. Does this materially adverse standard apply to §703 as well? What if there
is a tangible employment action such as a transfer but it is not materially
adverse? This is open question but Harper thinks it might apply now.
ii. Is there any difference b/t participation clause and opposition clause?
1. Opposition clause is much broader and makes Title VII
antiretaliation protection broader than under ERISA or FLSA
2. It makes a difference in terms of actions that are protected by SC
has not drawn a line in terms of standards for liability.
iii. Does it matter whether EE complains about something that is actually
illegal or just something EE believes is illegal?
1. Four possible standards:
a. Actually illegal (objective)
b. Reasonable belief (objective)
c. Good faith belief (subjective)
d. All complaints
2. In Clark County, SC said that for EE to enjoy protection, at a
minimum must be reasonable belief that practice/action
complained of is illegal.
B. Issues of self-help
1. Hochstadt v. Worcester Foundation (1C 1976) (p.671)
i. This case concerns how far an EE can go in opposing illegal practices.
ii. Doctor felt ER was discriminatory (sex). Made numerous complaints but
also told coworkers that ER would lose funding and spoke to a reporter.
iii. Purpose of opposition clause and using self-help
1. Promote internal resolution, conciliation and settlement
2. Further eliminate discrimination
3. Protect all EEs, not just victims of particular discrimination
4. Provide an alternative track to litigation
iv. However, self-help cannot “go beyond the pale” of reasonable opposition
activity.”
v. Standard: whether EE’s conduct is “so generally inimical to ER’s interests,
and so ‘excessive’” as to lose §704 protection.
vi. Actions cannot damage basic goals and interests of ER. ER is entitled to
loyalty and cooperation of EEs.
vii. This is kind of like Pickering balance.
2. Whirlpool Corp. v. Secretary of Labor (SC 1980) (p.682)
i. Antiretaliation case under OSHA.
 ii. Secretary of Labor had issued regs outlining when an EE could refuse to
perform work due to unsafe conditions. EE is only protected against
retaliation from walking off the job if a “reasonable person…would
conclude that there is a real danger of death or serious injury and that there
is insufficient time…to eliminate the danger through resort to statutory
enforcement.”
iii. Here EEs refused to walk out on screens where an EE had previously
fallen through to his death.
iv. Ct held that even though language of OSHA only seems to protect against
participation, and this regulation protects against opposition, the regulation
is still valid under the Act b/c furthers OSHA’s purpose of providing a safe
working environment.
v. If conditions are so bad, it is like constructive discharge.
vi. Walking off the job is opposition that goes even further than Title VII
would protect but it is okay here.
C. Implied antiretaliation provisions – Kelsay v. Motorola, Inc. (Illinois 1978) (p.688)
1. EE claimed fired b/c filed workmen’s comp claim.
2. Ct held that even though state’s Workmen’s Comp Act didn’t include an
antiretaliation provision, the scheme would be seriously undermined if there was
no penalty for retaliation.
3. Such retaliatory discharge is offensive to public policy. Need this protection in
order to fully protect EE’s statutory right.

Discharge in Violation of Public Policy

A. These protections are broader than just protecting statutory rights. They protect EE
activity that is valued b/c it benefits the general public.
B. Public Obligations – Nees v. Hock (Oregon 1975) (p.695)
1. P was fired for serving jury duty.
2. There are circumstances in which an ER discharges an EE for such a socially
undesirable motive that the ER must respond in damages.
3. Balance community interest in the activity against ER interest.
4. Ct is not protecting EEs so much as protecting civil obligations.
C. Illegal Activities
1. Petermann v. IBT (CA 1959)
i. P discharged for refusing to give perjured testimony
ii. Fundamental principles of public policy, and adherence to objectives
underlying penal statutes, require recognition of a rule barring an ER from
discharging an EE who refuses to commit an illegal act.
2. Tameny v. Atlantic Richfield (CA 1980) (p.698)
i. Tameny refused to participate in illegal price fixing scheme.
ii. Ct says EE is protected from refusing to do job actions that are illegal.
iii. Provides protection for refusing to do work that is illegal, not just asserting
a right or privilege. This is a form of passive whistleblowing.
iv. EEs discharged may bring a tort action b/c the wrong is not one arising
from employment K but from duty imposed on ERs not to violate the law.
 v. Policy justifications for this cause of action
1. Public policy in favor of preventing criminal activity, protecting
compliance w/ fed and state laws
2. Possibility of individual EE liability if complicit in ER’s actions.
vi. Should this cause of action sound in tort or K?
1. If discharge is the wrongful act, shouldn’t this be in K?
2. Ct holds that action is a tort claim. Harper thinks this is correct.
3. This is not something that is implied in an employment K but a
general societal interest.
4. The tort is a wrongful act against society, not just EE.
vii. Must P prove that what he refused to do was actually illegal?
1. This is same as question for retaliating against making a claim.
2. Might want to lower standard from actual violation to reasonable
or good faith belief, especially if there is a possibility of individual
liability for EE.
D. Ethical Obligations – Pierce v. Ortho Pharm. Corp. (NJ 1980) (p.707)
1. P refused to continue w/ project b/c of ethical belief that it was unsafe.
2. Ct must balance interests of ER, EE and public.
3. EE cannot refuse to work based on personal morals, as distinguished from
recognized code of ethics for EE’s profession.
4. Code of ethics must reflect public concerns, not just occupational concerns of
members of profession.
5. For protection, the refusal to work must be based on a clear mandate of public
policy. (constitutional, statutory, administrative or professional provisions)
6. Note: NY cts have rejected public policy cause of action (Murphy)
E. Political Freedom – Novosel v. Nationwide Ins. Co. (3C 1983) (p.735)
1. P dismissed for refusing to help ER’s lobbying efforts. Case of private passive
refusal.
2. Importance of political and associational freedoms is the public policy here.
3. Basically applies public EE Pickering analysis.
4. This is an outlier case that expands protection for speech into private sector.
F. Whistleblowing Activity
1. Passive refusal vs. Active reporting
i. Passive refusal involves EE stopping work.
ii. Active reporting usually involves EE going to authorities outside of ER
iii. There are different interests/balancing to consider for each
iv. Passive refusal
1. More of a moral dilemma (although sometimes legal)
2. ER would probably rather accommodate than have EE go public
3. But work is stopped
v. Active reporting
1. Work is not stopped
2. Not direct insubordination
3. Stronger public interest aspect
2. Geary v. U.S. Steel Corp. (PA 1974) (p.718)
 i. P brought misgivings about product to attn of superiors, product was taken
off market and then P was discharged. Claimed discharge was unlawful.
ii. Ct refuses to recognize claim for active whistleblowing.
iii. Praiseworthiness of motive must be balanced against ER interest in
preserving normal operational procedures from disruption.
iv. Factors to think about in whether particular instance of whistleblowing
should be protected:
1. Time, place and manner of reporting (Geary bypassed immediate
supervisors)
2. Internal vs. external reporting (even though internal reporting
doesn’t necessarily help public want to encourage internal
resolutions)
3. Negligence vs. illegality
4. Level of certainty w/r/t illegality
a. Should whistleblower have good faith or reasonable belief?
b. Should whistleblower’s level of expertise matter?
3. Palmateer v. Int’l Harvester Co. (IL 1981) (p.721)
i. P gave info to police that ER might be engaged in illegal activity.
ii. Clear public policy in enforcing criminal codes. P has made out a case for
retaliatory discharge.
iii. Matter must strike at heart of citizen’s social rights, duties and
responsibilities.
iv. Dissent: no crime had actually been committed yet and citizens have no
duty to ferret out and prosecute crime. P had no legal obligation to report a
crime that might happen.
4. Courts have more reluctance to protect internal reporting even though such
procedures might actually benefit ERs.
5. Statutory protections
i. Many states now have statues protecting both active and passive
whistleblowers. (see p.727 for examples)
ii. Virtually every federal health and safety laws have antiretaliation
provisions to protect whistleblowers
iii. Also Civil Service Reform Act protects govt EEs, RICO, Sarbanes-Oxley.

REMEDIES FOR ARBITRARY DISCHARGE – MOSTLY SEE MELANIE’S OUTLINE

A. Employment at Will
1. Background rule that all employment is at-will unless otherwise specified.
2. At will employment means that EEs can quit or be fired for any reason at any time
3. Montana is only state to require just cause (by statute)
4. Most EEs mistakenly believe that they have protection against arbitrary discharge.
If this is the case, should the presumption be against at-will employment? If
presumption was reversed, ERs would just make EEs explicitly sign Ks saying at-
will and this might hurt morale.
5. Two ways to get around at-will presumption – reliance on manual or individual K
B. Contract Theories of Recovery
1. Manuals/Handbooks as Ks (reliance on manual)
i. Woolley v. Hoffman-La Roche, Inc. (NJ 1985) (p.751)
1. Ct enforces the policy manual as a binding K on ERs, specifically
that termination procedures were contractually enforceable.
2. Problems w/ seeing this as K
a. No evidence that W even read manual let alone relied on it
b. N bilateral agreement, no consideration
3. Ct finds that manual creates an obligation – general workplace
expectations – and these are enforceable.
ii. Distribution of manual, reliance of ER on manual previously, reliance of
other EEs on manual all might go to weight of enforcing manual
iii. If there was no manual but consistent practice that was well-known, EE
might also be able to rely on that.
iv. ERs get an advantage from creating manual w/ procedures that are seen as
fair. EEs feel happier and potentially more loyal by knowing that they will
be dealt w/ fairly and will not be arbitrarily discharged.
v. Can ERs unilaterally change manual?
1. ERs will usually have disclaimers saying they can change manual
at any time. Even though this would not be okay under general K
principles, cts allow it.
2. Some states assume it can be modified even w/o disclaimer
vi. What about disclaimers in manual?
1. Wording of disclaimer must be unambiguous and adequately
communicated to EEs.
2. Can’t disclaim everything.
2. Express oral Ks: (reliance on oral reps)
i. Bullock v. Auto. Club
1. ER made a unilateral change to manual but EE brought claim
based on individual representation made to him.
2. Changes in manual can’t modify and individual agreement w/o
showing that EE accepted the offer of the change.
ii. OHanian v. Avis Rent-a-Car System (2C 1985) (p.769)
1. ER made oral reps to EE saying his future was secure and would
only be let go if he “screwed up badly.” EE relied on these stmts
and moved but moving form had clause about at-will employment.
2. Ct found that express oral agreements were valid (even though
statute of frauds and parole evidence rule were hard to get around)
3. Mostly found that moving form was not a K so only K b/t EE and
ER was oral K.
iii. Dore v. Arnold (CA 2006) (handout)
1. Written letter about employment saying at-will employment, with
oral statements about being a long-term EE.
2. Ct finds that letter was K, with unambiguous terms even though it
doesn’t say anything about reasons. Therefore can’t use oral reps to
modify it.
 3. Concur is troubled by parol evidence—court should have clarified
that it can only clear up ambiguity, can’t create ambiguity. Parol
evidence is a big issue in oral contracts.
3. “Implied in fact” Ks: (reliance on individual situation – tenure, reviews, etc.)
i. Foley v. Interactive Data Corp. (CA 1988) (p.776)
1. EE saying that even if employment started out as at-will, his
tenure, positive reviews, promotion, etc., created an implied K for
only good cause.
2. Ct agrees w/ EE. Almost seems to be saying that length of service
was enough to create reliance on “for cause”
ii. Guz v. Bechtel National, Inc. (CA 2000) (p.781)
1. Length of service is not necessarily enough to create reliance on
“for cause” Should have other evidence of ER’s intent.
2. Importance of industry custom. Here G only had one stmt that ER
only terminated EEs for good cause to rely on so didn’t establish
industry custom but it could be relevant.
4. Implied covenant of good faith and fair dealing:
i. Fortune v. National Cash Register Co. (MA 1977) (p.787)
1. Employment K discussed commission. EE claimed ER fired him to
avoid paying those commissions.
2. Ct finds an implied covenant of good faith and fair dealing to
fulfill those terms of K.
3. This is not a hard case for implied covenant but it would be very
different if EE said there was implied covenant that EEs would
only be discharged for good cause.
ii. Monge v. Beebe Rubber Co. (p.794)
1. Here there is a good faith covenant that if you hire someone, you
will allow them to do their job.
2. Sexually harassing them prevents them from doing their job.
iii. Sabetay v. Sterling Drug (p.793)
1. Same as Monge. EE was discharged for actually performing one of
his duties. This is a breach of good faith.
2. NY court rejects this argument.
5. What is “good cause”?
i. Cotran v. Rollins Hudig Hall Int’l (CA 1998) (p.795)
1. When an employment K or manual calls for termination only for
good cause, what does good cause mean?
2. Good cause does not include reasons that are “trivial, capricious,
unrelated to business needs or goals, or pretextual.”
3. This case answers question is there good cause when EE denies
doing the act that led to termination? Can discharge still be okay if
EE did not do the act but ER acted on belief that he did? Ct says as
long ER followed their definition of good cause, does not matter if
misconduct actually occurred.
4. Four elements to good cause:
a. 1) Did ER act in good faith?
 i. Subjective standard
ii. ER must have believed that bad conduct occurred
iii. ER must be sincere that this is reason for dismissal
(can’t just be a pretext)
b. 2) Was there adequate investigation?
i. Objective standard
ii. Includes notice, opportunity to respond
c. 3) Fair and honest reasons
i. Objective standard
ii. Reasons that are not trivial, arbitrary or capricious,
unrelated to business needs/goals
iii. This is similar to good faith question
d. 4) Substantial evidence
i. Objective standard
5. In short, good cause is a reasoned conclusion supported by
substantial evidence gathered through an adequate investigation
that includes notice of claimed misconduct and a chance for EE to
respond.
6. Concurrence – this is only a default def for good cause. K can
articulate exactly what good cause is.
C. Tort Theories of Recovery
1. EEs can get tort damages for discharge in violation of public policy and if specific
statute specifies tort damages. Can EE get them for lack of good cause/faith?
2. “Bad faith” breach
i. Foley v. Interactive Data Corp. (CA 1988) (p.776)
1. CA rejects tort damages for supposed “bad faith” breach of K. Can
only get K damages for breaches of K.
ii. Legislative action is probably required to recognize tort damages even
when real malice or bad faith is shown. Cts will not imply it.
iii. Montana wrongful discharge statute allows for punitive damages if EE can
show fraud or malice.
3. Fraud or deceit:
i. Hunter v. Up-Right, Inc. (CA 1993) (p.808)
1. Tort damages not available for misreps that induce resignation
2. ER could have lawfully done what they did here w/o misreps
3. Only K damages
ii. Lazar case
1. Ct distinguishes Hunter. Here EE was induced to change jobs. ER
here couldn’t have achieved what he wanted w/o the fraud.
iii. Miller v. Fairchild case
1. Fraudulently got EE to settle w/o a lawsuit
iv. Misrepresentation aimed not at effecting termination but inducing EE to
detrimentally alter position in some other respect might form basis for
valid fraud claim in absence of wrongful termination. CA recognizes claim
for fraudulent inducement in employment situations.
4. Intentional interference w/ K relations
 i. Cappiello v. Ragen Precision (NJ 1984) (p.817)
1. There must be malice and intent to harm (?)
5. Intentional infliction of emotional distress (IIED)
i. In these cases it is not the discharge itself which gives rise to damage but
the way in which the discharge is carried out.
ii. Investigation of conduct or discharge must be abusive
iii. Must also show evidence of psychological harm so sometimes gets
subsumed by workmen’s comp.
6. Defamation:
i. Lewis v. Equitable Life (MN 1986) (p.824)
1. Problem of EEs having to tell prospective ERs that they were fired
for insubordination.
2. Court finds “compelled self-publication” that was foreseeable,
even though Δ didn’t actually publish.
3. If reason they were fired, gross insubordination, were true, D
would have a defense to defamation. But here jury had already
found that it was false.

EE PRIVACY

A. Various statutes, constitutions, regulations and common law protect EE privacy. Ps are
usually unsuccessful in claiming common law tort of invasion of privacy.
B. O’Connor v. Ortega (SC 1987) (p.860)
1. Applying 4A in workplace. Can use standard here as a basis for the private sector
as well since 4A standard is close to common law tort standard.
2. EEs can have an REP in the workplace.
3. Expectation of privacy can be changed by notice, custom, setting, etc., but it
might also depend on how “private” the area being invaded is (i.e. cubicle vs.
office?).
4. REP must be addressed in the context of the employment relation and can be
reduced “by virtue of actual office practices and procedures or by legitimate
regulation.”
5. To violate 4A, there must be an unreasonable invasion of privacy interest.
Generally need PC and warrant. Ct says that is untenable in employment context.
6. Search must be reasonable in inception and reasonable in scope.
i. Reasonable in inception does not necessarily mean individualized
suspicion. There are legitimate work related reasons for ERs to sometimes
invade REP, i.e. to get files, etc.
ii. However, when ER is investigating some allegation of misconduct, might
need some kind of suspicion. Ct defers on this question.
7. Reasonableness is an objective standard. Not good faith.
C. K-Mart v. Trotti (TX 1984) (handout)
1. Ct looks to restatement to define tort
2. Must be an invasion of REP that is highly offensive to a reasonable person
3. Also still must be reasonable at start and in manner it is carried out (scope)
 D. Intercepting EE communications
1. Mostly regulated by statute – Fed Omnibus Crime Control
i. ER can intercept communications when there is consent by one party or
when interception is done on company phone and made in ordinary course
of ER’s business.
ii. If ER determines it is a private conversation, must stop listening.
iii. Problem w/ interception of communication vs. retrieving stored data. ERs
have much greater flexibility in retrieving stored data like emails.
2. Konop v. Hawaiian Airlines, Inc. (9C 2002) (p.893)
i. To access stored information ER needs authorization from a user.
ii. Question whether certain EEs here who gave access were actually users.
3. Stored Communication Act §2701(c)(1) allows ERs to get access from person or
entity providing the wire or electronic communication service. So if using ER’s
email, ER has unlimited right to retrieve them. Also if you check personal mail on
ER computer that uses ER server, can check that too.
E. Cort v. Bristol-Myers (MA 1982) (p.898)
1. MA statute that protects privacy interests of EEs. This could have applied here but
Ct felt that questions on questionnaire were not too intrusive.
2. Balance degree of intrusion into personal information against nature of EE’s job
and interest of ER.
3. Degree of permissible intrusion might be greater for new hires/before hire than for
older EEs b/c ER has less reliable information to go on for new EEs. This
distinction has been made w/r/t drug testing.
F. Rulon-Miller v. IBM Corp. (CA 1984) (p.905)
1. This is about associational privacy. EE dated a competitor and supervisor said that
was not okay. But IBM had promulgated memo outlining EEs’ rights to privacy.
2. Rare case where EE won but this was partly b/c of policy outlined in memo (like
reliance on EE manual)
G. Barbee v. Household Automotive Finance (CA 2003) (Handout)
1. For invasion of privacy, P must establish:
i. Legally protected privacy interest (here association under state const.)
ii. REP under the circumstances
iii. Conduct by D constituting serious invasion of privacy
2. Even though Barbee may have a legally protected privacy interest in who he
dates, it may not be reasonable in this setting.
3. Here ER had express policy discussing dating b/t supervisors and subordinates.
4. Cts have recognized ER interests against intra-office dating which strongly
suggests that there is no REP in pursuing an office relationship.
5. Therefore no REP so no tort.

ARBITRATION

A. Alexander v. Gardner-Denver Co. (SC 1974) (p.1145)

1. P first arbitrated discrimination claim under CBA, then brought separate Title VII
claim and ER said claim was barred by arbitration.
 2. Three reasons why no deferral to arbitral decision:
i. No preclusion b/c they are independent claims. One is contractual based
on CBA (that is what arbitrator construed). Other is statutory Title VII.
ii. Ineffective waiver. Waiver was both collective and prospective.
iii. Fed ct procedures are different from arbitration. Title VII needs extra
protection of fed cts.
3. Arbitrator’s opinion can be introduced as evidence but does not control.
B. Gilmer v. Interstate/Johnson Lane Corp. (SC 1991) (p.1153)
1. Waiver of judicial forum for ADEA claim.
2. Basis is Federal Arbitration Act which evinces preference of enforcing arbitration
agreements.
3. Agreement to arbitrate/waive federal forum must be knowing and clear.
4. This case is in real tension to Alexander.
5. One way to possibly reconcile is that Alexander says you can’t waive substantive
right but can waive procedural right to have case heard in federal ct.
6. Cts will only enforce arbitration agreements if the arbitration provides certain
minimum procedures. This is b/c you cannot vindicate a substantive right w/o
certain minimum procedures.
C. Wright v. Universal Maritime (SC 1998) (p.1168)
1. Waiver must be clear and unequivocal.