Review in Broadcast Engineering and Acoustic

I Introduction to Radio Broadcasting

Definition of terms:

Broadcasting
Transmission of an information in all direction for general public reception.

Components of Radio and TV Broadcasting

Main
Program Tx
Source Console Signal H
Processing H
Aux
Tx

Transmitter
An electronic equipment used to modulate an information to an RF signal.
1. Main Transmitter
2. Auxiliary Transmitter
Console or the Technical Operation Center (TOC)
The control board is the nerve of a broadcasting station. It is used to mix, amplify and route
signal information from the program source
1. Audio Console for radio broadcasting
2. Switching Board for TV broadcasting
Signal Processing Equipment
1. Equalizer
2. Noise reduction
3. Reverb
4. Character Generator
Program Source
1. Microphone
2. CD players
3. Taped
4. Turn Table
5. Studio
II. AM Broadcasting Standards

Medium Frequency Broadcast Station

An AM Broadcast Station licensed for aural or sound transmission intended for direct
reception by the general public and operated on a channel in the MF band (300 kHz to 3
MHz).
Operating Frequency
Is the carrier frequency at any particular time.
Authorized Frequency
Is the carrier frequency authorized by the authority which is the National Telecommunication
Commission (NTC).

Some Important Standards in AM Broadcasting (Comparison between FCC and KBP

Standards)

Parameters KBP standard FCC standard

Broadcast Band 526.5 kHz – 1705 kHz 535 kHz – 1705
Bandwidth per channel 9 kHz 10 kHz
Number of Channels 131
Spacing between Stations 36 kHz 30 kHz
Operating Frequency ± 10 Hz of the assigned ± 10 Hz of the assigned
Tolerance frequency frequency
Operating Power Tolerance + 10 % of the assigned + 10 % of the assigned
power whether on the full power whether on the full
power daytime mode or power daytime mode or
reduced power nighttime reduced power nighttime
mode mode
Type of AM emission A3E A3E
IF frequency in AM 455 kHz 455 kHz
Receiver
Carrier Shift Not exceeding 5 % at any Not exceeding 5 % at any
percent modulation percent modulation
Maximum Power 50 kW Metro Manila Depending on the Areas in
10 kW in other Areas US.
Percent Modulation No more than125% on No more than125% on
positive peak and 100 % on positive peak and 100 % on
the negative peak the negative peak

Frequency and Channel Allocation

f C = 531 + 9(n - 1) kHz

Where:
fC = carrier frequency for a given channel number ( n )
 Service Areas

1. Primary Service Area

A broadcast station service area means the area in which the groundwave field of 1mV/m
is not subject to objectionable interference or objectionable fading.
2. Secondary Service Area
A broadcast station service area means the area serve by the skywave and not subject to
objectionable interference. The signal is subject to intermittent in intensity.
3. Intermittent Service Area
A broadcast station service area means the area receiving service from the groundwave
but beyond the primary service area and subject to some interference and fading.

AM Broadcasting Protection Ratio

1. Audio-Frequency Signal - to- Interference Ratio

The ratio in dB between the values of the voltage of the wanted signal and the voltage of the
interference, measured under specified conditions, at the audio-frequency output of the
receiver.
2. Radio-Frequency Wanted – to- Interference Signal Ratio
The ratio in dB between the values of the radio-frequency voltage of the wanted signal and
the interfering signal, measured at the input of the receiver under specified conditions.
3. Audio-Frequency Protection Ratio
The agree minimum value of the audio frequency signal-to- interference ratio considered
necessary to achieve a subjectively defined reception quality.
4. Radio- Frequency Protection Ratio
The value of the radio frequency wanted-to-interference signal ratio that enables, under
specified conditions, the Radio-Frequency protection Ratio provides the minimum physical
separation of AM stations.

Frequency RF Signal Ratio RF Protection

Ratio (dB)
Co-Channel ( same frequency ) 73 dBu to 43 dBu ( 4.47mV/m : 141.25µV/m) 30
1st Adjacency ( 9 kHz away ) 73 dBu to 64 dBu ( 4.47mV/m : 1.6mV/m)
2nd Adjacency ( 18 kHz away ) 73 dBu to 97 dBu ( 4.47mV/m : 70.8mV/m)
III FM Broadcasting Standards

Definitions

FM Broadcast Station
A station employing frequency modulation in the FM broadcast band and intended to be
received by the general public.
Frequency Modulation
A system of modulation where the instantaneous frequency varies in proportion to the
instantaneous amplitude of the modulating signal, and the instantaneous radio frequency is
independent of the frequency of the modulating signal.
Center Frequency
The carrier frequency allocated by the authority.
FM Stereophonic Broadcast
The transmission of stereophonic program by a single FM broadcast station utilizing the main
channel.

Some Important Standards in FM Broadcasting ( Comparison between FCC and KBP

Standards )
Parameter KBP standards FCC standards
Broadcast Band 88 MHz to 108 MHz 88 MHz to 108 MHz
Bandwidth per channel 200 kHz 200 kHz
Number of Channels 100 ( from 201 to 300 ) 100
Spacing between Stations 800 kHz 800 kHz
Maximum Frequency 75 kHz 75 kHz
Deviation
Pre-Emphasis 75 µsec 75 µsec
Intermediate Frequency 10.7 MHz 10.7 MHz
Pilot Carrier 19 kHz 19 kHz
Sub-Carrier 38 kHz 38 kHz

Frequency and Channel Allocation

f C = 88.1 + 0.2(n - 1) MHz

Where:
fC = carrier frequency for a given channel number ( n )
Classes of FM Broadcast Stations

Class-A
A Class –A station shall have an authorized transmitter power not exceeding 25 kWatts and
an ERP not exceeding 125 kW and limited in antenna height of 2000 feet above average
terrain. The minimum transmitter power shall be 10 kW.

Class-B
A Class –B station shall have an authorized transmitter power not exceeding 10 kWatts and
an ERP not exceeding 30 kW and limited in antenna height of 500 feet above average terrain.
The minimum transmitter power shall be 1 kW.

Class-C
A Class –C station is a non commercial, community station having an authorized radiated
power ERP not exceeding 1kW.

Class-D
A Class –D Education station having an authorized transmitter power not exceeding 10 Watts.

Class Service Authorized Power ERP HAAT

A Commercial station 25 kW authorized 125 kW 2000 ft
10 kW minimum
B Commercial station 10 kW authorized 30 kW 500 ft
1 kW minimum
C Non-commercial 1 kW
station
D Educational station 10 W authorized

HAAT- Antenna Height Above Average Terrain

ERP - Effective Radiated Power

The product of the transmitter power multiplied by power gain or squared of the field gain

ERP = PT x GT or ERP = PT x GF
IV Television Broadcasting Standards

Definitions
Television
Is a system for transmitting images and sound by converting them into electrical or radio
waves which are converted back into images and sound by a receiver.

Motion Picture
Is a series of real or fictional events recorded by a camera and projected into a screen as a
sequence of moving pictures.

Still Picture

Picture Qualities

Brightness
The overall or average intensity, which determines the background level in the reproduced
picture.
Contrast
The difference in the intensity between black-and white parts of the reproduced picture.
Detail
The quality of detail, which is also called resolution or definition, depends on the number of
picture elements that can be reproduced.
Saturation
The color information superimposed on a monochrome picture that depends on the amplitude
of the 3.58 MHz chrominance signal.
Hue
It refers to the color itself
Aspect Ratio
The ratio between the width to height of the picture frame.
Some Important Standards in FM Broadcasting ( Comparison between FCC and KBP
Standards )

Characteristics of the Video Signal

Parameters NTSC PAL

Number of Lines per Frame 525 625
Field Frequency 60 50
Interlaced Ratio 2:1 2:1
Number of Frames per Second 30 25
Line Frequency 15750 Hz
Aspect Ratio 4:3
Nominal Video Bandwidth 4.2 MHz
Chrominance Sub-Carrier 3.58 MHz 4.43 MHz
Scanning Sequence ( Line ) Left - to- right Left - to- right
Scanning Sequence ( field ) Top - to - bottom Top - to - bottom

Radio Frequency Characteristic

Parameters NTSC PAL

Nominal RF Bandwidth 6 MHz 8 MHz
Sound-Carrier relative to visual 4.5 MHz 5.5 MHz
carrier
Picture Carrier 1.25 MHz Above lower 1.25 MHz Above lower
edge of channel edge of channel
Sound Carrier 0.75 MHz Below upper 0.75 MHz Below upper
edge of channel edge of channel
Type of Polarity of Visual A5C, negative A5C, positive
Modulation
Synchronizing level percentage 100 % 100 %
of the peak carrier
Blanking Level 75 % 75 %
Peak – white level 12.5 % 12.5 %
Peak – Black level 67.5 % 67.5 %
Type of sound modulation F3 + 25 kHz F3 + 25 kHz

Theory of Acoustic
Definition

Acoustic
Define as the generation, transmission, and reception of energy in the form of vibration
waves in matter.

Sound
Is a physical wave, or a mechanical vibration, or simply a series of pressure variation, in an
elastic medium.

Theory of Sound Waves

Velocity of Propagation of sound in air.

s = 331.45 + 0.607TC

TK
s = 331.45
273

Where:
Tc is the temperature in degrees Celsius
Tk is the temperature in degrees Kelvin

Sound Attributes

Pitch --------- it refers to the frequency of the sound wave.

Timber------- it refers to the pressure oscillation waveform.
Loudness---- it refers to the amplitude of the pressure oscillation waveform.
Duration---- it refers to the time interval.

Unit of Loudness

Phon = 40 + 10 log 2 sone

0.5 sone = 30 phons

1.0 sone = 40 phons
Frequency Parameter of Sound

Harmonics is defined as the integral multiples of the fundamental frequency

nth harmonics = nf F

Overtone is a musical term for harmonics

nthOvertone = ( n + 1) f F

Octave is a frequency interval of 2

nthOctave = 2n f F

Decade is a frequency interval of 10

nth Decade = 10n f F

Levels of Sounds

Sound Power ( W ) and Sound Power Level (PWL)

Sound power is the amount of energy emitted by a sound per unit time.
Sound power level is indicate the total sound energy radiated per second.
Reference acoustic power (Wo ) is equal to 10-12 Watts

W
PWLdB = 10 log or PWLdB = 10 log W + 120 dB
WO

Sound Intensity ( I ) and Sound Intensity Level ( SIL )

Sound Intensity is an average rate flow of sound through a unit area normal to specified
direction.
Sound Intensity Level is the ratio between a given sound intensity and reference intensity.
Reference sound intensity ( IO ) is equal to 10-12 Watts per square meter ( W/m2)

I or SILdB = 10 log I + 120dB

SILdB = 10 log
IO

Sound Pressure ( P ) and Sound Pressure Level ( SPL )

Sound pressure is the root mean square of the instantaneous sound pressure in a stated
frequency band during a specified time intervals, unless another time-averaging process is
indicated.
p
SPLdB = 20 log where Po = reference pressure
po
= 20 µPa
= 0.0002 µbar
= 2 lb per ft2

Fundamentals of Room Acoustic

Definitions

Reverberation time (RT60)

The time required for the mean square sound pressure of a given frequency in an enclosure,
initially in a steady state, to decay after the source is interrupted, to 60 dB od its initial value.

Sabine Equation
The equation governing the decay of uniformly diffuse sound in a live room for an average
absorption less than or equal to 0.2

V Where: V = room volume

RT60 = 0.161
A
A = room total absorption = Sa
Metric System S = room total surface area
Α = average room absorption coefficient

V
RT60 = 0.049 Where: V = room volume
A
A = room total absorption = Sa
English System S = room total surface area
Α = average room absorption coefficient

Norris-Eyring Equation
The equation governing the decay of uniformly diffuse sound in a live room for an average
absorption less than or equal to 0.2

V
RT60 = 0.161 Where: V = room volume
S ln ( 1 - a ) �
�
� �
A = room total absorption = Sa
Metric System S = room total surface area
Α = average room absorption coefficient

V
RT60 = 0.049 Where: V = room volume
S ln ( 1 - a ) �
�
� �
A = room total absorption = Sa
English System S = room total surface area
Α = average room absorption coefficient