D E S I G N O F B R I D G E S

Compiled By

Devang Patel
 CHAPTER :1 : INTRODUCTION

1.1 BASIC NEED

For the design of any structure, a very basic requirement is to understand the various elements
which create the entire system of the structure. Further the understanding of the layout and
position of each element, its shape and function, types of the forces to be resisted is very much
necessary for the smooth and effective flow of the design process.
The bridge possesses a unique language which must be understood by a design engineer to
create a clear understanding of various phases of the analysis and design.
In this chapter, the emphasis is given to the basic understanding of a typical bridge structure in
a way that a designer is enabling to understand all the basic knowledge required to start
designing a bridge structure.

1.2 TYPICAL BRIDGE STRUCTURE AND DEFINATIONS OF VARIOUS TEMINOLOGY

Fig. 1.1 : Elements of a Bridge

The various components of a typical bridge structure are shown in fig.1.1. The bridge is
consisting of broadly four components as defined below.

Bridge Components
i. Superstructure : this is the top most part of the bridge which forms a medium or a platform
for the movement of the traffic and facilitates its smooth uninterrupted passage over
natural/man made barriers like rivers, creeks, roads, railways.
ii. Substructure : provides a support to the superstructure of the bridge. i.e. Piers &
Abutments.

2|Page
 iii. Foundation : that part of the bridge in direct contact with ground. Foundation supports the
substructure. It transmits the loads received from superstructure and substructure to the
ground.
iv. Bearings : Bearings are provided at the interfaces of the superstructure and substructure to
transmit the loads from superstructure to substructure.
The basic function of the bearings are:
o To transmit all the loads from superstructure to substructure
o To allow the longitudinal movement of the superstructure due to thermal expansion &
contraction
o To allow for the rotation of the superstructure caused by dead load and live load
deflection.

3|Page
 TYPICAL COMPONENTS OF A BRIDGE

o Deck Slab
SUPER-STRUCTURE o Longitudinal Members
o Cross Members
Forms a surface/platform for
o Kerbs, Parapet, Crash Barrier,
traffic movement
Footpath

o Bearings
SUB-STRUCTURE o Pedestals
o Pier/Abutment Cap
Supports Super-Structure
o Pier/Abutment
o Dirt Wall

FOUNDATION

Receives Forces from

substructure and transfers to
the soil underneath

OTHER COMPONETNS

o Approach Slab
OTHER COMPONENTS o Embankment
o Wing Wall
o End Return
o Expansion Joint

4|Page
 Basic Definitions

i. Overall Width of Carriageway : is the total width of the carriageway measured perpendicular to
the direction.
ii. Clear Width of Carriageway : is the width of the carriageway between raised kerbs measure
perpendicular to the direction of the traffic. Actually it the width of the carriageway within which
the vehicular traffic is supposed to move.
iii. Traffic lanes : the lanes that are marked on the running surface of the bridge and are normally
used by traffic.

Width of Single lane 4.5m

Width of Two Lanes 7.5m
Width of Multiple Lanes 7.5m + 3.5m for every additional lane of traffic

iv. Vertical Clearance – is a minimum vertical distance between the soffit of the superstructure
and the topmost surface of the road below. The value depends on the location of the structure,
i.e. urban area, expressway.

Functionality of Superstructure Components:

The typical superstructure components consist of the following:

Wearing Coat – the top most surface of the bridge deck which resists traffic wear. In
general it is a separate layer made of bituminous material, while sometimes it is made of
concrete material.
Deck Slab – the deck slab is the physical extension of the roadway across the obstruction
to be bridged. In the fig shown above, the deck slab is a reinforced concrete slab. The main

5|Page
 function of the deck slab is to distribute loads transversely along the bridge cross section.
The deck rests on the longitudinal members, girders or webs of the Box girder.
Main Girder– also called longitudinal Girders as those are put along the longitudinal axis of
the bridge (in the direction of the traffic). Girders receive load from deck and distribute it
longitudinally. Those are designed to resist flexure and shear. The main girders are made
of steel plate girders, Reinforced or Prestressed Concrete „I‟/‟T‟ shaped beams, webs of
Box Girder, etc.
Cross Girder – also called diaphragms, are bracing members between longitudinal
members. They help to resist cross-sectional deformation of the longitudinal members.
They also help for the stability of the longitudinal members during construction. The cross
girders provided at the end of the longitudinal members (End Diaphragms), receive the
loads of the deck from the deck and transfers to the bearings.
Kerb (Curb)– a raised element generally made up of RCC to denote the edge of pavement
on the deck.
Parapet – A concrete barrier placed at the outside face of the deck. It is called a railing if
made up of steel materials.
Crash Barrier – is a solid concrete barrier placed at the outside face of the deck to
safeguard against errant vehicles. Those are more robust and can resist more thrust of
vehicle when struck. Those are specifically provided in bridges on flyover & interchanges in
urban areas, express way and multi-level bridges.
Median (Central verge) – curb like element put on deck at the central of carriage way width
to put a physical barrier to the bi directional traffic movement.
Footpath – a defined portion of the deck slab to allow the pedestrian movement over the
bridge. There may be a raised curb like element or may be a small width of the carriageway
is separated by crash barrier/parapet on either side.
Expansion Joint – to allow for the movement of the superstructure due to temperature,
creep, shrinkage, etc., some gap is required between two spans. But the leakage at this
gap leads to reduced durability and disfiguration of the structure below. To resolve this
problem and to allow for required movement of the deck an Expansion Joint is provided.
Expansion joint makes deck gap leak proof, protects the edges of the slab/girder and also
allow smooth passage of traffic from one span to other by bridging the gap.

Functionality of Sub Structure Components:

The typical sub-structure components consist of the following:

Bearings – are the vital component of the bridge which transmits the vertical and horizontal
loads of the superstructure to the substructure. They also accommodate movements between
the superstructure and the substructure due to expansion and contraction. Thus they relieve

6|Page
 the stresses due to expansion/contraction of the superstructure. All bridge superstructures
deflect under loads, so the bearings must be able to accommodate the small rotations at the
support.
Pedestals – A pedestal is a short column under a bearing connected with the pier/abutment
cap. It transfers the forces from bearings to pier/abutment.
Pier Cap – A Long Transverse RCC component below the bearing/pedestals provides a
platform for the bearings and is connected with the Pier below.
Pier – is a vertical element to support the superstructure span at intermediate points of the
bridge. It receives the forces of superstructure through bearings and transfers to the
foundation.
Abutment – are the end supports of the bridge to support one end of the first and last span,
retain earth of the approach embankments.
Dirt Wall – is a thin wall projecting up from the abutment immediately behind the bearings to
retain the soil behind. Apart from the retaining the soil on road side it also supports the
approach slab.

7|Page
 TYPICAL COMPONENTS OF A BRIDGE

SUPER-STRUCTURE SUB-STRUCTURE FOUNDATION

Forms a surface/platform for Supports Super- Receives Forces from substructure and
traffic movement Structure transfers to the soil underneath

o Deck Slab OTHER COMPONETNS

o Bearings
o Longitudinal Members
o Pedestals o Approach Slab
o Cross Members
o Pier/Abutment Cap o Embankment
o Kerbs, Parapet, Crash Barrier,
o Pier/Abutment o Wing Wall
Footpath
o Dirt Wall o End Return
o Expansion Joint

8|Page
FORCE FLOW DIAGRAM OF A BRIDGE

SUPER-STRUCTURE

BEARING

PEDESTAL

PIER/ABUTMENT CAP

PIER/ABUTMENT

FOUNDATION

SUPER STRUCTURE

STRUCTURAL MEMBERS APPURTENANCES

(Transfers the loads transversely or (Any part of the bridge which is not a major
longitudinally and are designed to structural component, yet serves some
resist flexure and shear.) purpose in the overall functionality of the
structure)

o Deck Slab
o Longitudinal o Wearing Coat
Members o Kerb
o Cross Girders o Parapet
o Crash – Barrier
o Footpath
o Median/Central Verge

9|Page
 Some other important elements of a Bridge Structure
Approach Slab – To compensate for potential differential settlement at the approaches (just
behind the abutment), a RCC slab – approach slab is placed for some length behind the
abutment. It is typically supported by the abutment at one end and supported by the soil along
its length.
o Helps to evenly distribute traffic loads on the soil behind the abutment.
o Minimizes impact to the abutment which can results from differential settlement
between the abutment and approach.
Wing Walls – are small retaining walls provided at the end of the abutments to retain the soil
filling of the approaches. Wing walls may be right angled with the abutments or splayed at
different angle.

Weep Holes – are provided in the abutment stem above the ground level. when the water
enters the approach embankment fill, more soil pressure is exerted on the abutment wall. To
reduce this pressure, water must be drained out by placing the hopes in the abutment wall.
Drainage Filter – may be used on the back face of abutment wall in order to avoid the fine
particles of the back fill material entering the weep holes and eventually clogging them.

10 | P a g e
 1.3 DEVELOPMENT OF VARIOUS TYPES OF BRIDGE SUPERSTRUCTURE:
It is very interesting to understand the development the various basic types/shapes of the
superstructure. One should select a superstructure which is simplest one for particular need,
which gives the simplicity in construction, analysis & design and which gives the good aesthetic
look.

Various Cross sections options for superstructure are described below.

SOLID SLAB :

This shall be considered as the simplest form of the bridge superstructure. It is simply a thick slab
to form an entire width of carriageway. It provides the surface to the traffic at the same time takes
all the shear and flexure.

Solid slab is considered to be

very simple to concrete and
detailing of the reinforcement is
also modest. It gives the
advantage of easy formwork,
speedy construction, less labor
efforts, and comparatively good quality of construction.

It is considered that the solid slabs are suitable for spans up to 10m-12m for RCC and upto
around 15m for Prestressed Concrete. Broadly solid slabs shall be adopted for the spans which
required depth upto 600mm to 700mm. when the thickness of a slab exceeds about 700mm, the
cost of carrying the additional self-weight tends to outweigh its virtue of simplicity. This is because
of the fact that most of its strength (say flexural capacity) is being utilized to sustain its own weight
and hence very little strength remains balance to take the traffic loads.

11 | P a g e
 VOIDED SLAB
For the spans more than 15m,
the required depth of solid slab
is quite high and it results in
excessive self-weight.
Following the basic principle to
keep the tensile fibre stresses
within limit, one can remove some of the concrete around the neutral axis and thus reducing the
self-weight of slab. To remove the concrete within the slab around its neutral axis, void forms
shall be kept before concreting. This type of the slab is called as “Voided Slab”.

By introducing voids, the essential simplicity of slab is sacrificed. The cost of voids including the
measures need to be taken to hold them steady during concreting and to resist the up-thrust of
the wet concrete, is as much as the cost of concrete saved. This also requires greater labor
efforts and unit cost of the reinforcement is increased. However voided slab is having the benefit
of greater deck efficiency, lower weight leading to economy of the substructure and foundation
cost.

12 | P a g e
 BOX GIRDER
For the larger spans,
the size of the voids
in the voided slab
becomes quite high
required greater
depth of the slab and
affects the integrity of
the slab. This can be
resolves by forming
rectangular voids in
the slab instead of circular voids. This result in the thin vertical walls connected with top and
bottom thin slabs. This is called the “Box Girder”. It is a logical conclusion of the development of
the voided slab. The box girder is a voided slab with rectangular voids. The void forms are no
more being used for the construction of the box girder, but removable shuttering is used.

The construction of the box girder is bit slow, labor intensive and having modest formwork
requirement, clumsy reinforcement detailing and also complex in analysis and designing. The
greater advantage of the box girder is slim cross section, reduced self-weight and higher degree
of stiffness due to close form shape. It is very much suitable for the spans upto 40m to 50m and
for the span having curvature in plan.

13 | P a g e
 T BEAM DECK SLAB TYPE
For the medium span ranges from 15m to 35m, or for straight spans, the lateral stiffness due to
bottom slab from box girder can be omitted. The removal of soffit slab of box girder results in the
web to act as an individual girder connected at top with deck slab. This type of superstructure is
called “T beam Girder & Deck slab”. The removal of soffit slab results in the reduction in the self-
weight of superstructure. For the lateral stability and stiffness of the girder, intermediate cross
beams (diaphragms) are provided at suitable intervals.

Such type of superstructure is most suitable for pre-cast construction. Girders can be pre casted
and launched in position. Then after, deck slab can be casted in situ.

14 | P a g e
 CHAPTER : 2 : BRIDGE LOADINGS

2.1 INTRODUCTION

In the design of the various parts of a bridge, the governing loads and the load combinations will
change. Hence the loading to be considered in the bridge design shall be divided broadly in
three categories.

o Loading on Superstructure
o Loading on substructure
o Loading on Foundations

In this chapter, the bridge loads and its distribution are discussed related to the analysis and
design of super structure.

Three basic main loads to be considered in the design of the bridge are :

Dead Load : the self-weight of the parts of the structure that are structural elements (i.e. the
weight of the part of the structure which gives the strength to sustain the various loads.)

Super Imposed Dead Load (SIDL) : the weight of the materials forming loads on the structure
that are not structural elements. (i.e. the weight of the superimposed materials such as road
surfacing, parapets, kerbs, footpath, crash barriers.)

SILD’s are those loads placed on the superstructure after the deck has cured and begun to work
with the primary members in resisting the loads.

It shall be noted that SIDL is a part of total Dead Load. It is separated from the rest of the dead
loads because it is resisted by a composite section ( deck+ longitudinal elements), therefore
cause less deflection and stress in the longitudinal member than other dead loads.

The weight of the materials to be used for bridge structure are mentioned in the IRC :6 and
some of them are summarized below.

Table 2.1 : Unit weight of bridge materails

Material Unit Weight

(t/m²)
Concrete( Asphalt) 2.2
Concrete(cement-plain) 2.5
Concrete(cement- 2.5
reinforced/prestressed)
Macadam (Binder premix) 2.2
Steel(rolled or cast) 7.8

Live Loads : Loads due to movements of the vehicular or pedestrian traffic.

15 | P a g e
 The live load shall be divided in two categories.

i. Primary Live Loads : Vertical loads, considered as static loads, due directly to the mass of the
traffic.
ii. Secondary Live Loads : Live Loads due to changes in speed or direction of the vehicle traffic.
e.g. traction, braking, centrifugal, skidding, collision loads.

2.2 LIVE LOADS

As per IRC : 6, the consideration of various vehicular loadings shall be as under.

IRC Class 70R Loading : to be adopted for all permanent bridges and culverts.

IRC Class AA Loading : to be adopted within certain municipal limits, in certain existing or
contemplated industrial areas, in other specified area, and along certain specified highways.

IRC Class A Loading : to be adopted for all permanent bridges and culverts.

IRC Class B Loading : to be adopted for timber bridges.

2.2.1 Details of various Live Loads

The following figures describe the basic details of the various IRC Vehicles. (Source : IRC : 6-2000)

Fig. 2.1 : Basic Details of Class – AA Vehicle

16 | P a g e
 Fig. 2.2 : Basic details of Class – A wheeled vehicle

Fig. 2.3 : Basic details of 70R wheeled vehicle

17 | P a g e
 Fig. 2.4 : Basic details of 70R Tracked vehicle

2.2.2 SUMMARY OF THE SALIENT FEATURES OF THE IRC LIVE LOADS

Table 2.2

CLASS – A CLASS – AA CLASS – AA CLASS- B 70-R

WHEELED TRACKED WHEELED WHEELED
VEHICLE
Total Weight 55.4t 70t 40t 33.2t 100t
Length 18.8m(c/c 7.2m total 1.20m (c/c of 18.9m ( c/c 13.4m(c/c
distance between 3.6m base axle) between first distance
first and last axle) contact and last axle) between first
20.3m Overall and last axle)
Width 1.80m ( c/c of 2.9m total 2.5m total 1.80m ( c/c 2.79m total
Wheel) 2.05m(c/c of 2.05m(c/c of of Wheel)
track) wheel)
Occupancy 1 Lane of 2 Lane of 2 Lane of 1 Lane of 2 Lane of
Width Carriageway Carriageway Carriageway Carriageway Carriageway
C 0.15m for all 0.3m upto 5.3m 0.3m upto 0.15m for all 0.3m upto
(min. clearance carriageway of carriageway 5.3m of carriageway 5.3m of
between the widths 1.2m for carriageway widths carriageway
road face of the carriageway 1.2m for 1.2m for
kerb and outer more than 5.3m carriageway carriageway
edge of the more than more than
wheel or track) 5.3m 5.3m
G Clear carriageway 1.2m 1.2m Clear 1.2m
(min. clearance width 5.5m to carriageway
between the 7.5m : uniformly width 5.5m
outer edges of increasing from to 7.5m :
passing or 0.4m to 1.2m uniformly
crossing Above 7.5m : increasing
vehicles on 1.2m from 0.4m to
multilane 1.2m
bridges) Above 7.5m :
1.2m
Distance 18.5m Nose to 90.0m nose to 30.0m nose 18.5m Nose 30.0m nose
between tail tail spacing to tail to tail to tail
succeeding 20.0m c/c axle spacing 20.0m c/c spacing
trains axle

18 | P a g e
 2.2.3 Live Load Combinations

For the various width of the carriageway the following live load combinations shall be followed.

Carriageway width less than 5.3m

Carriageway width 5.3m and above but less than 9.6m

Carriageway width 9.6m and above but less than 13.1m

Fig. 2.6 : Live Load Combinations

2.2.4 Footpath Live load

When footpath provision is made within the bridge carriageway, the loading of 400 kg/m² shall be
considered over the footpath. Where crowd loads are likely to occur, such as on bridges located
near towns, which are either centres of pilgrim or where large congregational fairs are held
seasonally, the intensity of the footway loading shall be increased from 400 kg/m² to 500 kg/m².

For kerb having width of 0.60m or more, shall also considered to be occupied with footway
loading.

19 | P a g e
 The main longitudinal member supporting the footways shall be designed for the following live
loads per m² of footway area.

a) For effective span of 7.5m of less, 400kg/m² or 500 kg/m² as the case may be.
b) For effective spans of over 7.5m but not exceeding 30.0m, the intensity of load shall be
determined according to equation shown below:
40 L 300
P P1
9
c) For effective spans of over 30.0m, the intensity of load shall be determined according to
equation shown below:
4800 16.5 W
P P1 260
L 15
where P1 = 400 kg/m² or 500 kg/m² as the case may be, based on Sub-Clause 206.1.
L = Effective Span of main girder in m,
W = Width of footway in m

Wheels on the Footpath

When footpath adjacent to the carriageway, are separated only

with small height curb (mountable), each part of the footway shall
be capable of carrying a wheel load of 4.0 T.

Fig. 2.7 :

This load shall be applied on the footpath distributed over a contact area 300mm dia. Appropriate
impact factor shall be applied to this load.

2.2.4 Multiple presences of Live Load Lanes

During analysis for live load we consider one lane of vehicle. But when the bridge is having multi-
lane, live load is to be considered accordingly. It is almost impossible to have maximum load effect
on all the lanes at the same time. The more the lanes we have, the lesser is a chance that all will
be loaded to maximum at the same time.

Reduction in the longitudinal effect on bridges having more than two lane traffic due to the low
probability that all lanes will be subjected to the characteristic live load simultaneously shall be in
accordance with the table shown below.

20 | P a g e
 Table 2.3

Number of Lanes Reduction in Longitudinal

Effect
2 Lanes No Reduction

3 Lanes 10% Reduction

4 Lanes 20% Reduction

5 or more Lanes 30% Reduction

Source : IRC:6 – 2010

2.2.5 Traffic Jam Condition

For bridges, flyovers/grade separators close to areas such as ports, heavy industries and mines
and any other areas where frequent congestion of heavy vehicles may occur, additional check for
congestion of vehicular live load on the carriageway shall be considered.

In absence of any stipulated value, the congestion factor, as mentioned in table below shall be
considered. This factor shall be used as a multiplying factor on the global effect of vehicular live
loads only.

Under this condition, horizontal force due to braking/acceleration, centrifugal action and
temperature gradient effect need not be included, but the effect of live load impact shall be
included.

Table 2.4

Sr. Span Range Congestion Factor

No.
1 Above 10m and upto 30m 1.15

2 30.0m to 40.0m 1.15 to 1.30

3 40.0m to 50.0m 1.30 to 1.45

4 50.0m to 60.0m 1.45 to 1.60

5 60.0m to 70.0m 1.60 to 1.70

6 Beyond 70.0m 1.70

Source : IRC:6 - 2010

21 | P a g e
 2.2.6 IMPACT

In order to account for the dynamic effects of a vehicle riding over a structure, an impact factor is
used as a multiplier to the live loads.
This factor accounts for hammering when riding surface discontinuities exist, and long undulations
present in the riding surface.

Table 2.4 IMPACT FACTOR (Source : IRC : 6-2000,clause 208)

Vehicle Type Span Impact Factor

Concrete Bridge Steel Bridge
< 3m 50% 54.5%
Class – A or B 4.5 9
3 to 45m
6 L 13.5 L
≤ 5m 25%

5 – 9m Linearly reducing from 25% to 10%

Class- AA or 70R
(Tracked) 10%
9m to 40m 10%

> 40m Refer Fig 5

≤ 9m 25%

9m to 12m 12%
Class- AA or 70R
25% up to 23m
(Wheeled)
>12m Fig 5

>23m Fig 5

No Impact allowance to the footway loadings

For Impact Allowance:

For individual members of bridge, such as cross girder, deck slab, etc., the span ( L)
mentioned shall be effective span of the member under consideration.

For any bridge structure where there is a filling of 0.6m or more including the road
crust, the impact percentage to be allowed in the design shall be assumed to be one
half of what computed as per above rules.

It shall be noted that impact factor is not required to be considered for centrifugal,
braking, collision or pedestrian loads.

22 | P a g e
 55

CLASS - A & B
50
RCC BRIDGES CLASS - AA & 70R(TRACKED)

AA& 70R(WHEELED)
45

40

35
Impact Percentage

30

25

20

15

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56
Span (m)

23 | P a g e
 60

CLASS - A & B
55
STEEL BRIDGES CLASS - AA & 70R(TRACKED)
50 CLASS - AA & 70R (WHEELED)

45

40
Impact Percentage

35

30

25

20

15

10

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26 28 30 32 34 36 38 40 42 44 46 48 50 52 54 56
Span (m)

24 | P a g e
 Analysis procedure for Live
Load effect in Bridge
Superstructure
Various Live
Loads

Determine the suitable

Vehicle as per carriageway
width, bridge category, etc.

Consider Dynamic Effect

(Impact Factor)

If deck has curvature in

plan, consider
Centrifugal effect

Place them to get maximum

effect on span

Distribute load to
each girder

Apply reduction factor for

longitudinal effect as per
no.s of lanes

Compute BM/SF due to Live

Load to be used in design of
longitudinal elements

Apply Congestion Factor for

bridge close to area having
possibility of frequent
congestion

25 | P a g e
 CHAPTER : 3 : LIMIT STATE DESIGN

3.1 BACKGROUND

The past two decades have seen unprecedented growth of knowledge in the field of concrete
bridges, development of new structural forms, new methods of computer based analysis and
design and development of high strength materials. The explosion of knowledge, advent of new
technologies and demand from the market has changed the construction industry so much that
revamping and frequent updating of engineering codes has become unavoidable. To establish a
common procedure for design and construction of road bridges in India based on the Limit State
Method, Indian Roads Congress has issued a new Code of Practice for Concrete Road Bridges as
IRC : 112 in year 2011.

The earlier codes IRC:18 (The Design Criteria for Prestressed Concrete Road Bridges- Post
Tensioned Concrete) & IRC:21 (Standard Code of Practice for Road Bridges Section III, Cement
Concrete – Plain and Reinforced), both based on Working Stress Method stands withdrawn on
publication of this Code.

Assumptions:

While following the design and construction as per IRC : 112 following criteria’s should be
satisfied.

The design and construction of road bridges require an extensive and thorough
knowledge of the science and technology. Hence it should be entrusted only to specially
qualified engineers with adequate knowledge and experience of bridge engineering,
capable of ensuring correct design and execution of bridge works.
Adequate supervision and quality control is provided in factories, in plants and on site
during all stages of construction
The construction materials and products are provided and used as specified by relevant
national standards.
The intended levels of properties of material adopted in the design are available.
The structure will be adequately maintained and used in accordance with the design
specifications

26 | P a g e
 3.2 LIMIT STATE PHILOSOPHY

The basic requirement of any structure is to sustain the actions and influences imposed by
various loads, to remain fit for the intended purpose, should have adequate structural
resistance, adequate durability, and adequate serviceability.

Limit state design simply provides the basic framework within which the performance if the
structure can be assessed against various limiting conditions. The limiting conditions are
generally are grouped under two headings: ultimate of safety limit states and serviceability limit
states.

a) Ultimate Limit States (ULS): ULS are concerned with the safety of the structure and
thereby of people. Examples of ULS include loss of equilibrium, excessive deformation,
rupture, loss of stability, transformation of the structure into a mechanism and fatigue.
when the structure is acted upon the ultimate design load,
b) Serviceability Limit States (SLS): SLS are concerned with the functioning of the structure
under normal use, the comfort of users and the appearance of the structure. Examples
of SLS include loss of equilibrium, excessive deformation, rupture, loss of stability,
transformation of the structure into a mechanism and fatigue. when the structure is
acted upon the ultimate design load,

Limit state design involves verifying that relevant limit states are not exceeded in any specified
design situation. In Limit state design, each limit state is examined separately in order to check
that it is not attained. ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE METHOD

ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE SERVICEABILITY LIMIT STATE

– Loss of Equilibrium o Stress Check

– Loss of Stability o Crack Control
– Transformation into o Deflection
mechanism o Vibration
– Rupture
– Crushing or bulking
– Fatigue Failure FIG :3.1

27 | P a g e
 Design Life :

The design working life is the assumed period for which a structure or part of it is to be used for
its intended purpose with anticipated maintenance but without major repair being necessary.

Normal
All Bridges

Temporary
Bridges on temporary access roads, for construction facility

Special Applications
Bridge rehabilitation for short time, for projects/industries with planned
economin life of short duration

Years
0 10 20 100

Characteristic and Nominal Load:

Characteristic load is defined as the value which has a 95% probability of not being exceeded
during the life of the structure. In the following figure, the shaded area above the characteristic
value represents 5% probability of exceeding of the load in the design life of the structure.
However for bridges, the statical data required to derive the characteristic values are not
available for all loads. Hence the loads are defined in terms of Nominal Load. Values of the
nominal loads are assigned the general symbol Qk.

Characteristic Strength:

The characteristic strength of material is defined as the value which has a 95% probability of
being exceeded. Since the statical data concerning to the material properties are generally
available, the characteristic strengths can be obtained.

28 | P a g e
 Design Loads:

At each limit state, a design load is obtained from each nominal load by multiplying a partial
safety factor ( fL). The design load is obtained from:

𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝐿𝑜𝑎𝑑, 𝑄𝑑 = 𝑄𝑘 . 𝛾𝑓𝐿

Here, a partial safety factor ( fL) is accounted for :

- Possibility of unfavourable deviation of the load from the characteristic value
- Possibility of inaccurate assessment of the load
- Uncertainty in the assessment of the effects of the load
- Uncertainty in the assessment of the limit states being considered

Design Strength of Materials:

At each limit state, design strength of a material is obtained from the characteristic strength
divided by a partial safety factor ( m).
𝑓𝑘
𝐷𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑔𝑛 𝑆𝑡𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ, 𝑓𝑑 =
𝛾𝑚

Here, a partial safety factor ( m) is accounted for :

- Possible deviation of the material in the structure from that assumed in design
- Possible reduction in the strength of the material from its characteristic value
- Manufacturing tolerances
- Mode of failure (ductile or brittle)

29 | P a g e
 3.3 MATERIALS

3.3.1 Concrete

Table 3.1 summarizes the various Compressive Strength

characteristics of normal concrete. (CL. 6.4.2.2)

Compressive Strength with time: Tensile Strength

(CL. 6.4.2.3)
The following expression for estimating
the mean compressive strength of Design Properties Modulus of Elasticity
of Concrete (CL. 6.4.2.5)
concrete with time, which is valid for
seasonal variation of temperature Shrinkage
between -20˚C to +40˚C. (CL. 6.4.2.6)

( )= ()
Creep
FIG :3.3 (CL. 6.4.2.7)
( )= { [ ( ) ]}
⁄

Where,
Fcm(t) = Mean compressive strength at an age of ‘t’ days
fcm = Mean compressive strength at 28 days
t = Age of concrete in days
S = Co-efficient which depends on cement type
= 0.2 for rapid hardening high-strength cements
= 0.25 for normal and rapid hardening cements
= 0.38 for slow hardening cements.

Elastic Deformation:

The mean value of the modulus of elasticity, Ecm can be obtained from Table 3.1 which is based
on the following relationship:
.
= ( .
) in GPa, fck is in MPa

The above equation gives values of Ecm for quartize/granite aggregates. For other aggregates, it
should be multiplied by factors as given below:

Limestone = 0.9, Sandstone = 0.70, Basalt = 1.2

The variation of modulus of elasticity with time ‘t’ ( which should only be required for loading at
early age) is given by :

30 | P a g e
 .
( )
( )= ( )

The other relevant properties of concrete are :

Poisson’ ratio : for uncracked concrete = 0.2

For cracked concrete = 0

Stress – strain relationship for design of concrete section:

IRC 112 makes distinction between the requirements for stress-strain relationships for use in
global analysis (non-linear structural analysis) and for use in the verification of cross-sections.

c c c

fcm fck fck

0.33fcm fcd fcd

tan Ecm

0 c 0 c 0 c
c1 cu1 c2 cu2 c3 cu3
Note : The use of 0.33fcm for the definition
of Ecm is approximate

(a) For Structural Analysis (b) Parabolic rectangular (c) Bilinear

Fig. 3.4 : Stress-strain relations for concrete section

Fig. 3.4(a) shows schematic representation of the stress-strain relation for structural analysis.

For cross section design, three alternative stress-strain diagrams are provided: 1) parabolic
rectangular, bilinear and simplified rectangular, as shown in Fig 3.4 (b) & (c). These have been
constructed using following equations given in IRC 112.
Parabolic-rectangular diagram

𝜀𝑐 𝑛
𝜎𝑐 = 𝑓𝑐𝑑 ( ) 𝑓𝑜𝑟 0 ≤ 𝜀𝑐 ≤ 𝜀𝑐
𝜀𝑐

= 𝑓𝑐𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝜀𝑐 ≤ 𝜀𝑐 ≤ 𝜀𝑐𝑢

Where,
n = Exponent as given in Table 3.1

c2 = Strain at reaching characteristics strength as given in Table 3.1

cu2 = Ultimate strain as given in Table 3.1

31 | P a g e
 Bilinear diagram

c3 = Strain at reaching characteristics strength as given in Table 3.1, i.e. at

fcd when design values are used

cu3 = Ultimate strain as given in Table 3.1

cu3 fcd
Fc
Ac x
x

As Fs

Fig. 3.5 : Simplified Rectangular Stress Block for generalized concrete section

Simplified rectangular diagram (Refer fig. 3.5)

and factors are used to define the effective height of the compressive
zone and effective strength respectively.

= 0.8 for fck ≤ 60 MPa

= 0.8 – (fck – 60)/500 for 60 < fck ≤ 110 MPa

= 1.0 for fck ≤ 60 MPa

= 1.0 – (fck – 60)/250 for 60 < fck ≤ 110 MPa

For design of concrete section, = ,

where, = 0.67 and

m = 1.5 for Basic & Seismic Combination

= 1.2 for Accidental Combination

32 | P a g e
33 | P a g e
 Table : 3.1 : Stress and Deformation Characteristics for Normal Concrete
Strength Class M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M M Formulae
15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
1 fck(MPa) 15 20 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90
chara. Comp.
cube strength at
28 days
2 fcm(MPa) 25 30 35 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 75 80 85 90 95 100 fck + 10
Mean Value of
concrete cube
comp. strength
2/3
3 fctm(MPa) 1.6 1.9 2.2 2.5 2.8 3.0 3.3 3.5 3.7 4.0 4.4 4.5 4.7 4.8 4.9 5.0 fck ≤60: 0.259(fck)
Mean Value of fck >60:
axial tensile 2.27ln[1+(fcm/12.5)]
strength
4 fctk,0.05(MPa) 1.1 1.3 1.5 1.7 1.9 2.1 2.3 2.5 2.6 2.8 2.9 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 3.3 0.7fctm
chara. Axial fctk;0.05 is 0.5% fractile
tensile strength
5 fctk,0.95(MPa) 2.0 2.5 2.9 3.2 3.6 3.9 4.3 4.6 4.9 5.2 5.4 5.6 5.7 5.9 6.1 6.2 1.3fctm,
chara. Axial fctk;0.95 is 0.95% fractile
tensile strength
6 Ecm (GPa) 27 29 30 31 32 33 34 35 36 37 38 38 39 40 40 41 22(fcm/12.5)0.3
Secant modulus
of elasticity
7 1.8 1.9 2 2 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.3 2.4 2.4 2.5 2.5 2.6 2.6 2.7 2.7 0.653(fcm)0.31<2.8
c1(‰)
3.5 3.4 3.2 3.0 2.9 2.9 2.8 .
8 . * + for
cu1(‰)
fck>60MPa
9 2.0 2.1 2.2 2.3 2.3 2.4 2.4 .0
c2(‰) 0.0 (0. 0) .

for fck>60MPa
10 3.5 3.3 3.1 2.9 2.8 2.7 2.6 0 0.
cu2(‰) .
00
for fck>60MPa
11 N 2.0 1.9 1.7 1.6 1.5 1.5 1.4 0 0.
. .
00
for fck>60MPa
12 1.8 1.8 1.8 1.9 1.9 2.0 2.1
c3(‰)
13 3.5 3.3 3.1 2.9 2.8 2.7 2.6
cu3(‰)

34 | P a g e
 3.3.2 Reinforcing Steel

The most important reinforcement property to the designer is usually the characteristic
yield strength, fyk. It is obtained by dividing the characteristic yield load by the nominal
cross-sectional area of the bar. Alternatively, the 0.2% proof stress,f0.2k, may be used in
place of the yield stress. Fig 4.6 illustrates typical stress-strain curves for reinforcement.

s s

ft ft
f =f
yk 0.2k
fyk = f0.2k

0 s 0 0.2% s
uk uk

(a) Hot rolled HYSD Steel (b) Cold Worked HYSD Steel

Es = slope of linear portion = 200 GPa

Fig. 3.6 : Stress-Strain Diagram of Un-tensioned Reinforcement

Idealised Bilinear Diagram

ft
Factored Idealised Design
Bilinear Diagram
fyk
Simplified Bilinear Diagram
fyd=fyk/ s
Factored Simplified Design
Bilinear Diagram

0 fyd/Es 0.9 uk
s
ud = uk

Fig. 3.7 : Bilinear Stress-Strain Diagram of Reinforcing steel for Design

For design purpose, simplified bilinear diagram as given in Fig. 3.7 may be used.

s is taken as 1.15 for basic and seismic combination, and 1.0 for accidental combination

35 | P a g e
 3.4 LOAD COMBINATIONS

For Limits State Design, the various load combinations are to be considered for USL & SLS
checks. The clauses described in Annex B of IRC : 6 shall be referred for the same.

The following chart shows the particular load combinations to be followed for verification of
various structural effects under Ultimate Limit State & Serviceability Limit State.

ULTIMATE LIMIT STATE

Equilibrium Strength
(Overturning, (Internal Failure,
Sliding, Uplift) Excessive
Deformation)
Reference from Annex B,IRC 6

Basic Combination Table 3.1 column 2,3 Table 3.2 column 2

Accidental Combination Table 3.1 column 4,5 Table 3.2 column 3

Seismic Combination Table 3.1 column 6,7 Table 3.2 column 4

3.5 ULTIMATE MOMENT OF RESISTANCE OF CONCRETE SECTION

Assumptions :

The standard assumptions for the calculation of ultimate moments of resistance of a concrete
section are as follows:

i. Plane sections remain plane after bending.

ii. Strain in bonded reinforcement, whether in tension or compression, is the same as the
strain in the concrete at the same level.
iii. Tensile strength of the concrete is ignored.

3.5.1 Singly Reinforced Beams & Slabs

Compression failures are dangerous in practice because they occur suddenly, giving little
visible warning and are brittle. Tension failures, however, are preceded by wide cracking of the
concrete and have a ductile character. To ensure that all beams have adequate visible warning

36 | P a g e
 if failure is imminent, as well as reasonable ductility at failure, it is necessary to limit the area
of tension steel in singly reinforced sections to a proportion of the balanced area because, if
the yield strength of the steel is higher or the concrete strength is lower, a compression failure
may occur in a beam that is loaded to the flexural strength.

FLEXURE DESIGN FORMULA :

f ck
Design Value of Concrete Compressive Strength : f cd
m

Where, = 0.67 and m = 1.5 for basic & seismic combination

= 1.2 for accidental combination

Simplified Rectangular
stress-strain diagram

f av f cd = /2

𝑓𝑦𝑘 𝛽𝑓𝑦𝑘 𝐴𝑠𝑡

𝑥 𝑓𝑦𝑘 𝐴𝑠𝑡 𝑀𝑢 = 𝐴 𝑑
= × 𝛾𝑚 𝑠𝑡 𝛾𝑚 𝑓𝑎𝑣 𝑏𝑑
𝑑 𝑓𝑎𝑣 𝛾𝑚 𝑏𝑑

37 | P a g e