Medical Statistics – Dr.

Suhas Kumar Shetty

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 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

MEDICAL STATISTICS

SYLLABUS POINTS

 Application of statistical methods to Ayurvedic research, Collection,

Compilation and tabulation of medical statistics, methods of presentation of

data, calculation of mean, Median and Mode of Measurement of variability,

Standard deviation, Standard error, Normal probability curve.

 Concept of regression and co-relation and their interpretation.

2
 Tests of significance, t, x , z and f test and their simple application.

 Principle of Medical Experimentation on variations in experimental design.

 Vital Statistics.


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 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

MEDICAL STATISTICS

SYLLABUS POINTS

 Application of statistical methods to Ayurvedic research, Collection,

Compilation and tabulation of medical statistics, methods of presentation of

data, calculation of mean, Median and Mode of Measurement of variability,

Standard deviation, Standard error, Normal probability curve.

 Concept of regression and co-relation and their interpretation.

2
 Tests of significance, t, x , z and f test and their simple application.

 Principle of Medical Experimentation on variations in experimental design.

 Vital Statistics.





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 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty


DERIVATION / ORIGIN OF THE WORD STATISTICS

The word statistics is derived from – 

 A Latin word – Status.

 A Italian word – Statista.

 A German word – Statistic.

All of these words refer to a political state which is because of reasons that

the knowledge of statistics was used to run a State / Kingdom / Country.

According to Webstar –

Statistics is the classified facts representing the condition of the people in a

state, specially those facts which can be expressed in terms of numbers / in

tables / in a classified.

The word statistics can be used both in singular and plural sense. It gives

different understandings when used in singular or plural form.

Singular meaning of Statistics –

Here, it refers to science.

In singular sense, word statistics is used to mean a subject, science or a

discipline.

Statistics is a study of knowledge, which deals with different methods of

collection, classification, presentation, analysis and interpretation of data.

Data – It refers to the sort of information, which is collected in terms of

value.

Plural meaning of Statistics –

According to Secriest, the plural meaning of statistics refers to statistical

methods. Viz. – 

 Aggregate of facts.

 Affected to a marked extend by multicity of causes.

 Numerically expressed.

 Enumerated / estimated according to reasonable standards of accuracy.

 Collected in a systematic manner.

 For a predetermined purpose / cause.

 Placed in relation with each other.


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 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

01. AGGREGATE OF FACTS

It refers to the collection of various data.

e.g. Collection of Blood pressure, weight, height, etc of 20 students in a class.

02. AFFECTED TO A MARKED EXTEND BY MULTICITY OF CAUSES

A sample or a subject or a recording be affected by various internal,

external or miscellaneous causes like Age, Sex, Time, Place, Food habits,

Religion, etc.

e.g. Blood pressure variation according to the change in emotional status,

hormonal changes, etc.

03. NUMERICALLY EXPRESSED

Quantifying the data. (i.e. Expression of the collected data in terms of the

values.)

e.g. Blood pressure – 120/80 mm of Hg, 140/90 mm of Hg, etc.

04. STANDARDS OF ACCURACY

Data should be standardized according to the normal values. (i.e. In

between the range of minimal and maximal values.)

e.g. Record of blood pressure from 0-300 mm of Hg only.

Variation of +/- 15 mm of Hg in systolic blood pressure.

Variation of +/- 10 mm of Hg in diastolic blood pressure, etc.

05. COLLECTION IN A SYSTEMIC MANNER

For the collection of data various methods of researches should be

adopted. (i.e. Standards with a particular restriction)

e.g. Performing dhara only for 40 minutes.

Recording Blood pressure sharply at 09.00 am only.

06. FOR A PREDETERMINED PURPOSE

Collection of data based on research plan / requirement of the researcher.

(i.e. according to the aims and objectives of the research project)

e.g. Collection of the blood sugar levels before and after the Madhutailika basti

prayoga in 30 diabetic patients.

07. PLACED IN RELATION WITH EACH OTHER

Co-relation of the data collected. (i.e. Co-relation of the data collected

before and after the interventions, variables observed during the study like

height, place, temperature, etc during the study, etc.)

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 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

BRANCHES OF STATISTICS

There are 2 main branches of the statistics – 

 Descriptive statistics.

 Inferential statistics.

DESCRIPTIVE STATISTICS

It refers to the various statistical measures that are used to describe the

various characteristics of data. From this type of statistics we can not conclude

over the collected data.

e.g. Mean, Mode, Median, Standard deviation, etc.

INFERENTIAL STATISTICS

It refers to various statistical measures that are used to draw some valid

conclusions and findings.

e.g. Test of significance like t-test, f-test, z-test, Chisquare test, etc.

OBJECTIVES OF THE STATISTICS

 The objectives of statistics are of two folded i.e. To condense, organize

and summarize the collected raw data.

 To reach or draw or to take decisions about a large data (population) by

examining a small part (sample) of data.

APPLICATION OF STATISTICS

Science with statistical support will yield fruits. (i.e. will achieve its

maximum outcome).

The science of statistics can be applied to any of the scientific fields like

economics, politics, industry, business, education, administered medicine and so

on.

When the statistical methods or science of statistics are applied for public

health, medicine or biological data, it is called as Medical Statistics or

Biostatistics or Biometry.

BIOSTATISTICS

Biostatistics, is a subject, which deals with application of statistical

methods in the field of medicine, biology and public health in planning or

conducting and analyzing data which arise in investigations.


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 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

In other words, it is an application of different statistical methods i.e.

collection, classification, presentation, analysis, interpretation of biological

variations.

It is also known as Quantitative Science. Because, in statistics the facts

and observations should be expressed in figures or numbers.

The other synonyms of Biostatistics is, Science Of Variation. Because, it

deal with the various dependants and independent variables.

Biostatistics is also known as Biometry.

VARIABLE

The characteristics varies in person, time and place is called variable.

As the statistics deals with the variables. So, it is called as Science of

Variables.

BIOMETRY

It is a Greek word, formed by the combination of 2 words – 

Bio + Metry.

Here, Bio is the word related with the Biology or Life.

Metry refers to the Measurement.

So, the word biometry means, the measurement of the life.

Depending upon the application of Biostatistics in various fields it is named

as – Health statistics, Medical statistics, Vital statistics, etc.

HEALTH STATISTICS

It deals with the public / community health.

MEDICAL STATISTICS

When the statistics is applied in the field of the medicine, it is called as

medical statistics. The action of drugs, various treatment modalities, etc.

VITAL STATISTICS

When the statistics is applied in the field of demography (i.e. Study of the

population) and its important events like – Birth, Death, Mortality rate, Fatality

rate, etc called as Vital statistics.

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 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

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Ayurveda, deals with the four types of Ayu i.e. Hitayu, Sukhayu, Ahitayu,
Dukhayu.
   
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Ayurveda also deals with the measurement.
  ! 
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So, it can be concluded that both biometry as well as Ayurveda deals with
the measurement of life.
Biometry, can be applied in various fields of Ayurvedic Researches like – 
Literary study, Pharmacological study, Clinical study, Survey study, etc.
Some of the common applications of the Biostatistics are as follows – 
TO SIMPLIFY OR TO CONDENSE THE HUGE DATA
 Collection of the lakshanas of various diseases.
 Collection of lakshanas as per Poorvaroopa, Roopa, Upadrava, Asadhya
lakshana, Arishta lakshana, etc. (i.e. Hetu kosha, Lakshana kosha)
 Literary study on Prakriti – Collection of various factors about Prakriti and
classifying them according to the physical factors, psychological factors,
Shadanga shareera, etc.
 Vyadhi Kshamatwa – Collection of the concept of Bala in various texts and
dividing them as per the dividing base i.e. Sahaja bala, Kalaja bala,
Yuktikrita bala.
TO TEST THE HYPOTHESIS
Whatever mentioned in classics, to re-evaluate the concept.
e.g.  '#%(%')$**+,-".""///
///0
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Conducting a well planned research work to confirm the above mentioned
classical concept through various ways.
Sushruta opines that, the diseases which can be cured by Kavalagraha
also cured by Pratisarana. Hence, both the procedures are having equal potency
in the treatment of Kanthagata rogas. Conducting a well designed research work
to evaluate the same with the same drug with two different procedures can be
undertaken.


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 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

TO DRAW THE CONCLUSIONS

Based on the conducted or based on previous studies, some conclusions

are drawn and if necessary some recommendations are suggested.

e.g. When a scholar planned a research work to evaluate the effect of

Kavalagraha in Mukhapaka with some medicine but with varying duration of the

Kavalagraha. (i.e. 5 minutes, 10 minutes, 15 minutes, etc.) In this research work

finally on the basis of statistical results obtained the scholar can draw some

conclusion and can standardize the particular time for the Kavalagraha

procedure in respected condition.

TO STUDY THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN 2 OR MORE VARIABLES

This can be done with the help of concept of co-relation.

e.g. When a scholar planned a research work to evaluate the effect of

Kavalagraha in Mukhapaka with some medicine but with varying duration of the

Kavalagraha. (i.e. 5 minutes, 10 minutes, 15 minutes, etc.) In this research work

finally on the basis of statistical results obtained the scholar can draw some

conclusion and can standardize the particular time for the Kavalagraha

procedure in respected condition.

Relation between the age and height.

Relation between the fatty diet and chances of atherosclerosis.

Relation between the number of cigarettes per day and the life span of

smokers, etc studies can be undertaken.

TO PREDICT THE FUTURE THINGS (i.e. to assess the future events)

This can be done with the help of the concept of regression.

e.g. Suppose, if we have data of number of cases in Poliomyelitis of last 5 years.

Regression analysis can help in prediction of the probable number of cases in

the next year.

It is very useful in target setting, Budget sessions, etc.

IN THE FIELD OF VITAL STATISTICS

Vital statistics deals with the important events of life, which are indicative of

population or community health.

e.g. It is very important to know about the community health problems and to

counter such problems through the various plans and projects.


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 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

LIMITATIONS OF STATISTICS

 Statistics deals with the quantitative characters rather than qualitative data.

e.g. Statistics can predict the number of books in library, but not the number
of good quality books.
 Statistics does not deal with individual or single character. It is true on

average.
e.g. In class A, 3 students scored 35, 35 and 35 marks respectively. The
mean score of the class will be 35+35+35=105/3=35.
In class B, 3 students scored 78, 22 and 5 marks respectively. The mean
score of the class will be 78+22+05=105/3=35.
Though, the average is same in both the groups, the individual values
differs. This is the limitation of the statistics. Here, statistics deals with the
group not with an individual entity. Though the average marks scored in both
classes is same it does not mean that all the students have scored similar
marks. But, this limitation can be neglected / nullified by the concept of
dispersion.
 Statistical results may be hampered by various physical, biochemical,

analytical, methodology, etc. forms of research bias. (i.e. Errors in

conducting research.)
e.g. Errors done by researchers, Errors in methodology, Errors in analysis,
Errors in collection and calculation of data, etc.
 Statistics can be miss used and wrong statistical methods can be

manipulated.
e.g. “Number of accidents are committed by females are less as compared to
Males.” Out of 1000 male riders, 15 males were committed with accident. Out
of 100 female riders, 3 were committed with accident. Here, numerically the
number of accident seems to be more in males, but it is wrong to give above
mentioned statement. Because, the incidence of the event taken in both the
group is not same. If we take the mean in male riders it will be 1.5 and in
females it will be 3.0. So, if we calculate the incidence as per the size of
population the number of accidents committed by females will be 30. It is clear
that, female riders are more prone to commit accidents. So, the above
mentioned statement is statistically wrong.



 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

!
DATA

It refers to the given piece of information. In other words, it is aggregate of

figures, numbers or the set of the values i.e. recorded in one or more

observational queries.

OBSERVATIONAL UNITES

The source of observation is called as observational unites.

e.g. Such as object, person, patient, etc.

OBSERVATIONS

The combination of events and its measurement constitute observation.

e.g. Measuring the Blood pressure is the event & the measured blood pressure

like 102/80 mm of Hg will be measurement. The combination of both event and

measurement i.e. Observation.

Features / Characteristics of an Ideal Data

It should be – (CURA)2

 Complete

 Comparable.

 Up to dated.

 Understandable.

 Reliable.

 Relevant.

 Accurate.

 Available easily.

CLASSIFICATION OF DATA

Data is classified on various basis as mentioned below – 

Based on the characters Qualitative.

Quantitative.
Based on Method of collection Continuous.
Discrete.
Based on Classification Primary.
Secondary.


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 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

CLASSIFICATION OF DATA BASED ON THE CHARACTERS

QUALITATIVE DATA
It is also called as Attribute / Character.
It is a data, where character or quality is constant, but frequency varies.
This is always represented in the form of discrete or discontinued and
countable.
e.g. Sex, Religion, Nationality, etc.
In a class number of students is fixed. Classification of students on the
basis of sex, which is a fixed character, and it is countable called as qualitative
data.
Out of 20 students, 21 are male and 08 are female students. Here, total
number of male can not be 18.2, 18.5 like that total number of female can not be
08.6, 08.9.
QUANTITATIVE DATA
In this type / set of data character as well as frequency varies.
e.g. Following are the heights of people aging between 10 to 20 years.
Sl. Height (In feats) Frequency
01. 3–4 10
02. 4–5 20
03. 5–6 10
Here, both frequency and character changes. Out of 40 people height
frequency is mentioned above. 20 people found in 4 – 5 feats character. It
means, 20 people height lies between 4 – 5 feats. Then it may be 4.1, 4.2, 4.3,
etc.
This type of data called as Discrete and continuous in nature.
CLASSIFICATION OF DATA BASED ON METHOD OF COLLECTION
DISCRETE DATA
The data collected by the method of counting and representing in round
numbers and integral, is called as discrete data.
e.g. Number of patients visiting O.P.D.
Sl. Day Number of Patients
01. Monday 210
02. Tuesday 250
03. Wednesday 450
Here, the number of patients can not be 210 ½, 210 ¾ like that. So, this
type of countable data called as discrete data.


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 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

CONTINUOUS DATA

The data which is collected by using measuring instrument and

represented as round number or fraction or decimals, is called as continuous

data.

e.g. Weight of New borns in a hospital – 2.8 Kg, 3.5 kg, etc.

Hb% of the patients – 8.6gm%, 11.5gm%, etc.

CLASSIFICATION OF DATA BASED ON FUNCTIONAL CLASSIFICATION

PRIMARY DATA

Those data, which are collected for the very first time, original in nature

under the control and supervision of medical investigator, is called as primary

data.

e.g. A research scholar collecting data for thesis work. Number of family planning

operations conducting in P.H.C., etc.

SECONDARY DATA

The data which is not collected by the investigator, but it is derived from

other reliable sources, referred as secondary data.

e.g. The D. H. O. collects the information about the number of Tuberculosis

patients in a district.

A doctor wants to study the relationship of smoking and Heart diseases

based on the data given in Indian Medical Journals, etc.

RELIABLE SOURCE OF DATA

The data which is collected from a reliable source like Government offices,

Standard and Recognized institutes, National and International Organization, etc.

The National Level – Various ministries coming under Government of

India.

e.g. Ministry of Family and Health Welfare, Ministry of Mother and child Health

welfare, etc.

The State Level – Various ministries running under the state Government

under the control of Central Government.

The District Level – District / Community hospitals running under the

control of state government respective ministries.

The Local Level – Recognized hospitals, NGO’s, Private organizations, etc

The various standard Index Journals and Publications like BMJ, etc.


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 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

VARIABLE
A characteristic that takes on different values in different persons, places
or things.
CONSTANT
Quantity that do not vary in a given set of observational data. they do not
require statistical study. (S.D., S.E., Mean, C.C.)
POPULATION
Study of elements such as person, things or measurements for which we
have an interest at a particular time.
SAMPLE
Part of population or group of sample unit.
SAMPLING UNIT
Each member of a population.

PARAMETER

Summary value or constant of a variable that describe the population such

as mean, C. C., etc.

STATISTIC

Summary value that describe the sample such as its mean, S.D., S.E., etc.

PARAMETRIC TEST

It is one in which population constants are used such as mean, variance,

C.C., etc.

NON-PARAMETRIC TEST

The tests such as x2 test in which population no constant of a population is

used. Data do not follow any specific distribution and no assumptions are made.

e.g. To clarify good, better, best values.

COLLECTION OF DATA

DEFINITION

The various methods by which the necessary samples or data are

collected for the study in a systemic manner depending upon need / requirement

of researcher.

SOURCE OF COLLECTION OF DATA

There are main 3 sources.
 Experiments
 Surveys
 Records


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 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

EXPERIMENTS
Various experiments are conducted for investigation and fundamental

research based on the basic principles of particular science.

The data is collected with specific objectives and the results obtained are

used in the preparation of dissertation, thesis, research paper, journal articles,

etc.

SURVEY

It is used in epidemiological studies to find out the incidence or prevalence

of health or disease in a community.

Survey provide useful information for – 

 Changing the trends in health status, morbidity, mortality, etc.

 Provides feed back, which will be helpful to plan or alter or to modify the

policies run by Government or any of the authority.

RECORDS

These are maintained for a long period of time in registers or books of

concern departments like Central Government, State Government, etc.

These are used for various purposes like Vital statistics, demography, etc.

METHODS OF COLLECTION OF DATA

It is important to differentiate a primary or a secondary data before we start

the collection. The important methods of collection of data are – 

 Observational

 Interview

 Questionnaire

 Experimental

OBSERVATIONAL METHOD OF DATA COLLECT

The general observation does not stand for observation.

Observation is a scientific toll and a systematic method of collection of data

(i.e. In preview of the objective of the researcher.)

Types

Based on systematic plan and organization of the researcher, the

observation is divided into 3 categories – 

 Structured

 Unstructured


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 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

STRUCTURED OBSERVATION
If the data collection is done in a systematic manner, with fulfillment of all
pre-requisites, then it is called as Structured Observation.
Most of the researches use this type of observation.
UNSTRUCTURED OBSERVATION
If a systematic approach is not taken towards data collection, it is called as
unstructured observation.
Types of Observation
Based on the involvement of observer, observation it is divided into – 
 Participant Observation

 Non-participant Observation

PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
When the observer becomes a part of the sample, understanding in the
emotional, socio-cultural, occupational background, it is called as Participant
Observations.
e.g. A research scholar conducting a research in his native area, called as
Participant observation. Because, the observer will be the native of that particular
area and will be aware with all the emotional, socio-cultural, occupational
background of the samples.
NON PARTICIPANT OBSERVATION
When the observer is not a part of the sample and there will not be any
understanding in the emotional, socio-cultural, occupational background, it is
called as Non-participant Observations.
In this type of observation, the chances of bias is more.

e.g. A Indian research scholar conducting a research in London which is totally

different from his present status, called as Participant observation. Because, the

observer will not be the part of that particular area and will not be aware with all

the emotional, socio-cultural, occupational background of the samples.

Benefits / Merits

 Subjective bias is eliminated in participant.

 Independent of willingness by respondent.

 Non-need of active co-operation.

De-merits

 Limited information.

 Same unforeseen factors / Hidden factor may interfere with observation.


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 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

INTERVIEW METHOD
It is a form of interrogation / communication based on stimuli and response
or questions and answers.
It is of 2 types – 
 Direct personal investigation.
 Indirect oral examination.
DIRECT PERSONAL INVESTIGATION
It is a form of investigation where the interviewer relies on the wordings of
the interviewee.
INDIRECT ORAL EXAMINATION
It is a form of examination, where the cross check of the interview is done
by related person.
e.g. Paediatric examination, Psychiatric examination, CBI investigations, etc.
Characteristics of Interviewer
Interviewer should be – Polite, honest, sincere, impartial, technical,
competence with necessary practical experience and must be friendly with the
interviewee.
Guidelines for interviewer
 Interviewer should know the problem and well planned prepared.
 Always have good set up. (Cool and Calm)
 Have friendly and informal talks.
 Have curiosity and respect.
 Ask well phrased questions.
 Should not hurt the interviewee.
 The matter must be confidential.
Merits
 More detail information can be obtained.
 Greater flexibility to restructure the questions.
De-merits
 Respondent / Subjective bias.
 Time consuming.
QUESTIONNAIRE METHOD
It is a method, where the questions are given and the respondent is asked
to reply the same according to the instructions.
It is of 2 types – 
 Given
 Posted
GIVEN
In this type of questionnaire method a set of questions is prepared and
provided to the respondent. Sufficient time is given to respondent to answer the
given questions.

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 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

POSTED
In this type of questionnaire method a set of questions are prepared and
provided to the distant respondent. Sufficient time is given to respondent to
answer the given questions and asked the respondent to post it back to the
observer. In this type of method there is low return rate.
GUIDELINES FOR QUESTIONNAIRES
 Questions should be simple, clear, understandable and related to the topic
or problem.
 Decide either closed end or open end or even both types of questions.
 Maintain the sequence (order) of questions (i.e. From general to complex)
 Questions should not be related to personal character / wealth.
 Questions should not hurt the person.
 Avoid the use of those questions which puts too much of strain to one’s
memory or intellect. (i.e. it should be according to the qualification and I. Q.
of the respondent.
Merit
 Time saving.
 Low cost.
 Large sample can be taken.
 Sufficient time to answer.
 Best method to those who are not approaching.
De-Merits
 Can be used in only educated and co-operative patients.
 Low return rate, especially in posting method.
 Doubt about its own version.
EXPERIMENTAL METHOD
The method in which various experiments or measurable instruments are
adopted for the collection of data, is called as Experimental method.
Merits
 An ideal objective parameter.
 Beneficial in comparison.
 Lack of subjective bias.
De-merits
 Expensive.
 Chance of observer bias.
 Sometimes it may false positive results.
Hence, it is very important to co-relate the investigative values with the
clinical presentations.


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 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

$!
$!!
It includes sorting (i.e. classification and presentation of data.)
CLASSIFICATION
Definition
The grouping or arranging or division of data based on some similar or
dissimilar characteristics, to facilitate easy analysis and condensation of huge
data is called as classification of data.
Types
Based on the number of attributes / characteristics it is divided into 2 types.
 Simple
 Manifold
SIMPLE CLASSIFICATION
If the classification is based on the single attribute / characteristic is called
as simple classification.
e.g. Single classification based on any of the based entity Age, Sex, Religion,
Nutritional status, etc.
Table showing the number of patients in different age groups.
Sl. Age groups Number of patients
01. 10-20 15
02. 20-30 23
03. 30-40 24
MANIFOLD CLASSIFICATION
If the classification is based on the 2 or more than 2 attributes, it is called
as Manifold classification.
e.g. Single classification based on Age, Sex, Religion, Nutritional status, etc.
Table showing the number of patients according to sex, age groups and their
nutritional status.
Sl. Sex No. of Age No. of Nutritional No. of
Pt.’s Pt.’s status Pt.’s
01. Male Children Normal nutrition 08
26 Under nutrition 16
Over nutrition 02
Adulthood Normal nutrition 19
30 36 Under nutrition 12
Over nutrition 05
Adult Normal nutrition 32
48 Under nutrition 15
Over nutrition 01
02. Female Children Normal nutrition 19
26 Under nutrition 12
Over nutrition 05
Adulthood Normal nutrition 32
36 Under nutrition 15
Over nutrition 01
Adult Normal nutrition 08
48 Under nutrition 16
Over nutrition 02


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 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

There are 4 important basis of classification of data. viz.

 Quantitative

 Qualitative

 Geographical

 Chronological

QUANTITATIVE DATA

The classification based on numbers or figures, called as Quantitative

data.

e.g. Height, Weight, Hb%, Blood pressure, etc.

QUALITATIVE DATA

The classification of data based on the attribute or character, called as

qualitative data.

e.g. Sex, Religion, Nationality, etc.

GEOGRAPHICAL DATA

The classification of data is based on the area or place, called as

Geographical data.

e.g. Continent, Country, State, District, Takula, Village, etc. Number of

tuberculosis patient in each state of India.

CHRONOLOGICAL DATA

The classification of data is based on the duration or time, called as

Chronological data.

e.g. Classification of data based on minutes, hours, days, weeks, months, years.

etc. Duration / Chronicity of RA in years / months.

OBJECTIVES / USES OF CLASSIFICATION

 To condense the huge data.

 Useful in comparison.

 Simple and easy to understand.

 It refers to systematic representation.

 Can be used for further statistical applications like presentation and

analysis of data collected during any research work.


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 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

!
Definition
Systematic representation of the data, which is collected and classified in
the form of tables or drawing (graphs / diagrams) is called as presentation of
data.
IDEAL PRESENTATION
 It should be simple and systematic to arouse the interest.
 It should be concised, but there should not be any vomition / deletion of
data.
 It should be arranged in logical or chronological manner.
 It should be useful for further analysis.
OBJECTIVES / USE OF PRESENTATION OF DATA
 Easy and better understanding.
 Helpful in future analysis.
 Easy for comparison.
 It gives a first hand information.
 It is an attractive and appealing way of presentation.
Types of presentation
Presentation can be made in mainly 2 forms – 
 Tables (Tabulation / Frequency Distribution Tables. FDT)
 Drawing (Geographical Presentation / Frequency Distribution Drawing.
FDD)
TABULATION / FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE / FDT / TABLES
The systematic presentation of data in rows and columns, called as FDT
(Frequency Distribution Table / Tabulation)
Tabulation is a process by which a data of a long series of observation are
systematically organized and recorded, so as to unable analysis and
interpretation.
CHARACTERISTICS OF FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE (FDT)
 It should be simple and clear cut.
 The title of the Frequency Distribution Table (FDT) should be expressed in
appropriate terms.
 The figures / numbers in the body of table should be arranged in logical
manner.
 If several points are emphasized from the same data, make many small
tables.


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 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

TYPES OF FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE (FDT)

Depending upon the data
It is of 2 types – 
 Discrete Frequency Distribution Table (FDT)

 Continuous Frequency Distribution Table (FDT)

DISCRETE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE (FDT)

The table which represents the discrete qualitative or countable data called
as discrete Frequency Distribution Table (FDT).
GUIDELINES FOR THE CONSTRUCTION OF DISCRETE FREQUENCY
DISTRIBUTION TABLE (FDT)
 Pick the lowest and highest observations.

 Arrange in logical order. (Preferably in ascending order i.e. 0 – 1 – 2, etc.)

 Mark the tally marks against the observations.

 Count the tally marks and write it in frequency / countable data.

e.g. Number of children per family of 15 couples.

Sl. Observation (x) Tally marks Frequency (f)
01. 0 2
02. 1 4
03. 2 6
04. 3 2
05. 1 1
In the above mentioned table the number of children is countable. There
will not be any family with some 2.5, 5.6 number of children. Such type of
presentation of data is called discrete Frequency Distribution Table (FDT).
CONTINUOUS FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE (FDT)
The Frequency Distribution Table (FDT) represents the continuous
quantitative or measurable data, called as Continuous Frequency Distribution
Table (FDT).
e.g. Table showing the marks scored by 15 students.
Sl. Observation (x) Tally marks Frequency (f)
01. 10-20 2
02. 10-20 4
03. 20-30 6
04. 30-40 2
05. 40-50 1



 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

In the above mentioned table the number of marks is arranged in groups.

There will be varying number of students in each group and the students in a
group will not be having same scoring of marks. The number of marks will be in
limit the particular class width and the marks can be fractions. Such type of
presentation of data is called continuous type of Frequency Distribution Table
(FDT).
Guidelines for constructing continuous Frequency Distribution Table (FDT)
 Select the lowest and highest observation.
 Select the suitable width. (i.e. Class width & Class interval)
 Divide the observations into sufficient number of classes. (Preferably in
between 5 to 15 classes)
 Make / Mark tally marks (to minimize the mistakes during counting and
classifying the huge data in particular groups) and write the frequency
against each class.
Continuous frequency distribution table consists of following entities – 
 Class
 Class interval
 Lower limit
 Upper limit
 Class mid point
 Class frequency
CLASS
It is a quantitative classification of data in groups, when the samples are
large in number.
e.g. 0-10, 10-20, 20-30, 40-50, etc.
CLASS INTERVAL
It represents the width or the size of the class. It can be calculated by 3
methods – 
 Upper limit of the class – Lower limit of the same class.
 Lower limit of the class – Lower limit of the previous class.
 Upper limit of the class – Upper limit of the previous class.
It is always better to calculate the class interval by lower limit of the class
from lower limit of the previous class. Because, calculation of the class interval
by first method gives false answer in case of inclusive type of table.
e.g. In the class 0-10 and 10-20 the class interval can be calculated by 3
methods.
 Upper limit of the class – Lower limit of the same class. (10 – 0).
 Lower limit of the class – Lower limit of the previous class. (0 – 10).
 Upper limit of the class – Upper limit of the previous class. (10 – 20).



 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

LOWER LIMITS
It is a starting / first value of the class.
e.g. In the class 20-30, 20 is the lower limit of the particular class.
UPPER LIMIT
It is a last / ending limit of the class.
e.g. In the class 20-30, 30 is the upper limit of the particular class.
CLASS MID POINT
It is a single representative value of the class, which is used for the further
statistical classification.
It is calculated by 2 methods.
Lower limit + Upper limit Lower limit (of 1 st Class) + Lower limit (of next class)
2 2
In the class 20-30, the class mid point will be – 
20+30 = 50/2 = 25.
In the class 20-30, 30-40 the class mid point will be – 
20+30 = 50/2 = 25.
Among these 2nd method of calculating the class mid point is the better
way for inclusive type of tables.
CLASS FREQUENCY
The number of observation following in a particular class called as class
frequency.
The sum of all class frequencies will give the total number of observations.
Class frequency of 20-30 is 6.
METHOD OF CONSTRUCTION OF CLASSES
There are 3 methods in constructing classes.
 Exclusive

 Inclusive

 Open end method

EXCLUSIVE METHOD
Upper limit of the class is excluded. (i.e. Not a part of from particular
class.) The upper limit of the class will be the lower limit of the next class.
It is used for discrete or continuous type of data.
e.g. 0-10, 10-20, 20-30, etc. Here, there is continuation of the upper limit of one
class with the lower limit of the next class.



 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

INCLUSIVE METHOD
The upper limit of the class is included. (i.e. It is a part of the same class.)
Upper limit of the class will not be the lower limit of the next class.
Because, it is included in the same class itself.
It is used for discrete data.
e.g. Weight, Hb%, height of the person.
OPEN END
When the lower limit of the first class or upper limit of the last class or both
will not be fixed, called as open end method.
It is used to accumulate a few extreme low or high.
e.g. 0, 3, 5, 50, 20, 27, 26, 244487, 6, 89, 984526.
TYPES OF TABLES / FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE
There are 3 common types of frequency distribution table (FDT).
 Ordinary frequency distribution table (FDT)
 Relative frequency distribution table (FDT)
 Cumulative frequency distribution table (FDT)
ORDINARY FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE (FDT)
It is a type of frequency distribution table (FDT) in which the observations / 
classes are arranged with their respective frequencies, called as ordinary
frequency distribution table (FDT).
Uses :
It is simple, easy understanding for a large data in a snap.
RELATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE (FDT)
It is a type of frequency distribution table (FDT) in which the frequency of
each is expressed in terms of fractions, decimals or percentage, is called as
relative frequency distribution table (FDT).
It is calculated by the number of frequency of the class divided by the total
number of frequencies.
Uses :
It facilitates the comparison of 2 or more sets of data.
It constitutes the basis of understanding the concept of probability.
CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION TABLE (FDT)
It adds the frequency starting from the first class to the last class.
The cumulative frequency of the given class represents the total of all
previous class frequency including that particular class.
Uses
To calculate more than and less than values of a given observation / class.
For further statistical calculations like median.


 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

e.g. Table showing the marks scored by 20 students.

Sl. OFDT (f) RFD % CFD
01. 2 2/20=0.1 10 02
02. 3 3/20=0.15 15 05
03. 2 2/20=0.1 10 07
04. 10 10/20=0.5 50 17
05. 3 3/20=0.15 15 20
5 20 1.0 100 20
PROBLEM

An administrator of a hospital has recorded the amount of time a patient

waits before being treated by the doctor in O.P.D. The waiting time in minutes

are – 12, 16, 21, 20, 24, 3, 15, 17, 29, 18, 20, 4, 7, 14, 25, 1, 27, 15, 16, 5. (= 20

patients). Prepare the various forms of continuous frequency distribution tables.

Answer :

Step 1 : Select the lowest and highest values.

Lowest value among the raw data is 1 and highest value among the raw

data is 29.

Step 2 : Prepare the classes.

Total duration lies in between the 1 to 30 minutes.

To prepare 5 classes – 30/5=6.

So, the class interval should be of 6. So, the classes will be 1-6, 6-12, etc.

Step 3 : Preparation of the table.

Title : The Table showing amount of time a patient waits before being

treated by doctor in O.P.D.

Sl. Class Tally marks OFDT (f) RFD % CFD

01. 01-06 4 4/20=0.2 20 04
02. 06-12 1 1/20=0.1 10 05
03. 12-18 7 7/20=0.3 30 12
04. 18-24 4 4/20=0.2 20 16
05. 24-30 4 4/20=0.5 20 20
5 5 20 1.0 100 20



 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

!%"&
Presentation of the data in a form of graph or diagram is known as drawing
or Geographical presentation or Frequency Distribution Diagram.
Generally, graphs are used to represent quantitative data, where as
diagrams are used to represent qualitative data.
GRAPH
These are commonly used frequency distribution drawings. These are of 6
types. Viz. – 
 Histogram
 Frequency polygon
 Frequency curve
 Line graph (Chart)
 Cumulative frequency diagram (Ogive)
 Dot or scattered diagram
HISTOGRAM
It is also called as Block Diagram. It is a type of Area diagram where the
variable or characters are plotted in X axis (Abscissa) where as frequencies are
marked in Y axis (ordinate).
A continuous series of rectangles are formed and this is called as
Histogram. The width of the bars may vary.
e.g. Mountaux test of 206 patients.
Result of Montaux test in 206 patients is as follows -
Result of the Test Number of patients Result of the Test Number of patients
08 – 10 24 16 – 18 12
10 – 12 52 18 – 20 8
12 – 14 42 20 – 22 14
14 – 16 48 22 – 24 6
Histograph Graph Showing the Result of Mountaux test in 206 patients.

60 X - Axis (Abscissa) = Result of

52
48 Mountaux Test in mm.
50
42 Scale = 1 cm = 2 mm.
40 Y - Axis (Ordinate) = Number of
the patients.
30 24 Scale = 1 cm = 10 patients.

20 14
12
10 08 06
X
0
Y 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26


 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

If we club the groups or classes from 16 - 24 mm in the above group, then

the width of the Histogram will vary. Representation of frequency will be done by

adding the frequencies of clubbed groups divided by number of classes.

Histograph Graph Showing the Result of Mountaux test in 206 patients.

60 X - Axis (Abscissa) = Result of

52
48 Mountaux Test in mm.
50
42 Scale = 1 cm = 2 mm.
40 Y - Axis (Ordinate) = Number of
the patients.
30 24 Scale = 1 cm = 10 patients.

20
10
10
X
0
8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
Y

FREQUENCY POLYGON

Polygon means figures with the many angles. Joining the midpoints of

class intervals at the height of frequency after Histogram with a straight line is

called as frequency polygon.

Histograph Graph Showing the Result of Mountaux test in 206 patients.

60 X - Axis (Abscissa) = Result of

52 Mountaux Test in mm.
50 48 Scale = 1 cm = 2 mm.
42 Y - Axis (Ordinate) = Number of
40 the patients.
Scale = 1 cm = 10 patients.
30 24
20 14
12
10 08 06
X
0
Y 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22 24 26
FREQUENCY CURVE

Joining the midpoint of class of frequency without histogram with a smooth

curve is called as frequency curve.

Frequency Curve = Frequency Polygon – Histogram.

It is used when there are large numbers of observations.



 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

Frequency Curve showing the Mountaux test result in 206 patients.

150
F
R 125
E
Q 100
E
N 75
C
Y 50

25

X
142.50 145 147.50 150 152.50 155 157.50 160

Y HEIGHT IN CMS.
LINE GRAPH OR CHART
The points are marked corresponding to each class or variables against
their frequencies and they are joined by smooth line.
It is used to represent the trend in the form of increase or decrease or the
fluctuation of given data.
e.g. Population in million of various decades. (It can be either in descending or
ascending)

150
F
R 125
E
Q 100
E
N 75
C
Y 50

25

X
142.50 145147.50 150152.50 155 157.50 160

Y HEIGHT IN CMS.

CUMULATIVE FREQUENCY DIAGRAM (OGIVE)

Cumulative frequency diagram is based on cumulative and relative
frequency distribution. Before drawing Ogive one has to construct a cumulative
frequency distribution table. Later on the diagram is constructed based on
variable and its corresponding cumulative frequency. The diagram is drawn bby
 joining these points with a smooth curve is called as Ogive.
It is used to represent the various percentile like decile (10), quartile (40),
pentalile (50), etc.



 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

e.g. Following are the heights of students in a colony. Plot a cumulative

frequency diagram for the following data.
SL. CLASS (HEIGHT IN CMS) FREQUENCY CUMULATIVE FD
01. 140 – 145 100 10
02. 145 – 150 150 25
03. 150 – 155 75 42
04. 155 – 160 20 61

150
F
R 125
E
Q 100
E
N 75
C
Y 50

25

X
142.50 145 147.50 150 152.50 155 157.50 160

Y HEIGHT IN CMS.

DOT DIAGRAM / SCATTERED DIAGRAM

Generally used in correlation when there is more than one variable to
compare this type of diagrams are used.
It is applicable when one has to represent two variables in same direction.
One variable can be represented in X axis and other can be in Y axis. We plot
variables in X axis, then frequency to be considered in Y axis and viceversa.
It is used in context of correlation. Therefore, it is also called as
“Correlation Diagram.”
e.g. Height and Weight

F
150    
R 125    
E
Q 100    
E    
N 75
C
50
   
Y
25

X
142.50 145147.50 150 152.50 155 157.50 160

Y HEIGHT IN CMS.


 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

!%#
To present qualitative or discrete data diagrams are generally used. The
commonly used diagrams are as follows – 
01. Bar Diagram
02. Pie Diagram – Sector Diagram
03. Pictogram – Picture Diagram
04. Map Diagram – Spot Map
BAR DIAGRAM
Representation in the form of rectangles with spacing with uniform width of
rectangle is called as Bar Diagram. The spacing between the two bars should be
½ of the width of the rectangle.
Types of Bar Diagram
01. Vertical Bar Diagram
02. Horizontal Bar Diagram
In case of horizontal bar diagram, variable is represented in Y axis and in
case of vertical bar diagram variable is in X axis and frequency in Y axis.
e.g. Attendance of Boys and Girls of 1 st year PG class.
Bar diagram can be also classified as – 
01. Simple bar diagram
02. Multiple bar diagram
03. Proportionate bar diagram
SIMPLE BAR DIAGRAM
When you represent a single variable as a set of rectangle is called as
simple bar diagram.
e.g. Height of Boys of 1st year PG class.
The following graph is an example of VERTICAL BAR DIAGRAM.

150
F
R 125
E
Q 100
E
N 75
C
Y 50

25

X
142.50 145147.50 150 152.50 155 157.50 160

Y HEIGHT IN CMS.



 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

The following graph is an example of HORIZONTAL BAR DIAGRAM.

150
F
R 125
E
Q 100
E 75
N
C 50
25
X
142.50 145147.50 150152.50 155 157.50 160

Y HEIGHT IN CMS.
MULTIPLE BAR DIAGRAM
When variables are represented in sets of more than one is called as
multiple bar diagram.
e.g. Heights of boys in 1st, 2nd year PG.

150
F
R 125
E
Q 100
E 75
N
C 50
25
X
142.50 145147.50 150 152.50 155 157.50 160

HEIGHT IN CMS.
Y
PROPORTIONATE BAR DIAGRAM
Useful for comparison and is represented by subdivision in a same
rectangle.
e.g. Heights of boys in 1st,2nd and 3rd year PG classes.

150
F
R 125
E
Q 100
E
N 75
C
Y 50

25

X
142.50 145147.50 150 152.50 155 157.50 160

Y HEIGHT IN CMS.



 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

PIE DIAGRAM
It is also called as sector diagram. Frequencies are represented by a circle
where each class or observation is represented by class frequency divided by
total number of observations and multiplied by 360.
Class frequency
Pie Diagram = x 360
Total number of observation
e.g. Draw a pie diagram of following data.
Prakriti Frequency Calculation Degrees
Vata 12 12 / 36 x 360 120
Pitta 18 18 / 36 x 360 180
Kapha 6 6 / 36 x 360 60

V (12)

K (6)
P (18)

PICTOGRAM (PICTURE DIAGRAM)

Most common diagram to impress the population. In this diagram actual
pictures are used to represent the class frequency. Each picture will represent
the unit of 10, 20, 100, 1000, 10,000, lacks etc.
e.g. Production of car per month.

May, 2004 May, 2005 May, 2006

MAP DIAGRAM (SPOT DIAGRAM)

Represents the geographical distribution of frequencies of frequencies of a
variable / characteristics.
e.g. IMR of South India.



 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

!!%"
Measures of location

Major characteristics of frequency distribution are – 

 Measures of Central tendency (Location, Position, Average)

 Measures of scatteredness / Degree of scatteredness (Dispersion, / 

Variability / Spread)

 Extent of symmetry – If the data are asymmetrical called as “Skewness,”

which can be of two types – 

 Positive Skewness (Right sided)

 Negative Skewness (Left sided)

 Measures of Peakedness – If it is abnormally peak or flat is called as

“Kurtosis.”

!"
It is one among the characteristic of frequency distribution.
Definition
It refers to a single central number or value that condenses the mass data
and enables us to give an idea about the whole or entire data.
The commonly used measures of central tendencies are – 
01. Arithematic mean ( x )
02. Median (Q2)
03. Mode (z)
A good measure of central tendency should posses the following
properties – 
 Easy to understand.
 Easy to calculate.
 Based on all observations.
 Should be properly defined.
 Should be used for further mathematical calculations.
 Should not be affected by extreme high or low values.
SELECTION OF CENTRAL TENDENCY

If the distribution is symmetrical one should select the Arithmetic Mean and

if the distribution is Skewness (Asymmetry) one should use either median or

mode.



 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

''#
Introduction

It is a most preferred and commonly used measure of central tendency.

It is also called as “Average.”

Definition

It means, the additional / summation of all individual observations divided

by total number of observations.

Types of Series / Problems

There are 2 types of series – 

Series

Ungrouped Series Grouped Series

(Type I)
I. O. with F. I.O. with C & F.
[Where, I. O. – Individual Observation, F – Frequency, C – Class.]

 Ungrouped Series – Includes individual observations without frequency.

 Grouped Series – Includes individual observations with frequency and

class frequency.

CALCULATION FOR TYPE I SERIES –

(Individual Observation without frequency)

Direct Method (DM)

Formula = =εx/n

Where, x – is Arithmetic mean, ε – is Sigma (i.e. Summation of all

observations, n – is Total number of observations.

Step Deviation Method (SDM) or Indirect method

Formula = x = A + ε d / n (Where, d = x – A.)

Where, x – is Arithmetic mean, ε – is Sigma (i.e. Summation of all

observations, A – is assumed value, d – deviated value, n – is Total

number of observations.
e.g. Following is the data showing the Montaux test of 6 children.
2, 4, 7, 3, 5, 6.



 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

The arithmetic mean of the above given set of data can be calculated by 2
methods – 
 Direct Method
 Step Deviation Method
DIRECT METHOD

Formula = =εx/n

Where, – is Arithmetic mean, ε – is Summation of all observations,

x – is individual observation, n – is Total number of observations.

x = 2 + 4 + 7 + 3 + 5 + 6.
6
= 27 / 6 = 4.5
So, the Arithmetic mean of the above given data is 4.5.
STEP DEVIATION METHOD

Formula = = A + ε d / n (Where, d = x – A.)

Where, – is Arithmetic mean, ε – is Sigma (i.e. Summation of all

observations, A – is assumed value, d – deviated value, n – is Total

number of observations.
Step 1st : Calculate d. (i.e. Deviated value)
It is calculated by d = x – A.
Consider A – is 10. (i.e. Assumed value.)
x–A = d
2 – 10 = – 8
4 – 10 = – 6
7 – 10 = – 3
3 – 10 = – 7
5 – 10 = – 5
6 – 10 = – 4
Step 2nd : Calculate summation of d

Summation = (– 8) + (– 6) + (– 3) + (– 7) + (– 5) + (–4)

= – 33.

Step 3rd : Calculate Arithmetic mean.

= 10 + (– 33) / 6

= 10 + (– 5.5) = 4.5.

So, the arithmetic mean of the above given data is 4.5 calculated by SDM.


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 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

CALCULATION FOR TYPE II SERIES –

(Individual Observation with frequency)
Direct Method (DM)

Formula = x = ε f x / n

Where, – is Arithmetic mean, ε – is Sigma (i.e. Summation of all

observations, n – is Total number of observations, f – Individual frequency,

x – Individual observation.
Step Deviation Method (SDM)

Formula = = A + ε f d / n (Where, d = x – A.)

Where, – is Arithmetic mean, ε – is Sigma (i.e. Summation of all

observations, A – is assumed value, d – deviated value, n – is Total

number of observations, f– Individual frequency, x – Individual Observation
e.g. The number of children in family for 50 couples are as follows – 
Number of children (x) Number of couples (f) f x
0 4 0
1 9 9
2 10 20
3 12 36
4 7 28
5 6 30
6 2 12
The arithmetic mean of the above given set of data can be calculated by 2

methods – 

 Direct Method

 Step Deviation Method

DIRECT METHOD

Formula = = ε fx / n

Where, – is Arithmetic mean, ε – is Summation of all observations,

x–is individual observation, n– Total number of observations, f- Frequency
= 135.
50
= 2.7 i.e. Approximately 3 children per family.
So, the Arithmetic mean of the above given data is 2.7 i.e. 3.



 Medical Statistics – Dr. Suhas Kumar Shetty

STEP DEVIATION METHOD

Formula = = A + ε fd / n (Where, d = x – A.)

Where, – is Arithmetic mean, ε – is Sigma (i.e. Summation of all

observations, A – is assumed value, d – deviated value, n – is Total

number of observations, x – Individual observation.
Step 1st : Calculate d and fd.
It is calculated by d = x – A. (i.e. Deviated value)
Consider A is 3. (i.e. Assumed value.)
x–A = d = fd
0–3 =–3x4 = – 12.
1–3 =–2x9 = – 18
2 – 3 = – 1 x 10 = – 10
3 – 3 = 0 x 12 =0
4–3 =1x7 =7
5–3 =2x6 = 12
6–3 =3x2 =6
Step 2nd : Calculate summation of fd
Summation = (– 12) + (– 18) + (– 10) + (0) + (7) + (12) + (6)
= – 15.
Step 3rd : Calculate Arithmetic mean.
= 3 + (– 15) / 50
= 3 + (– 0.3) = 2.7.
So, the arithmetic mean of the above given data is 2.7 calculated by SDM.
CALCULATION FOR TYPE III SERIES –
(Individual Observation with class and frequency)
Direct Method (DM)

Formula = =εfx/n

Where, – is Arithmetic mean, ε – is Sigma (i.e. Summation of all

observations, n – is Total number of observations, f – Class Frequency,

x – Class midpoint.
Step Deviation Method (SDM)

Formula = = A + ε f d / n (Where, d = x – A.)

Where, – is Arithmetic mean, ε – is Sigma (i.e. Summation of all

observations, A – is assumed value, d – deviated value, n – is Total
number of observations, f – Class frequency, x – Class midpoint.
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