RESIDENTIAL APARTMENTS

A SUMMER TRAINING REPORT

Submitted in partial fulfillment of the

Requirements for the award of the degree

Of

BACHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY

In

CIVIL ENGINEERING DEPARTMENT

By

MANISH MEENA
Roll No.: 14EVJCE061

DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING

VIVEKANANDA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
SISYAWAS SECTOR-36, NRI ROAD, JAGATPURA
 VIVEKANANDA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
SISYAWAS, SECTOR-36, NRI ROAD, JAGATPURA,
JAIPUR- 303012, RAJASTHAN

CANDIDATE DECLARATION
It is here declared that the work, which is being presented in the summer training report titled
“RESIDENTIAL APARTMENTS” in partial fulfillment of the award of B. Tech and submitted
in the department of CIVIL ENGINEERING of “Vivekananda Institute Of Technology”,
Jaipur is an authentic record of the work under the supervision and valuable guidance of “Mr.
Deepak Sharma”, Assistant Professor, Dept. of Civil Engineering.

The matter presented in the report embodies the result of the studies carried out by the
student and has not been submitted for the award of any other degree in this or any other
institute.

Mr. MANISH MEENA

14EVJCE061
 VIVEKANANDA INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY
SISYAWAS, SECTOR-36, NRI ROAD, JAGATPURA,
JAIPUR- 303012, RAJASTHAN, INDIA

CERTIFICATE

This is to certify that Mr. MANISH MEENA Roll No. 14EVJCE061 has submitted
the summer training report “RESIDENTIAL APARTMENTS’’ in partial fulfillment
for the award of the degree of Bachelor of Technology (Civil Engineering). The report
has been prepared as per the prescribed format and is approved for submission and
presentation.

Dr. Mala Mathur Deepak Sharma

Professor & Head Assistant professor
Dept. of Civil Engg. Dept. of Civil Engg.
VIT, Jaipur-302012 VIT, Jaipur-302012

i
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I would like to thank my seminar guide professor Mr. Deepak Sharma who helped me
throughout the project by guiding and supporting me.

Also I am thankful to our (Prof. BP Singh, Dr. AK ….. and Dr. A. Singh) and HOD
(Prof. Dr. Mala Mathur) for their support.

I would like to thank North Western Railway (NWR) for giving me this invaluable
opportunity to learn so much practical knowledge which would have impossible to learn
through only looking at images from textbooks. I have gained invaluable insights into
how construction of any super structure is handled and how any difficulty which comes
in between is tackled. I am deeply indebted to our training in-charge at site Mr.
Manohar Singh deputy chief engineer (construction) who’s help, stimulating
suggestions and encourage and helped me in all the time at the training site and also for
writing this training report.

Especially, I would like to give my special thanks to my parents whose patient love
enabled me to complete this work. And at last but not the least I would like to thank
God for the successful completion of my project.

Date- 16/08/17 Name: Manish meena

Roll No.14EVJCE061
Final B. Tech. (civil)

ii
 ABSTRACT

From the moment human started exploring he started to travel across the world after
the world- war II due to the industrial revolution these became even intense to travel
for overseas human used only ships but to travel in his own country he made only slow
means of transport like bullock cart which not even safe.

Then human started thinking about to decrease his travel time and increase his own
safety then they invented railway service which much safe, time conserving due to the
low in expenditure to travels by trains many middle class and lower middle class people
depended on it a lot and it even cheap to transfer the good for long distance at low price
with lead to growth of importance of railway services. Construction of new railway is
really a tough task which involve in consideration of several parameters and several
unexpected conditions.

When the track is properly aligned it is a very good means of source of revenue to
government and also good means transportation for public. At both the execution of
construction work and even the maintenance it provide huge opportunity of
employment.

iii
 CONTENTS

Certificate i

Acknowledgement ii

ABSTRACT iii

Contents iv-vi

List of Figures vii - vii

List of Tables ix

Abbreviations x

1. INTRODUCTION 1-2

1.1. What is the project? 1

1.2. Purpose of the project 1
1.3. Scope of the project 1
1.4. Salient Contributions of the project 2
1.5. Outline of the project report 2

2. INDUSTRY / COMPANY OVERVIEW 3

3. REVIEW OF LITERATURE/ THEORETICAL BACKGROUND 4-9

4. CASE STUDY 10 – 63
4.1 Details of project 10
4.2 Types of Drawings prepared by Structural Engineers 11
Structural Drawings 11
Reinforcement Drawings 12
Standard Details 12
Record Drawings 13
4.3 Floor layout 14
4.4 Formwork 15

iv
 4.4.1 Significance of formwork 15
4.4.2 Design requirements 16
4.4.3 Formwork types (by shape) 17
-Colum Formwork 17
-Beam Formwork 17
-Slab Formwork 17
4.5 Foundation 18
4.5.1 Requirements of foundation 18
4.5.2 Purpose of foundation 18
4.5.3 Factor affecting design of foundation 19
4.5.4 Type of foundation 20
-Shallow Foundation 20
-Deep foundation 25
4.5.5 Safe bearing capacity of soil 28
-Depth of the foundation 29
4.5.6 IS 456 design considerations for Foundation 29
4.6 Beam 34
4.6.1 Classification of beam 34
4.6.2 Classification based on support condition 34
4.6.4 Types of R.C.C. Beam by reinforcement position 37
4.6.5 Design Consideration 38
4.7 Slab 41
4.7.1 Classification of slab 41
4.7.2 Design Consideration 43
4.8 Column 45
4.8.1 Classification of column 45
4.8.2 Design Consideration of Column 45
4.9 Wall 50
4.9.1 Types of Wall 50
4.9.2 General Requirements 51
4.9.3 AAC Block 52
4.10 Staircase 53
4.10.1 Terminology 53
4.10.2 Suitable Dimensions For Staircases 54
v
 4.10.3 General guidelines 56
4.10.4 Types of Staircases (Plan types) 57
4.10.5 Design Consideration 60
4.11 Curing 62
4.11.1 Method of curing 63

5. CONCLUSIONS 64

6. REFERENCES 65

vi
 .

LIST OF FIGURES

FIG. NO. TITLE PAGE. NO.

4.1.1 Plan of Upper Floor Building 10

4.2.1 Structural Drawing 11
4.2.2 Reinforcement Details 12
4.2.3 Standard Details 13
4.3.1 Checking the layout of the column of the floor 14
4.4.1 Adjusting the form of column after a movement in it 16
4.5.1 uniform and rectangular footing 21
4.5.2 Stepped and rectangular footing 22
4.5.3 reinforcement in isolated rectangular footing 22
4.5.4 combined footing without central beam 23
4.5.5 Strip or Wall footing 24
4.5.6 Raft Footing 25
4.5.7 Reinforcement in Raft foundation 25
4.5.8 Reinforcement for pile 27
4.5.9 Concrete pile with Waler beam 27
4.5.10 Angle α 30
4.5.11 Equivalent square columns 31
4.5.12 Bands for reinforcement in a rectangular footing 33
4.6.1 Simply Supported beam 35
4.6.2 Fixed beam 35
4.6.3 Cantilever Beam 35
4.6.4 Continuously supported beam 36
4.6.5 Overhanging beam 36
4.6.6 Reinforcement in Singly reinforced Beam 37
4.6.7 Reinforcement in Doubly Reinforced Beam 38
4.6.8 Bend Anchorage in Beam 40
4.7.1 Plans of One-Way slabs 42
4.7.2 Deflection in Two-way Slab 42

vii
4.8.1 Longitudinal and transverse reinforcement in 46

Compression member

4.8.2 Hooks with Some internal angle 47

4.8.3 Lateral Ties 48
4.8.4 Lapping of bars in Column (But eccentric) 49
4.9.1 Load Bearing Wall 50
4.9.2 vertical joints in the alternate courses 51
4.9.3 Horizontal reinforcement in wall 52
4.10.1 Staircase 54
4.10.2 Standard drawing of staircase (plan) 55
4.10.3 Standard drawing of staircase (elevation) 56
4.10.4 Open well staircase 57
4.10.5 Dog-legged staircase 58
4.10.6 Staircase (spanning longitudinally) and landing 59
4.10.7 Reinforcement in staircase 60
4.10.8 Loading on open-well staircase 62
4.11.1 Curing of Column 62

viii
 LIST OF TABLES

TABLE NO. TITLE PAGE NO

1 Values of Partial Safety Factor 28

2 Design Shear Strength of concrete 32
3 Span/depth ratio for rectangular beam 39
4 Table for nominal cover 43
5 Table for effective span of staircase 61

ix
 ABBREVIATIONS

ADMIXTURES:- IS-9103

1. For reduction of water cement ratio:- IS-456

2. Water cement ratio:- IS-10262 ,IS-10264

3. Bridge bed block:- IS-1786-285

All the above specifications should be 2010 modifications and latest.

4. Maximum water cement ratio:- 0.40

5. Minimum cementitious material:-400kg/MT

6. Reinforcement high yield strength deformed bars: IRS-1786-1985

7. Abutments mix:-M25

8. Piers:-M30

x
 Chapter-1

INTRODUCTION
1.1 About the project

Infrastructure building and construction is a key driver for the Indian economy.
Increased spending in this sector has a multiplier effect on overall economic growth as
it necessitates industrial growth and manufacturing. This in turn boosts aggregate
demand by improving living conditions. India is on a path of emerging as a developed
nation in this sector over the last decade and has seen a multiple fold growth with a
phenomenal progress in the field of civil engineering with an emphasis on planning,
design and construction of massive size.
Railways offers residential quarters to it
employees within railway colonies. These colonies have all the basic amenities and
facilities. Almost 44% of employees stay in railway colonies.

1.2 Purpose of the project

The proposed sub project can be viewed as boosting economic growth and poverty
reduction, which will bring substantial social and economic development in the region.
The social benefits arising from the subproject will be due to improved accessibility to
various services, such as easy access over through the railway line which in turn will
save their valuable time and money. Although various positive impacts and benefits are
expected from the proposed subprojects.

1.3 Scope of the project

To deliver high-quality, cost-effective projects on schedule by employing and

supporting motivated, flexible, and focused teams.
Value the importance of our relationships and will continue to remain fair and
true in our dealings with all employees, clients, vendors, and partners. Our clients
count on our dependability, our drive, and our integrity. We take great pride in
our accomplishments and build on them every day.
1
1.4 Salient Contributions of the project

Helps to develop practical field knowledge which can’t be gain by books in college

1.5 Outline of the project report

1. The Summer Training Program has mainly two objectives viz. “Learning New

Things” and “Gaining Practical Experience‟. The Internship helps to get

exposure to the environment of the industry wherein we are to be placed.
2. These 7 weeks of training also enhances our soft skills and meeting so many
engineers and learning from them makes us a confident professional.
3. It also teaches us the sense of responsibility, taking initiatives, projecting the

innovative ideas and most important, management of work.

2
 Chapter-2

INDUSTURY/COMPANY OVERVIEW

North Western Railway came being on 1st October, 2002. It was carved out of 2
divisions each from Northern and Western Railways. The formation of this zone along
with five other new zones was first approved by Railway Board on 16th September,
1996 and foundation stone for this zone was laid on 17th October 1996 by the then
Prime Minister Shri H.D. Deve Gowda at K.P. Singh Stadium, Jaipur. The impetus for
formation of New Zone came with the Government of India notification no.
97/E&R/700/1/Notification dated 14.06.2002 wherein it was decided that North
Western Railway with its jurisdiction over existing Jaipur and Ajmer divisions of
Western Railway and Jodhpur and Bikaner divisions of Northern Railway was to come
into effect from 1.10.2002.

Consisting of four divisions, this railway has a total of 578 stations covering a total of
5449.29 route kms out of which 2575.03 are broad gauge and 2874.23 are meter gauge.
The total track kilometers of this railway, however, are 6559.546 kms. The four
divisions are Ajmer, Bikaner, Jaipur & Jodhpur. Jaipur & Ajmer divisions were
originally part of Western Railway and Bikaner & Jodhpur were part of Northern
Railway. The total number of trains dealt by North Western Railway amounts to 452
out of which BG trains total 264 and MG trains total 188.

North Western Railway zone

Locale Rajasthan

Dates of operation 2002; 15 years ago

Track gauge Mixed

Headquarters Jaipur

Website NWR official website

The North Western Railway is one of the sixteen railway zones in India. It is
headquartered at Jaipur, with 59,075+ employees, 658+ stations and a route length of
more than 5761 km across at least some parts of four states of Rajasthan, Gujarat,
Punjab and Haryana (c. 2009). NWR operates international rail service Thar Express
from Jodhpur to Karachi. This zone is the key enabler of the Delhi Mumbai Industrial
Corridor Project by virtue of running railways 1,500 km long Western Dedicated
Freight Corridor.

3
 Chapter-3

THEORETICAL BACKGROUND
History

Extant of Indian railway network in 1909.

In 1882, a 1,000 mm (3 ft 3 3⁄8 in) wide metre gauge line from Marwar Junction to Pali
was built by the Rajputana Railway. It was extended to Luni in 1884 and Jodhpur on 9
March 1885. New Jodhpur Railway was later combined with Bikaner Railway to form
Jodhpur-Bikaner Railway in 1889, when the Bikaner Princely State and Jodhpur
Princely State started constructing the Jodhpur–Bikaner Railway within the Rajputana
Agency. In 1891, the 1,000 mm (3 ft 3 3⁄8 in) wide metre gauge Jodhpur–Bikaner line
was commissioned under the Rajputana-Malwa Railway, Jodhpur-Merta Road section
was commissioned on 8 April, the Merta Road-Nagaur section on 16 October, and the
Nagaur-Bikaner section on 9 December. In 1900, Jodhpur–Bikaner line combined with
Jodhpur-Hyderabad Railway, some part of this railway is in Pakistan, leading to
connection with Hyderabad of Sindh Province. In 1901–02, the Jodhpur–Bikaner line
was extended to Bathinda in 1901–02 to connect it with the metre gauge section of the
Bombay, Baroda and Central India Railway and the meter gauge of North Western
Railway Delhi–Fazilka line via Hanumangarh.[1] In 1924, the combined entity Jodhpur
and Bikaner Railways was split to function as two independent Railway companies.
After Independence, a part of Jodhpur Railway went to West Pakistan.[1][2] In 1926,
the workshop at Bikaner (Lalgarh) was set up to carry out periodic overhauling of metre
gauge coaches and wagons.[3][4] In 1951, on 5 November the Jodhpur–Bikaner line
was merged with the Western Railway.[5] Sometime around or prior to 1991, the
construction work for the conversion from meter gauge to 1,676 mm (5 ft 6 in) wide
broad gauge of the Jodhpur–Bikaner line, along with the link to Phulera, were
started,[6], and it was already functioning as broad gauge Jodhpur–Merta City–
Bikaner–Bathinda line by 2008.[7] In 2002, on 1 October the North Western Railway
zone came into existence.[8] In 2012, the Bikaner Heritage Rail Museum was opened
at Bikaner to displays items related to the Jodhpur and Bikaner Railway.[9]

In 1884, The Rajputana-Malwa Railway extended the 1,000 mm (3 ft 3 3⁄8 in) wide
metre gauge Delhi-Rewari section of Delhi–Fazilka line to Bathinda,[10][11] which
was The Southern Punjab Railway Co. opened the Delhi-Bathinda-Samasatta line in

4
1897.[12] The line passed through Muktasar and Fazilka tehsils and provided direct
connection through Samma Satta (now in Pakistan) to Karachi.[13]

On 18 February 2006, Thar Express, an Indian non-stop international passenger train

operated weekly by Indian Railway using its own coaches and locomotives, between
Jodhpur in India and Karachi in Pakistan.[14][15] Earlier, Sindh Mail train use to
operate on this route from 1900 till 1965 when the track was bombed out by the Pakistan
Airforce in Indo-Pakistani War of 1965. Thar Link Express was run started after 41
years in 2006 based on the earlier rail communication agreement. The rail
communication agreement was signed by India and Pakistan in 1976, to ease the soured
relations after the Indo-Pakistani War of 1971 for the successful liberation of
Bangladesh by Indian Army. The rail communication agreement is renewable every
three years, and currently it is valid till January 2019.[16]ref name=hindu1>How to get
to Pakistan, The Hindu, 12 May 2017</ref>.[17] [18]

In the 1990s, the Delhi–Jaipur line and Jaipur–Ahmedabad line were converted to broad
gauge (BG). In 2007, the line going toward Ratlam Junction railway station from
Phulera to Chittaurgarh was converted to BG.

Between 2008-2011, the Bikaner-Rewari line was converted to broad gauge.[19]

In 2009, the metre gauge Hisar-Sadulpur section was converted to broad gauge.[20][21]

In 2013, the new broad gauge electrified Rewari-Rohtak line was constructed.[22]

Organization

This zone was formed on 1 October 2002, comprising four divisions: Jodhpur and
reorganized Bikaner division of the erstwhile Northern Railway zone, and reorganized
Jaipur and Ajmer divisions of the erstwhile Western Railway zone.

Ajmer railway division

The Ajmer railway division, founded on 5 November 1951, has ~9,050 employees
handling 48 passenger trains across 141 stations (15 main stations with Computerized
Passenger Reservation System), covering the elongated elliptical shaped loop railway
network in Marwar religion central Rajasthan, from Pushkar to Palanpur via Marwar,
and from Palanpur back to Pushkar via Chittorgarh. The main goods traffic is the export

5
of cement from Ajmer district, and Rock phosphate and soap stone powder from
Udaipur district. The passenger segment handles traffic on the prominent religious and
tourist circuit of Ajmer Sharif Dargah, Pushkar, Dilwara Jain Temples at Mount Abu
and Ranakpur Jain temple.

Bikaner railway division

The Bikaner railway division, founded in 1924, has ~14,000 employees handling 142
trains across 198 stations (14 with Computerized Passenger Reservation System),
covering the eastern Rajasthan, western and southern triangular half of Haryana
(railway line network from Rewari-Bhiwani to HisarSirsa and Dabwali, Rohtak to
Hansi-Hisar), and a very small corner of south west Punjab (Sirsa to Bhatinda). The
quantum of traffic is equally split between goods and passenger segment, with food
grains, china clay and gypsum being the main outbound goods traffic.

Jaipur Railway Division

The Jaipur railway division: This division was formed on <date missing> after merging
parts of Bombay, Baroda and Central India Railway, Jaipur State Railways and
Rajputana–Malwa Railway. It has ~12,000 employees handling 146 trains across 128
stations (14 with Computerized Passenger Reservation System), covering the states of
Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh and Haryana. a very small corner of south west Punjab (Sirsa
to Bhatinda). 85% of the income is from the passenger traffic. It forms a logistics hub
for the cross traffic of Western Dedicated Freight Corridor, carrying fertilizer, cement,
oil, salt, food grains, oil seeds, lime stone and gypsum traffic, with bulk container
loading facilities.

Jodhpur Railway Division

The Jodhpur railway division, with origin going back to 1882, was founded on 5
November 1951. It has ~10,250 employees handling 92 trains across 144 stations (15
with Computerized Passenger Reservation System), It covers Jodhpur, Pali Marwar,
Nagaur Jalore, Barmer, Jaisalmer districts in Rajasthan and certain districts of Gujarat
state. The main goods export traffic consists of lime stone, salt and gypsum.

Medical Facilities

6
For the employees and their families, the zone also has the following healthcare
facilities:

Zonal Hospitals

Jaipur Zonal Railway Hospital near Jaipur Junction railway station

Divisional Hospitals

Ajmer Divisional Railway Hospital near Ajmer Junction railway station

Bikaner Divisional Railway Hospital near Bikaner Junction railway station

Jodhpur Divisional Railway Hospital near Jodhpur Junction railway station

Sub-Divisional Hospitals

Rewari Sub-Divisional Railway Hospital near Rewari railway station (Bikaner

division)

Bandikui Sub-Divisional Railway Hospital near Bandikui Junction railway station

(Jaipur division),

Ajmer Sub-Divisional Railway Hospital near Abu Road railway station (Ajmer
division)

Udaipur Sub-Divisional Railway Hospital near Rana Pratap Nagar railway station at
Udaipur (Jodhpur division)

Health Units, 29 in total

First Aid Posts, 2 in total

Route and Track Length

This railway zone has a total of 578 stations, covering a total of 5,449.29 kilometres
(3,386.03 mi) route kilometres out of which 2,575.03 kilometres (1,600.05 mi) are
broad gauge and 2,874.23 kilometres (1,785.96 mi) are metre gauge (c. 2009), and
7,329.80 kilometres (4,554.53 mi) track kilometres out of which 6,696.36 kilometres
(4,160.93 mi) are broad gauge and 733.44 kilometres (455.74 mi) are metre gauge (c.
2009).

7
North Western Railway zone

Route km: broad gauge 2,575.03 kilometres (1,600.05 mi), metre gauge 2,874.23
kilometres (1,785.96 mi), total 5,449.29 kilometres (3,386.03 mi)

Track km: broad gauge 6,696.36 kilometres (4,160.93 mi), metre gauge 733.44
kilometres (455.74 mi), total 7,329.80 kilometres (4,554.53 mi)

Ajmer railway division

Route km: broad gauge 732.56 kilometres (455.19 mi), metre gauge 442.29 kilometres
(274.83 mi), total 1,174.85 kilometres (730.02 mi)

Track km: broad gauge 1,149.0 kilometres (714.0 mi), metre gauge 466.73 kilometres
(290.01 mi), total 1,617.83 kilometres (1,005.27 mi)

Bikaner railway division

Route km: broad gauge 1,730.96 kilometres (1,075.57 mi), metre gauge 48.76
kilometres (30.30 mi), total 1,779.72 kilometres (1,105.87 mi)

Track km: broad gauge 2,182.31 kilometres (1,356.02 mi), metre gauge 51.17
kilometres (31.80 mi), total 2,233.58 kilometres (1,387.88 mi)

Jaipur railway division

Route km: broad gauge 830.20 kilometres (515.86 mi), metre gauge 196.61 kilometres
(122.17 mi), total 1,026.81 kilometres (638.03 mi)

Track km: broad gauge 1,385.13 kilometres (860.68 mi), metre gauge 213.53
kilometres (132.68 mi), total 1,598.66 kilometres (993.36 mi)

Jodhpur railway division

Route km: broad gauge 1,568.42 kilometres (974.57 mi) 1,568 km, metre gauge 0 km,
total 1,568.42 kilometres (974.57 mi)

Track km: broad gauge 1,979.73 kilometres (1,230.15 mi), metre gauge 0 km, total
1,979.73 kilometres (1,230.15 mi)

8
Rail transport infrastructure

The zone has the following types of locomotive engines: (Legends: W - broad gauge,
D - diesel, G - goods, M - mixed, P - passenger)

Ajmer railway division

Abu Road railway station (ABR) diesel sheds: WDM2's, WDM3's, WDG3A and
WDG4's,

Jodhpur railway division

Bhagat Ki Kothi railway station (BGKT) sheds at Jodhpur: WDM2, WDG's, WDP4's,
and WDM3A’s

Jaipur railway division

Phulera Junction railway station sheds: YDM-4 meter gauge locomotives

9
 Chapter-4

CASE STUDY
4.1 PRJOECT DETAILS:-

• Scope: - Construction of a multistoried building including 3 basements, ground floor

+ 11 upper floor, Basement parking.

Fig4.1.1:- Plan of the Upper floors of building

TYPE OF BUILDING RESIDENTIAL

COST 40 Cr.

AREA 5,00,000 Sq. Ft

LOCATION Jaipur

CONSTRUCTION PERIOD 24 months

DESCRIPTION It's a120 Luxurious Apartment, Work

Consists of RCC Structure, Masonry And
Plaster Works

10
4.2. TYPES OF DRAWINGS PREPARED BY STRUCTURAL ENGINEERS:-
there are four different types of drawing:-

4.2.1 Structural Drawings:

Structural Drawings are used to progress the Architect’s concept by specifying the
shape and position of all parts of the structure – thus enabling the construction of that
structure on site. Structural Drawings are also used for the preparation of the
reinforcement drawings.

Structural Drawings would typically include the following information:

 North Point
 Setting out dimensions for the concrete structure on site.
 Plans, sections and elevations showing layout, dimensions and levels of all
concrete members within the structure.
 Location of all holes, chases, pockets, fixings and other items affecting the
concreting work.
 Notes on specifications, finishes and all cross-references affecting the
construction.
 Provide the detailer with the layout and sectional information required to specify
 the length, shape and number of each type of reinforcing bar.

Fig4.2.1:- Structural Drawing

11
4.2.2 Reinforcement Drawings:-

Reinforcement drawings (or details), fully describe and locate all reinforcement in
relation to the finished surface of the concrete and to any holes or fixings. They are
primarily for the use of the steel fixers and it is preferable that they are kept separate
from the general arrangement drawing.

As a general rule, circular holes up to 150mm diameter and rectangular holes

up to (150 x 150) mm in slabs and walls need not to be shown on the reinforcement
drawings.

For larger isolated holes with sides 500mm or less, either (i) displace affected
bars either side of the hole, or (ii) cut or slide back affected bars a cover distance from
face of the hole. Compensating trimming bars of equal area should be provided to trim
all sides. These trimmers should extend a minimum 45? (Nominal anchorage length)
beyond the hole. Holes in this category should be shown on the reinforcement drawings.

Fig4.2.2:- Reinforcement Details

4.2.3 Standard Details:-

The detailer will often find that certain details occur regularly on a variety of
jobs and some economy in detailing time may be effected by keeping a library of
“Standard Details” for use whenever possible. Standard details might include:-

1) Standard Notes

2) Column bases and pile caps

12
3) Concrete box culverts

4) Expansion/Construction joint details, etc.

Fig4.2.3:- Standard Details

4.2.4 Record Drawings

It is common, in the course of construction, for modifications to be made to the

original drawings to cater for unforeseen difficulties that inevitably occur on site.

Once the construction of a reinforced concrete structure is complete, the original

drawings should be amended to show any changes in detail that were made during the
construction process. Compared to manually produced drawings, amending drawings
produced by computer is relatively easy.

A revision letter (suffix) must be added to the drawing number to indicate the drawing
is a “record drawing”, and all amendments must be described in writing using this
revision reference. A register of drawings should be kept listing reference numbers,
titles and recipient of drawings.

13
4.3. FLOOR LAYOUT

Before Shuttering there is need to make or check the layout of the floor is right or not.
So for checking layout of a floor there are few steps we are given below:-

1. First, take a column of lower floor as a reference and after a fixed distance hang a
tensioned thread from one nearest side of the edge of the floor of which we have to
check layout.

2. After that check that the column which is coming from the lower floor is far away
from a tensioned thread from that fixed distance. If both distances are same than the
layout of the column is right.

3. After that draw a line up to column and draw dimension of the column which was
given in drawing of the column or in the plan of the floor.

Fig 4.3.1:- Checking the layout of the column of the floor

4. After that check that all the distances given in plan or drawing are right from that
column is right or not and draw straight lines of the distances from column.

5. Also, draw the dimension the each wall column on the floor.

6. Columns or wall or edge which is far away from that column their layout can be
checked from another column which layout has been checked and it is right.

14
7. We should have to check diagonal distances between the columns should be right.

8. After checking as a reference from one end, for assurance, we should have to check
from the edge of the floor.

4.4. FORMWORK

Formwork is a mould or open box, like container into which fresh concrete is poured
and compacted. When the concrete is set, the formwork is removed and a solid mass is
produced in the shape of the inner face of the formwork. The top of the formwork is
normally left open. Falsework is the necessary support system that holds the formwork
in the correct position.

Formwork is a classic temporary structure in the sense that it is erected quickly, highly
loaded for a few hours during the concrete placement, and within a few days
disassembled for future reuse. Also classic in their temporary nature are the
connections, braces, tie anchorages, and adjustment devices which form need. Forms
mould the concrete to desired size and shape and control its position and alignment. But
formwork is more than a mould; it is a temporary structure that supports its own weight,
plus the freshly placed concrete, plus construction live loads.

4.4.1 Significance of formwork

1) Formwork constitutes 30% of the cost and 60% of the time in concrete construction.

2) Quality of concrete finish and soundness of concrete depends very much on the
formwork system

3) Desired shape of concrete is not possible if formwork not done properly.

4) Formwork should be properly designed, fabricated and erected to receive concrete.

5) Accidents happen because of the faulty formwork and scaffolding or staging.

15
4.4.2 Design requirements

When designing formwork, consider the following:

Strength: Forms and shutters have to be designed to support dead weight, live
load and hydrostatic pressure. Sheathing must be rigid enough to resist bulging.
Formwork for vertical concrete elements i.e. columns and walls are subject to pressures
on the form face. This is caused by the fluid action of the fresh concrete. The pressure
of the fluid concrete on the vertical faces increases proportionately with the depth of
concrete. The maximum pressure being at the bottom of the form. This maximum
pressure for the full depth fluid concrete is the hydrostatic pressure for concrete and
usually occurs when the concrete is placed very quickly.

Speedy erection and dismantling: The formwork design and the methods of
assembly must be as simple as possible to reduce time spent in erection and dismantling.
The formwork should be simple to remove without causing damage to the concrete.

Tightness of joints: The liquid retaining properties of the formwork must be

adequate to prevent leakage of cement and fine aggregate from the concrete.

Rigidity: Brace formwork and support to ensure no movement may take place
under wind pressure, or when the concrete is being placed and vibrated. The shutters
must be rigid enough to keep the concrete member within the allowable tolerances.

Fig4.4.1:- Adjusting the form of column after a movement in it

16
 Reuse: Design for unit construction, if possible, so that you can strike and reuse
as soon as possible.

Ease of handling: Forms and shutters must be of a size and weight that can be
handled by the labour and plant available on site.

4.4.3 Formwork types (by shape):-

Considering shapes, formwork types can be classified as:

 Column Formwork:-

Column formwork is made usually with either timber or metal panels. The
principle is to create an enclosed box with frames at the exact size of the column and
fix it tightly on the kicker left from base or at the last stage of column concreting. The
box is held in position by steel column clamps or bolted yokes and supported by timber
studs or props.

 Beam formwork:-

Beam formwork consists of open through section and because it is not closed at
the top requires more supporting framework to restrain the sides. The supports need to
be maintained to the soffit and also provide lateral support to the sides. In timber this is
done by the use of a head tree across the top of a vertical member. Metal panels are
used with corner pieces, but timber head tress are needed for vertical support.

 Slab Formwork:-

Floors require a large area of formwork to be provided usually from

beam to beam. Metal floor formwork consists of Metal sheets supported on a
framework and resting on a series of timber joists. Again timber and metal props can
be used for vertical supports. Metal panels can be used and bolted or clipped together
and held in place by a system of metal beams or a tabular scaffold system. Adjustable
props need for leveling purposes.

17
4.5. FOUNDATION:-

Foundation is that part of building which ensure that the structural loads are transmitted
to the subsoil safely, economically and without any unacceptable movement during the
construction period and throughout the anticipated life of the building or structure.

4.5.1 Requirements of foundation: -

The major requirements of the design of foundation structures are the two as given
below (see cl.34.1 of IS 456):-

Foundation structures should be able to sustain the applied loads, moments,

forces and induced reactions without exceeding the safe bearing capacity of the soil.

The settlement of the structure should be as uniform as possible and it should

be within the tolerable limits. It is well known from the structural analysis that
differential settlement of supports causes additional moments in statically
indeterminate structures. Therefore, avoiding the differential settlement is considered
as more important than maintaining uniform overall settlement of the structure.

4.5.2 Purpose of foundation:-

To distribute the load of the structure over a large bearing area so as to bring the
intensity of load within the safe bearing capacity of soil.

To load the bearing surface at a uniform rate to avoid differential settlement.

To prevent the lateral movement of supporting material.

To attain a level and firm bed for building operations.

To increase the stability of the structure as a whole.

18
The design of foundation structures is somewhat different from the design of other
elements of superstructure (Slab, Beam, Column and walls) due to the reasons given
below. Therefore, foundation structures need special attention of the designers.

Foundation structures undergo soil-structure interaction. Therefore, the

behavior of foundation structures depends on the properties of structural materials and
soil.

Accurate estimations of all types of loads, moments and forces are needed for
the present as well as for future expansion, if applicable. It is very important because it
is very difficult to strengthen and repairing foundation structure in future.

Foundation structures are in direct contact with the soil and may be affected due
to harmful chemicals and minerals present in the soil and fluctuations of water table
when it is very near to the foundation.

Foundation structures, while constructing, may affect the adjoining structure

forming cracks to total collapse, particularly during the driving of piles etc.

Foundation structures have to be housed within the property line which may
cause additional forces and moments due to the eccentricity of foundation

4.5.3 Factor affecting design of foundation:-

Soil types and ground water table conditions.

Structural requirements and foundations.

Construction requirements.

Site condition and environmental factor.

Economy.

Load of the structure which is to transmit to soil

19
4.5.4 Type of foundation:-

Foundations are mainly of two types:

(1). Shallow foundations.

(2). Deep foundations.

The two different types are explained below:-

Shallow foundations:-

Shallow foundations are used when the soil has sufficient strength within a short depth
below the ground level. They need sufficient plan area to transfer the heavy loads to the
base soil. These heavy loads are sustained by the reinforced concrete columns or walls
(either of bricks or reinforced concrete) of much less areas of cross-section due to high
strength of bricks or reinforced concrete when compared to that of soil. For shallow
foundation depth of foundation is less than width of foundation. In this foundation
underneath soil have suitable soil bearing capacity to possess all loads which are to be
transferred by foundation on soil.

There are different types of shallow foundation or footing which are discussed below:-

A. Isolated footings:-

This type of footing is used to support individual columns. They can be

either of stepped type or have projections in the concrete base. In case of heavy loaded
columns, steel reinforcement is provided in both the direction in concrete bed.
Generally, 15 cm offset is provided on all sides of concrete bed. In case of brick
masonry columns, an offset of 5cm is provided o all the four sides in regular layers.
The footing of concrete columns may be a slab, stepped or sloped type.

20
 Fig4.5.1: uniform and rectangular footing

Fig4.5.2: Stepped and rectangular footing

21
 Fig4.5.3: reinforcement in isolated rectangular footing

B. Combined footing:-

A combined footing supports two or more columns in a row> The

combined footing can be rectangular i shape if both the columns carry equal loads, or
can be trapezoidal if these are space limitations and they carry unequal loads. Generally,
they are constructed of reinforced concrete. In the design of footings, the footing is
assumed to be rigid and resting on a homogeneous soil. The location of centre of gravity
of column loads and the centroid of the footing should coincide. The maximum bending
moment is taken as the design value for the reinforced concrete footing and should be
checked for maximum shear and bound, etc.

22
 Fig4.5.4: combined footing without central beam

C. Inverted Arch Footing:-

This type of construction is used o soft soils to reduce the depth of

foundation. Loads above an opening are transmitted from supporting walls through
inverted arches to the soil. In this type of footing the end columns must be stable enough
to resist the outward pressure caused by the action.

D. Continuous footing:-

In this type of footing a single continuous R.C. slab is provided as

foundation of two or three or more columns in a row. This type of footing is suitable at
locations liable to earthquake activities. This also prevents differential settlement in the
structure. In order to have better stability a deeper beam is constructed in between the
columns.

E. Strip or Wall footing:-

23
 These are in long strips especially for load bearing masonry walls or reinforced
concrete walls. However, for load bearing masonry walls, it is common to have stepped
masonry foundations. The strip footings distribute the loads from the wall to a wider
area and usually bend in transverse direction. Accordingly, they are reinforced in the
transverse direction mainly, while nominal distribution steel is provided along the
longitudinal direction.

Fig4.5.5: Strip or Wall footing

F. Raft Foundation:-

A raft or mat is a combined footing that covers the entire area beneath a
structure and supports all the columns. When the allowable soil pressure is low or the
structure loads are very heavy, the use of spread footings would cover more than half
of the building area, and it may prove more economical to use raft-foundation. They
are also used where the soil mass contains compressible lenses so that the differential
settlement would be difficult to control. Raft foundation is also used to reduce
settlement above highly compressible soils by making the weight of structure and raft

24
approximately equal to the weight of soil excavated. Usually when hard soil is not
available within 1.5 to 2.5 m, a raft foundation is adopted.

Fig4.5.6: Raft Footing

Fig4.5.7 Reinforcement in raft foundation

Deep foundation:-

These foundations carry loads from a structure through weak compressible soil
or fills on the stronger and less compressible soils or rocks at depth. These foundations
are in general used as basements, buoyancy rafts, caissons, cylinders, shaft and piles.

25
A. Pile foundation:-

The pile foundation is a construction supported on piles. A pile is an element of

construction composed of timber, concrete or steel or a combination of them. Pile
foundation may be defined as a column supported type of foundation which may be
defined as cast-in –situ or precast. The piles may be placed separately or they may be
placed in form of a cluster throughout the length of the structure. This type of
construction adopted when the loose soil extends to a great depth. The load of the
structure is transmitted by the piles to the hard stratum below or it is resisted by the
friction developed on the sides of piles.

I. Classification of Piles:- Piles are classified on these two following criteria

a) Classification Based on the function:-

i. Bearing pile

ii. Friction Pile

iii. Screw Pile

iv. Compaction Pile

v. Uplift pile

vi. Batter pile

vii. Sheet pile

b) Classification based on material and composition:-

i. Cement concrete pile:-

They can be divided in two groups:-

 Precast concrete piles

 Cast in-situ concrete piles:-

In this type of pile, a bore is dug into ground by inserting a casing. This bore is
than filled with cement concrete after placing reinforcement, if any. They may be either

26
cased cast in-situ concrete piles or uncased cast in-situ concrete piles depending upon
casing is kept in position or withdrawn afterwards.

Cast in-situ concrete piles are easy to handle and to drive in the ground. They do not
require any extra reinforcement to resist the stresses developed during handling or
driving operation. There is no wastage of material as the pile of required length is const.

Fig4.5.8:- reinforcement for pile

Fig 4.5.9: - concrete pile with Waler beam

ii. Timber pile

27
iii. Steel pile

iv. Sand pile

v. Composite pile

4.5.5 Safe bearing capacity of soil: -

Gross and net bearing capacities are the two terms used in the design. Gross
bearing capacity is the total safe bearing pressure just below the footing due to the load
of the superstructure, self weight of the footing and the weight of earth lying over the
footing. On the other hand, net bearing capacity is the net pressure in excess of the
existing overburden pressure. Thus, we can write

Net bearing capacity = Gross bearing capacity - Pressure due to overburden soil --
----------(1)

While calculating the maximum soil pressure q, we should consider all the loads of
superstructure along with the weight of foundation and the weight of the backfill.
During preliminary calculations, however, the weight of the foundation and backfill
may be taken as 10 to 15 per cent of the total axial load on the footing, subjected to
verification afterwards. While calculating loads we should consider partial safety factor
for all type of loads which is given in Table 18 (IS 456).

TABLE 1:- Values of Partial Safety Factor

28
The safe bearing capacity qc of soil is the permissible soil pressure considering safety
factors in the range of 2 to 6 depending on the type of soil.

Depth of the foundation:-

All types of foundation should have a minimum depth of 50 cm as per IS 1080-

1962. This minimum depth is required to ensure the availability of soil having the safe
bearing capacity assumed in the design. Moreover, the foundation should be placed
well below the level which will not be affected by seasonal change of weather to cause
swelling and shrinking of the soil. Further, frost also may endanger the foundation if
placed at a very shallow depth.

Rankine formula gives a preliminary estimate of the minimum depth of

foundation and is expressed as

d = (qc/λ) {(1 - sinφ)/ (1 + sinφ)} 2 ----------- (2)

Where,

d = minimum depth of foundation

qc = gross bearing capacity of soil

λ = density of soil

φ = angle of repose of soil

4.5.6 IS 456 design considerations for Foundation:-

a) Minimum nominal cover (cl. 26.4.2.2 of IS 456):-

The minimum nominal cover for the footings should be

more than that of other structural elements of the superstructure as the footings are in
direct contact with the soil. Clause 26.4.2.2 of IS 456 prescribes a minimum cover of

29
50 mm for footings. However, the actual cover may be even more depending on the
presence of harmful chemicals or minerals, water table etc.

b) Thickness at the edge of footings (cls. 34.1.2 and 34.1.3 of IS 456) :-

The minimum thickness at

the edge of reinforced and plain concrete footings shall be at least 150 mm for footings
on soils and at least 300 mm above the top of piles for footings on piles, as per the
stipulation in cl.34.1.2 of IS 456. For plain concrete pedestals, the angle α between the
plane passing through the bottom edge of the pedestal and the corresponding junction
edge of the column with pedestal and the horizontal plane shall be determined from the
following expression

tan(α) ≤ 0.9*{(100 *qa/fck) + 1}1/2

Where

qa = calculated maximum bearing pressure at the base of pedestal in N/mm2 , and

fck = characteristic strength of concrete at 28 days in N/mm2 .

Fig4.5.10:- angle α

c) Bending moments (cl. 34.2 of IS 456)

It may be necessary to compute the bending moment at several sections of the

footing depending on the type of footing, nature of loads and the distribution of pressure

30
at the base of the footing. However, bending moment at any section shall be determined
taking all forces acting over the entire area on one side of the section of the footing,
which is obtained by passing a vertical plane at that section extending across the footing
(cl.34.2.3.1 of IS 456).

The critical section of maximum bending moment for the purpose of designing
an isolated concrete footing which supports a column, pedestal or wall shall be:

(i) At the face of the column, pedestal or wall for footing supporting a concrete column,
pedestal or reinforced concrete wall

(ii) Halfway between the centre-line and the edge of the wall, for footing under masonry
wall. This is stipulated in cl.34.2.3.2 of IS 456

For round or octagonal concrete column or pedestal, the face of the column or
pedestal shall be taken as the side of a square inscribed within the perimeter of the round
or octagonal column or pedestal for computing stress in footing.

Fig 4.5.11:- Equivalent square columns

d) Shear force (cl. 31.6 and 34.2.4 of IS 456):-

Footing slabs shall be checked in one-way or

two-way shears depending on the nature of bending. If the slab bends primarily in one-

31
way, the footing slab shall be checked in one-way vertical shear. On the other hand,
when the bending is primarily two-way, the footing slab shall be checked in two-way
shear or punching shear. The respective critical sections and design shear strengths are
given below:

a. One-way shear (cl. 34.2.4 of IS 456):- One-way shear has to be checked across
the full width of the base slab on a vertical section located from the face of the column,
pedestal or wall at a distance equal to

 Effective depth of the footing slab in case of footing slab on soil

 Half the effective depth of the footing slab if the footing slab is on piles.
The design shear strength of concrete without shear reinforcement is given
in Table 19 of cl.40.2 of IS 456.

TABLE 2:- Design Shear Strength of concrete

b. Two-way or punching shear (cls.31.6 and 34.2.4) :-

Two-way or punching shear shall be checked

around the column on a perimeter half the effective depth of the footing slab away from
the face of the column or pedestal. The permissible shear stress, when shear
reinforcement is not provided, shall not exceed ks* c τ , where ks = (0.5 + β c ), but not
greater than one, β c being the ratio of short side to long side of the column, and c τ =
0.25(fck) 1/2 in limit state method of design, as stipulated in cl.31.6.3 of IS 456.

32
Normally, the thickness of the base slab is governed by shear. Hence, the necessary
thickness of the slab has to be provided to avoid shear reinforcement.

e) Tensile reinforcement (cl.34.3 of IS 456):-

In one-way reinforced footing slabs like wall footings, the reinforcement shall
be distributed uniformly across the full width of the footing i.e., perpendicular to the
direction of wall.

In two-way reinforced square footing slabs, the reinforcement extending in each

direction shall be distributed uniformly across the full width/length of the footing.

In two-way reinforced rectangular footing slabs, the reinforcement in the long

direction shall be distributed uniformly across the full width of the footing slab. In the
short direction, a central band equal to the width of the footing shall be marked along
the length of the footing, where the portion of the reinforcement shall be determined as
given in the equation below. This portion of the reinforcement shall be distributed
across the central band.

Reinforcement in the central band = {2/( β +1)} (Total reinforcement in the short
direction)

Where β is the ratio of longer dimension to shorter dimension of the footing slab.

Fig 4.5.12:- Bands for reinforcement in a rectangular footing

33
The remainder of the reinforcement shall be uniformly distributed in the outer Nominal
portion of the footings

f) Reinforcement (cl. 34.5 of IS 456):-

1. The minimum reinforcement and spacing of the bars in footing slabs as per the
requirements of solid slab.

2. The nominal reinforcement for concrete sections of thickness greater than 1 m shall
be 360 mm2 sper metre length in each direction on each face. This provision does not
supersede the requirement of minimum tensile reinforcement based on the depth of
section.

4.6 BEAM:-

Beams are generally horizontal or curved structural members which transfer loads
horizontally along their length to the supports (Columns, Abutment & piles etc.) where
the loads are usually resolved into vertical forces. Beams are used for resisting vertical
loads, shear forces and bending moments.

4.6.1 Classification of Beam:-

Different types of beams can be classified based on the

type of support, reinforcement condition and shape.

4.6.2 Classification based on support condition:-

The four different types of beams are based on support condition:

 Simply Supported Beam

A simply supported beam is a type of beam that has pinned support at one end
and roller support at the other end. Depending on the load applied, it undergoes
shearing and bending. It is the one of the simplest structural elements in
structure

34
 Fig 4.6.1:- Simply Supported beam

 Fixed Beam:-

As the name suggests, fixed beam is a type of beam whose both ends are fixed.

Fig 4.6.2:- Fixed beam

 Cantilever Beam:-

A cantilever beam is fixed at one end and free at other end.

Fig4.6.3:- Cantilever Beam

35
  Continuously Supported Beam:-

A continuous beam has more than two supports distributed throughout

its length.

Fig4.6.4:- Continuously Supported Beam

5. Overhanging beam:-

A overhanging beam is a beam that has one or both end portions

extending beyond its supports. It may have any number of supports. If viewed in a
different perspective, it appears as if it is has the features of simply supported beam and
cantilever beam.

Fig4.6.5: - Overhanging beam

36
4.6.4 Types of R.C.C. Beam by reinforcement position:-

 Singly Reinforced Beam:-

When you provide reinforcement only in tension zone of the beam cross
section then that beam are considered as a singly reinforced beam.

Fig4.6.6:- Reinforcement in Singly reinforced Beam

 Doubly Reinforced Beam:-

When you provide reinforcement both in tension zone as well as compression

zone then that beam is considered as doubly reinforced beam. Doubly reinforced beams,
therefore, have moment of resistance more than the singly reinforced beams of the same
depth for particular grades of steel and concrete. In many practical situations,
architectural or functional requirements may restrict the overall depth of the beams.

However, other than in doubly reinforced beams compression steel reinforcement

is provided when:

• Some sections of a continuous beam with moving loads undergo change of sign
of the bending moment which makes compression zone as tension zone or vice versa.

• The ductility requirement has to be followed.

37
• The reduction of long term deflection is needed.

Fig4.6.7:- Reinforcement in Doubly Reinforced Beam

4.6.5 Design Consideration:-

 Bending Design:-

The moment capacity of the beam is affected by:

a) The effective depth, d

b) Amount of reinforcement,

c) Strength of steel bars

d) Strength of concrete

For safety of beam from bending moment capacity of the section should be greater than
Maximum moment on beam which can be obtained by increasing depth or amount of
reinforcement or strength of steel bars or strength of concrete.

38
  Shear design:-

Two principal shear failure modes:

(a) Diagonal tension – inclined crack develops and splits the beam into two pieces.
Shear link should be provide to prevent this failure.

(b) Diagonal compression – crushing of concrete.

If shear stress on section exceed than 0.5×shear resistance of section than shear
reinforcement should be provided by providing Vertical shear link or a combination of
vertical and inclined bars.

 Deflection:-

For rectangular beam,

A. The final deflection should not exceed span/250

B. Deflection after construction of finishes and partitions should not exceed

span/500 or 20mm, whichever is the lesser, for spans up to 10 m.

TABLE 3:- SPAN/DEPTH RATIO FOR RANCTANGULAR BEAM

 Minimum and maximum reinforcement area:-

For rectangular beam with b (width) and h (depth), the area of tensile
reinforcement, as should lie:-

0.24% bh ≤As ≤ 4% bh For Fy= 250 N/mm2

0.13% bh ≤As ≤ 4% bh For Fy= 500N/mm2

39
  Spacing of reinforcement:-

For singly reinforcement simply supported beam the clear horizontal distance between
tension bars should follow:

hagg + 5 mm or bar size≤ sb≤ 300 mm or 3d minimum fy = 250 N/mm2

hagg + 5 mm or bar size≤ sb≤ 155 mm fy = 500 N/mm2 (hagg is the maximum
aggregate size)

 Anchorage:-

At the end support, to achieve proper anchorage the tensile bar must extend a length
equal to one of the following:

A. 12 times the bar size beyond the centre line of the support

B. 12 times the bar size plus d/2 from the face of support

C. In case of space limitation, hooks or bends in the reinforcement can be use in

anchorage. If the bends started after the centre of support, the anchorage length is at
least 4φ but not greater than 12 φ. If the hook started before d/2 from the face of support,
the anchorage length is at 8r but not greater than 24 φ.

Fig4.6.8:- Bend Anchorage in Beam

40
4.7 SLAB

Slabs, used in floors and roofs of buildings mostly integrated with the supporting
beams, carry the distributed loads primarily by bending. A part of the integrated slab is
considered as flange of T- or L-beams because of monolithic construction. However,
the remaining part of the slab needs design considerations. These slabs are either single
span or continuous having different support conditions like fixed, hinged or free along
the edges. Though normally these slabs are horizontal, inclined slabs are also used in
ramps, stair cases and inclined roofs. While square or rectangular plan forms are
normally used, triangular, circular and other plan forms are also needed for different
functional requirements. On the basis of length to width ratio or support condition or
loads reinforcement in slab is provided in one direction or both direction.

4.7.1 Classification of Slab:-

The slabs are presented in two groups:

 One-way slabs:-

The one-way slabs are identified as follows.

1) When a rectangular slab is supported only on two opposite edges, it is a one-

way slab spanning in the direction perpendicular to the edges.
2) When a rectangular slab is supported on all the four edges and the length-to-
breadth (L / B) ratio is equal to or greater than two, the slab is considered to be
a one-way slab. The slab spans predominantly in the direction parallel to the
shorter edge.

41
 Fig4.7.1:- Plans of One-Way slab

 Two-way slabs:-

If a rectangular slab is supported on all the four sides and the length-to-
breadth ratio is less than two, then it is a two-way slab. If a slab is supported on three
edges or two adjacent edges, then also it is a two-way slab. A slab in a framed building
can be a two-way slab depending upon its length-to-breadth ratio. A two-way slab is
designed for both the orthogonal directions.

Fig4.7.2:- Deflection in Two-way Slab

42
4.7.2 DESIGN CONSIDERATION:-

 Nominal cover (cl.26.4 of IS 456)

The nominal cover to be provided depends upon durability and fire

resistance requirements.

TABLE 4:- Table for nominal cover

Appropriate value of the nominal cover is to be provided from these tables for the
particular requirement of the structure.

 Minimum reinforcement (cl.26.5.2.1 of IS 456)

Both for one and two-way slabs, the amount of minimum

reinforcement in either direction shall not be less than 0.15 and 0.12 per cents of the

43
total cross-sectional area for mild steel (Fe 250) and high strength deformed bars (Fe
415 and Fe 500)/welded wire fabric, respectively.

 Maximum diameter of reinforcing bars (cl.26.5.2.2)

The maximum diameter of reinforcing bars of one and two-way

slabs shall not exceed one-eighth of the total depth of the slab.

 Maximum distance between bars (cl.26.3.3 of IS 456)

The maximum horizontal distance between parallel main

reinforcing bars shall be the lesser of (i) three times the effective depth, or (ii) 300 mm.
However, the same for secondary/distribution bars for temperature, shrinkage etc. shall
be the lesser of (i) five times the effective depth, or (ii) 450 mm.

5. Effective span to effective depth ratio (cls.23.2.1a-e of IS 456)

The deflection of the slab can be kept under control if

the ratios of effective span to effective depth of one-way slabs are taken up from

basic values of span to effective depth ratios

A) For spans up to 10 m:

Cantilever 7

Simply supported 20

Continuous 26

B) For spans above 10 m, the values in (a) may be multiplied by lo/span in meters,
except for cantilever in which case deflection calculations should be made. These
stipulations are for the beams and are also applicable for one-way slabs as they are
designed considering them as beam of unit width.

 Development length:-

Development length for Hogging bar is 0.3 Time the length of the slab.
Bending of bars or curtailment of bars (hogging bars) Starts from length from L/5 for
long span and for Short Span the length is L/7.

44
4.8 COLUMN

A column is a structural element that transmits, through compression, the weight of the
structure above to other structural elements below. In other words, a column is a
compression member. Columns are typically constructed from materials such as stone,
brick, block, concrete, timber, steel and so on which have good compressive strength.

4.8.1 CLASSIFICATION OF COLUMN:-

Columns are classified into the following two types based on the slenderness ratios:

(i) Short columns:-

A compression member may be considered as short when both the

slenderness ratios lex/D and ley/b are less than 12 where lex = effective length in respect
of the major axis, D = depth in respect of the major axis, ley = effective length in respect
of the minor axis, and b = width of the member.

(ii) Slender or long columns:-

A compression member may be considered as Slender or

long when both the slenderness ratios ley/D and ley/b are greater than 12.

4.8.2 Design Consideration of Column:-

1. Longitudinal Reinforcement:-

The longitudinal reinforcing bars carry the compressive loads along with the concrete.
The following are the salient points regarding the minimum and maximum amount,
number of bars, minimum diameter of bars, spacing of bars etc.:

a) The minimum amount of steel should be at least 0.8 per cent of the gross cross-
sectional area of the column required if for any reason the provided area is more than
the required area.

45
b) The maximum amount of steel should be 4 per cent of the gross cross-sectional
area of the column so that it does not exceed 6 per cent when bars from column below
have to be lapped with those in the column under consideration.

c) Four and six are the minimum number of longitudinal bars in rectangular and
circular columns, respectively.

d) The diameter of the longitudinal bars should be at least 12 mm.

e) Columns having helical reinforcement shall have at least six longitudinal bars
within and in contact with the helical reinforcement. The bars shall be placed
equidistant around its inner circumference.

f) The bars shall be spaced not exceeding 300 mm along the periphery of the
column.

Fig4.8.1:- Longitudinal and transverse reinforcement in compression member

2. Transverse Reinforcement:-

Transverse reinforcing bars are provided in forms of circular rings,

polygonal links (lateral ties) with internal angles not exceeding 135o or helical
reinforcement. The transverse reinforcing bars are provided to ensure that every
longitudinal bar nearest to the compression face has effective lateral support against
buckling.

46
 Fig 4.8.2:- Hooks with Some internal angle

The salient points are for the guidelines of the arrangement of transverse reinforcement:

(a) Transverse reinforcement shall only go round corner and alternate bars if the
longitudinal bars are not spaced more than 75 mm on either side.

(b) Longitudinal bars spaced at a maximum distance of 48 times the diameter of the tie
shall be tied by single tie and additional open ties for in between longitudinal bars.

3. Pitch and Diameter of Lateral Ties :-

(a) Pitch: The maximum pitch of transverse reinforcement shall be the least of the
following:

(i) the least lateral dimension of the compression members; (ii) sixteen times the
smallest diameter of the longitudinal reinforcement bar to be tied; and

(iii) 300 mm.

(b) Diameter: The diameter of the polygonal links or lateral ties shall be not less than
one-fourth of the diameter of the largest longitudinal bar, and in no case less than 6 mm.

47
 Fig4.8.3:- Lateral Ties

4. Helical Reinforcement:-

(a) Pitch: Helical reinforcement shall be of regular formation with the turns of the helix
spaced evenly and its ends shall be anchored properly by providing one and a half extra
turns of the spiral bar. For all cases except where an increased load on the column is
allowed for on the strength of the helical reinforcement. In such cases only, the
maximum pitch shall be the lesser of 75 mm and one-sixth of the core diameter of the
column, and the minimum pitch shall be the lesser of 25 mm and three times the
diameter of the steel bar forming the helix.

(b) Diameter: The diameter of the helical reinforcement shall be not less than one-fourth
of the diameter of the largest longitudinal bar, and in no case less than 6 mm.

5. Lap length:-

The Indian bible (IS456) says that the development length Ld of any bar shall be given
by the following relation

where

ø= nominal diameter of the bar,

σs= stress in bar at the section considered at design load, and

τbd= design bond stress

48
For bars in compression (typically the ones in columns) use the 'Ld' from the above
relation. Except that in compression, our bond stress can be increased by 25% so,
effectively, take Ld in compression as Ld/1.25. You may use the following values for
M30 grade of concrete for varying grades of steel in flexural tension:

Fe250 -28D

Fe415 - 30D

Fe500 - 35D

Fig4.8.4:- Lapping of bars in Column (But eccentric)

6. Minimum Eccentricity:-

All columns shall Abe designed for minimum eccentricity, equal to

the unsupported length of column/ 500 plus lateral dimensions/30, subject to a
minimum of 20 mm. Where bi-axial bending is considered, it is sufficient to ensure that
eccentricity exceeds the minimum about one axis at a time.

49
4.9. WALL:-

A wall is a structure that defines an area, carries a load, or provides shelter or security.
There are many kinds of walls: Defensive walls in fortification. Walls in buildings that
form a fundamental part of the superstructure or separate interior sections, sometimes
for fire safety. It is a structure that serves to hold back pressure (as of water or sliding
earth).

4.9.1 TYPES OF WALL:-

1. Load bearing wall

2. Non Load bearing wall or partition wall

A load bearing wall is a wall that bears some of the building’s weight in addition to its
own weight. A non-load bearing wall is a wall that does not support any gravity loads
from the building, hence doesn’t bear any weight besides its own. Both, load bearing
and non-load bearing walls may see lateral loading such as wind loads and seismic
loads. Also, both load bearing and non-load bearing walls can serve as shear walls to
brace the building in lateral and/or longitudinal directions.

Fig4.9.1:- Load Bearing Wall

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4.9.2 General requirements:-

If bonds in brick work are not arranged properly, then a continuous vertical joint
will result. This is called an unbounded wall having little strength and stability

In alternate courses, the center line of header should coincide with the center
line of the stretcher, in the course below or above it. The vertical joints in the alternate
courses should be along the same vertical axis.

Fig 4.9.2:- vertical joints in the alternate courses

Reinforcement can be providing to provide stability against wind load. It can be

horizontal or vertical or both.

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 Fig4.9.3:- Horizontal reinforcement in wall

In site in every three layer two horizontal reinforcement bar were used for to provide
extra strength to wall against wind load. Horizontal coping at 0.9 to 1.2 mtr height &
Vertical coping in centre if wall length is more than 3 mtr, with 2nos 8mm
reinforcement.

Horizontal bands can be provided in masonry buildings to improve their

earthquake performance. These bands include plinth band, lintel band and roof band.
Even if horizontal bands are provided, masonry buildings are weakened by the openings
in their walls.

4.9.3 AAC BLOCK

Autoclaved Aerated Concrete is a lightweight, load-bearing, high-insulating, durable

building product, which is produced in a wide range of sizes and strength.AAC offers
incredible opportunities to increase building quality and at the same time reduces costs
at the construction site.

AAC is produced out of a mix of pulverized fly ash (PFA), lime,

cement, gypsum, water and aluminum and is hardened by steam curing in autoclaves.
As a result of its excellent properties, AAC is used in many building constructions, for
example in residential homes, commercial and industrial buildings, schools, hospitals,
52
hotels and many other applications. The construction material AAC contains 60% to
85% air by volume.

These blocks need not be wetted before or during the laying in the walls; in case
the climatic condition so required, the top and the sides of the blocks may be slightly
moistened.

4.10. STAIRCASE:-

Staircase is an important component of a building providing access to different floors

and roof of the building. It consists of a flight of steps (stairs) and one or more
intermediate landing slabs between the floor levels. Different types of staircases can be
made by arranging stairs and landing slabs. Staircase, thus, is a structure enclosing a
stair.

4.10.1 Terminology-

1. Flight:-A series of steps between different levels or storey’s of a building called

a flight.

2. Tread:- The horizontal top portion of a step where foot rests is known as tread.

3. Nosing: In some cases the tread is projected outward to increase the space. This
projection is designated as nosing.

4. Riser: The vertical distance between two successive steps is termed as riser.

5. Waist: The thickness of the waist-slab on which steps are made is known as
waist. The depth (thickness) of the waist is the minimum thickness perpendicular to the
soffit of the staircase (cl. 33.3 of IS 456). The steps of the staircase resting on waist-
slab can be made of bricks or concrete.

6. Going: Going is the horizontal projection between the first and the last riser of
an inclined flight.

7 handrail: A rail fixed parallel above the pitch line at the sides of a stair.

53
 Fig10.1: STAIRCASE

4.10.2 Suitable Dimensions For Staircases:-

A. Riser and tread:-

in a flight of stairs all steps should have the same riser and same tread.

• Relationship between riser and tread can be shown as 2R+T=63cm

• Convention centers, cinema, Theaters: R=16cm

• Schools, hospitals, Office buildings R= 17cm

• Residential Buildings R=18cm

• Steepness of stairs; Regular pitch: 25-36 °

B. Tread Dimensions:-

Min. Tread width (no side walls) =60cm

54
 One side wall = 70cm

Two side walls = 80cm

C. Handrails:-

• Handrails height should be between 86.5- 96.5 cm.

• Handrails may project a max. of 9cm into the required width.

D. Headroom:-

The minimum vertical headroom above any step should be 2 m.

FIG4.10.2:- STANDARD DRAWING OF STAIRCASE (PLAN)

55
FIG4.10.3:- STANDARD DRAWING OF STAIRCASE ELEVATION

4.10.3 GENERAL GUIDELINCE:-

The following are some of the general guidelines to be considered while planning a
staircase:

• The respective dimensions of tread and riser for all the parallel steps should be the
same in consecutive floor of a building.

• The minimum vertical headroom above any step should be 2 m.

• Generally, the number of risers in a flight should be restricted to twelve.

• The minimum width of stair should be 850 mm, though it is desirable to have the
width between 1.1 to 1.6 m. In public building, cinema halls etc., large widths of the
stair should be provided.

56
4.10.4 Types of Staircases (Plan types):-

1. Straight run

2. 180 degree return

I. Open well Staircase:- These are like normal doglegged but the only difference
is that after reaching the landing the stairs ends up with a railing instead of wall. In this
staircase Space between the lower and upper flights causes half space landing to be
longer.

Fig4.10.4:- Open Well Staircase

II. Dog Legged:- A dog-leg is a configuration of stairs between two floors of a

building, often a domestic building, in which a flight of stairs ascends to a half-landing
before turning at a right angle and continuing upwards.[1] The flights do not have to be
equal, and frequently are not.

57
 Structurally, the flights of a dog-leg stair are usually supported by
the half-landing, which spans the adjoining flank walls.

From the design point of view, the main advantages of a dog-leg stair are:

• To allow an arrangement that occupies a shorter, though wider, floor area than
a straight flight, and so is more compact. Even though the landings consume total floor
space, there is no large single dimension.

• The upper floor is not directly visible from the bottom of the stairs, thereby
providing more privacy.

Fig4.10.5:- Dog-Legged staircase

III. L shaped

IV. Spiral

V. Winder staircase

VI. Landing Type Staircase.

58
(A) Stair slab spanning longitudinally:-

Here, one or more supports are provided parallel to the riser

for the slab bending longitudinally. Cantilevered landing and intermediate supports are
helpful to induce negative moments near the supports which reduce the positive
moment and thereby the depth of slab becomes economic.

Fig 4.10.6:- Staircase (Spanning longitudinally) and Landing

(B) Stair slab spanning transversely:-

Transversely supported stairs include:

• Simply supported steps supported by two walls or beams or a combination of

both.

• Steps cantilevering from a wall or a beam.

59
4.10.5 Design Consideration:-

The design of the main components of a staircase-stair, landing slabs and supporting
beams or wall are design like Slab or beam are designed.

Fig4.10.7:- Reinforcement in Staircase

A. Effective Span of Stairs :-

. Three different cases are given to determine the effective span of stairs without stringer
beams.

(i) The horizontal centre-to-centre distance of beams should be considered as the

effective span when the slab is supported at top and bottom risers by beams spanning
parallel with the risers.

(ii) The horizontal distance equal to the going of the stairs plus at each end either
half the width of the landing or one meter, whichever is smaller when the stair slab is
spanning on to the edge of a landing slab which spans parallel with the risers.
60
(iii)

TABLE 6:- TABLE FOR EFFECTIVE SPAN OF STAIRCASE

B. Distribution of load on Staircase:-

The load in such stairs on areas common to any two such spans
should be taken as fifty per cent in each direction. Moreover, one 150 mm strip may be
deducted from the loaded area and the effective breadth of the section is increased by
75 mm for the design where flights or landings are embedded into walls for a length of
at least 110 mm and are designed to span in the direction of the flight.

61
 Fig4.10.8:- Loading On open-well Staircase

4.11. CURING:-

Concrete develops its full potential only when it is efficiently cured and protected from
premature drying. Well cured concrete is stronger, more resistant to chemical attack
and more watertight. It is also less prone to damage by frost and abrasion.

62
 Fig 4.11.1:- Curing of Column

4.11.1 METHOD OF CURING:-

There are two principal ways of curing concrete:-

1. Keep the concrete surface wet by ponding, mist spraying or covering with damp
sand/damp hessian. Although there may be practical difficulties, these are most
effective methods. Ponding of water onto a concrete slab that has lost its initial sheen
of bleed water is perhaps the best method of curing as all the concrete is covered with
water. This has practically disadvantages of being suitable only for slabs.

2. Use polythene sheeting, spray curing membranes or leave the formwork in place
(not applicable for Slabs) to prevent the loss of moisture from the concrete. Whilst not
as effective as the first method. These generally give satisfactory result.

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 CHAPTER-5

CONCLUSION

Working under NWR had been a rewarding one. I feel lucky to have the best people as
my mentors and my colleagues. As far as what I have learned, not only the things related
to civil engineering, but I have also learned the way a one has to represent himself, the
office culture, and yes, a lot of practical things and concepts which our course books
fail to deliver.

It was wonderful learning experience in NWR for 2 months in Jaipur.

The internship program helped me to gain important knowledge in field work, their
culture, work environment and all about construction. Participating in weekly team
meeting with CTO, Project manager and other team members and discussing threats of
the projects helped me attain the faith to develop a never give up attitude. The internship
program has increased my team work capabilities as well as respect to the team mate’s
ideas and suggestions. It has certainly lifted field skills in terms of construction and site.
I now look forward to facing the upcoming challenges of the world.

64
 CHAPTER-6

REFERANCES

ADMIXTURES:- IS-9103

1. For reduction of water cement ratio:- IS-456

2. Water cement ratio:- IS-10262 ,IS-10264

3. Bridge bed block:- IS-1786-285

All the above specifications should be 2010 modifications and latest.

4. Maximum water cement ratio:- 0.40

5. Minimum cementicious material:-400kg/mt

6. Reinforcement high yield strength deformed bars: IRS-1786-1985

7. Abutments mix:-M25

8. Piers:-M30

65