VIA UNIVERSITY COLLEGE, HORSENS, DENMARK

BCHELOR OF ARCHITECTURAL TECHNOLOGY

AND CONSTRUCTION MANAGEMEN

7TH SEMESTER DISSERTATION

FROM EARTH FOR THE EARTH,

EARTH BUILDING TECHNOLOGIES AS A KEYSTONE OF THE
SUSTAINABLE ARCHITECTURE

AUTHOR: BARBARA CSILLIK

CONSULTANT: HENRIK JEAN BLYT
DATE: NOVEMBER , 2012
 TITLE SHEET

DISSERTATION TITLE FROM EARTH FOR THE EARTH

TYPE OF ASSIGNMENT DISSERTATION

CONSULTANT HENRIK JEAN BLYT

NAME OF INSTITUTE VIA UNIVERSITY COLLEGE

AUTHOR BARBARA CSILLIK (177648)

SIGNATURE

DATE OF HANDED IN 26. NOVEMBER 2012.

NUMBER OF COPIES PRINTED 2 COPIES

NUMBER OF PAGES PAGE 34

NUMBER OF CHARACTERS 40 247

All rights reserved – no part of this publication may be reproduced without the prior of the author.

NOTE: This dissertation was completed as part of a Bachelor of Architectural Technology and
Construction Management degree course – no responsibility is taken for any advice, instruction or
conclusion given within!
 AKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This dissertation is a part of the syllabus in 7 semesters, for the Bachelor of Architectural
Technology and Construction Management education at VIA University College in
Horsens. This dissertation is intended to analyze and present the earth building
technologies.

I would like to thank my consultant Henrik Jean Blyt for his help in writing this dissertation
and providing me with useful advices and hints.

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 ABSTRACT

The main aim of this dissertation is to deepen into the sustainable architecture
with analyzing the sustainable technologies, materials and structures related to the
traditional earth techniques, to have a look at the efforts to restore harmony between
natural and man-made, built environments.

In the first part you can find some basic informations about the environmentally-
friendly building design and why it is important to choose local renewable, non-toxic
materials, what kind of rules there are to keep in mind. As a sustainable building material
I took the earth, and I would like to show the potentials and possibilities of earth
constructions. There is an overview of the traditional earth utilization, some studies about
how to build from it and description about their advantages and in case of disadvantage,
how it can be developed. Principally I tried to systematize the different sort of earth
techniques on the basis of existing knowledge and results from research carried out in
various special fields, concepts associated with sustainable architecture and to group
various tendencies of that field.

Finally I am going to argue why these technologies are not considered modern,
whether this is a problem of material itself or this is merely a problem of the modern
mind and in public awareness. I am going to present some likewise examples of modern
earth constructions and how we can build modern houses from locally and cheap
materials, to highlight the nature of the material elements, promoting the aesthetics,
formal, functional and structural qualities and also the maximum respect of the
environment.

Key words: earth techniques, clay, sustainable materials, environment, systemization,

embodied energy, soil types, Rudrapur

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................................................... - 2 -

TABLE OF CONTENTS ............................................................................................................................... - 3 -

1. PROBLEM BACKGROUND AND SUMMARY .......................................................................................... - 4 -

BACKGROUND INFORMATION AND INTRODUCTION OF THE SUBJECT OF THE REPORT ......................................................- 4 -

PROBLEM FORMULATION .................................................................................................................................- 4 -
PROBLEM STATEMENT:.....................................................................................................................................- 4 -
RESEARCH QUESTIONS:.....................................................................................................................................- 5 -
DELIMITATION ................................................................................................................................................- 5 -
CHOICE OF BASIC THEORY AND SOURCES ..............................................................................................................- 5 -
THE REPORT’S OVERALL STRUCTURE ....................................................................................................................- 5 -
2. DEFINITION OF SUSTAINABILITY BRIEFLY ............................................................................................ - 6 -

3. ENVIRONMENTALLY-FRIENDLY BUILDING DESIGN- USING SUSTAINABLE MATERIALS......................... - 8 -

ROLE OF THE BUILDING STRUCTURES ...................................................................................................................- 9 -

4., EARTH AND EARTH TECHNIQUES ..................................................................................................... - 10 -

HISTORY ......................................................................................................................................................- 10 -
CLIMATE .....................................................................................................................................................- 11 -
DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOIL:...............................................................................................................................- 11 -

5. SYSTEMIZNIG ACCORDING TO THE EXECUTION ................................................................................. - 12 -

6. SYSTEMIZING ACCORDING TO THE STRUCTURAL ROLE ..................................................................... - 18 -

7. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE EARTH BUILDINGS ...................................................... - 18 -

8. DEVELOPMENT ................................................................................................................................. - 20 -

WATER SENSITIVITY .......................................................................................................................................- 20 -

LOAD-BEARING CAPACITY................................................................................................................................- 20 -
THERMAL CAPACITY .......................................................................................................................................- 21 -

9., MODERN EXAMPLES ........................................................................................................................ - 22 -

10. HAND MADE SCHOOL IN RUDRAPUR .............................................................................................. - 24 -

BACKGROUND ..............................................................................................................................................- 24 -
CONSTRUCTION ............................................................................................................................................- 25 -
WHY IS IT A GREAT SUMMARY OF SUSTAINABLE ARCHITECTURE? .............................................................................- 26 -

11. CONCLUSION ................................................................................................................................... - 27 -

13. LIST OF FIGURES .............................................................................................................................. - 29 -

13. LIST OF RESOURCES ......................................................................................................................... - 31 -

APPENDIX ............................................................................................................................................. - 33 -

PICTURES-DARWINGS ........................................................................................................................... - 34 -

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 1. PROBLEM BACKGROUND AND SUMMARY

BACKGROUND INFORMATION AND INTRODUCTION OF THE SUBJECT OF THE REPORT

I am writing this dissertation as a compulsory part of the Architectural Technology

and Construction Management Program at VIA University College in Denmark. I chose this
specific topic in my seventh semester, because I am interested in the philosophy of
sustainability and the sustainable structures and materials as well, furthermore there is
recently a growing interest in this topics all over the world.

The main topic of this report will be the research of different alternative ways of
utilizing the earth as wall construction element. I decided to gather information and
analyze the different types. Principally I wanted to put them into a logical system, then
investigate their advantages and disadvantages of them. If they have negative points, I
would like to find a solution for developing or solving this part.

PROBLEM FORMULATION

Recently one of the most important question of the building design is what kind of
materials we should use. It is necessary to be aware of the possibilities further than brick,
wood, concrete, glass and steel, which are the most popular products on the market.
Today’s construction industry is on so high level, that the variety of materials are available
in wide range. But houses can be made in many alternative ways from earth, , clay, straw,
cardboard and even pottery and so on, these are extended by more and more natural
materials. Talking about sustainability is the most relevant topic, because we are the
witnesses of climate changes. That is why sustainable construction concepts have become so
important and that is the way, we can do something for protecting our environment as an
architect. There are a lot of examples how to build energy-efficiency houses and there are
some basic rules to take into consideration. It becomes clear that the best way to construct
environmentally houses by using renewable and natural materials, which has already rich
history.

PROBLEM STATEMENT:

I would like to investigate whether earth as a material really meets the requirements
for construction of sustainable buildings, and can the earth houses be a part of modern
architecture?

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RESEARCH QUESTIONS:

1., Are the earth techniques sustainable?

2., Can the different sort of earth techniques be grouped?

3., Is the earth as material a good alternative of constructing buildings?

4., Has the earth only benefits for and can we develop it?

5.,Are the traditional techniques and earth materials suitable for building modern
houses? Are there any examples?

DELIMITATION

I decided to choose to analyze the main reasons why we need to build energy
efficient houses and to use natural, renewable materials. In this analysis I focus on earth
as a material which can be used in modern, economical, healthy and solid design house
building.

CHOICE OF BASIC THEORY AND SOURCES

I have chosen various sources of information to write this dissertation, but the
main background of used literature was a tesis of Lányi Erzsébet: " Environmentally
conscious built environment: Principles and means of model change" and book of “Green
building” and internet sources related to "Mud architecture", "Rammed earth" and "Earth
buildings".

THE REPORT’S OVERALL STRUCTURE

My dissertation is based on an overall 3-part structure:

1. Introduction with problem formulation/ problem statement/ research questions.

2. Main section containing analysis of the main part which examines selected topic
subjects based on selected sources of information, analysis issues with the problem
statement and research questions.

3. Conclusion responding to the problem statement questions, the main educational

benefits and achievements

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 2. DEFINITION OF SUSTAINABILITY BRIEFLY

More and more of us are convinced that we would have to do something else on
the field of architecture to provide our environment. But what and how should we build?
According to our current attitude, the task of an architect is to display demands of society
in space but they should not specify such demands. As architects, due to our multifarious
skills, we can have an overview on the creation and maintenance of a built environment
as a whole. In the designing part of architectural process, when we should get to know
different fields of life. We need to look into everything related to our project, to create a
suitable, functionally relevant space. Nice to notice the relationship between a well-
designed building and its surroundings, whether old or new building is to be considered.

"A building is not just a place to be. It is a way to be," and another quote “Each building
must respond to Nature, and every building must have its own Nature.”
Frank Lloyd Wright

Sustainable architecture means a new attitude,

it uses research results about the environment,
the biology and human ecology and it tries to
use these results in the construction
technology. Sustainability is based on a simple
principle: Everything that we need for our
survival and feeling of comfort, either directly
or indirectly, is in our natural environment,
humans and nature can exist in productive
harmony, that permits fulfilling the social,
economic and other requirements of present
and future generations. Along these points,
Figure 1_ Theory of sustainability
sustainability and the sustainable development
itself have three important pillars( economy, environment, society) which together form a
unit and create the essential of sustainability.

Few words in the building design and in the construction process have been so
poorly used as that of sustainable design and green architecture, that it has created
barriers to make sense this expression. In the dictionary the word sustainable is defined
that something maintained, but it doesn't indicate its relation to the natural world.
According to major part of the literature, the house-man-environment connection points
are the following: architectural formation, location, materials, construction techniques,
energy and material flows.

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Figure 2_Sustainable balance (own sketch)

"The building structures of sustainable architecture are made according to theoretical

exigences of sustainability and support the construction-ecological and construction
biological-operation during its whole life cycle. "

This is a definition of the sustainable materials and structures according to Lányi Erzsébet.
Along with this philosophy outlined, that building structures can be fitted to the built
framework of sustainable philosophy if:

-they are made of in-situ, local materials

-renewable, recyclable, non-toxic materials

-they require "closed" production technologies built upon circular processes, and
gentle implementation and maintenance techniques also involving human
resources

-they can economize with energy use and air moisture content

-they are able to increase and utilize environmental resources

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 3. ENVIRONMENTALLY-FRIENDLY BUILDING DESIGN- USING SUSTAINABLE MATERIALS

The building design is a process of assembling different materials, whenever you

buy them as a product, grow them, find them on site or dig them. We have many
technologies and possibilities for the best decision of the existing situation, but first of all,
besides the prices and the other management things, we should consider how our way of
choosing impacts our environment. A modern green building has to be a low construction
impact while being energy efficient, long lasing, non toxic and aesthetics. Sometimes the
mass-produced materials seem to be the right choice to serve these goals, but also we
have to take into consideration, how and where they are produced, and how it is after the
building's life cycle. For the environmentally-friendly buildings it is also a demand, that
they should not pollute their surroundings after using. In the vernacular architecture for
instance, it was a common practice, that after the death or moving out of the inhabitants,
the walls (from clay, or other natural materials) just left alone, and it got back slowly to
the nature. That means, its materials can be integrated to the environment.
Further the designing part, we should support the environmentally-friendly
attitude by our choosing as well. During the construction of buildings, the architects
should think holistically about the materials and the whole structure too. Sustainable
design is an approach to design , a holistic
Materials Energy Density
approach looking all elements as a part of a
MJ/kg kg /m3
Concrete (in-situ- 11.1 2400 bigger whole. A building is as strong as its
structure) weakest component, then for instance
Brick (common) 3.0 1700 strong walls and weak foundation add up
Clay bricks 2.5 weak walls. A most important thing about a
Insulation 16.80 24 structure, trumping material choices and
(Rockwool) aesthetics, is that they must work together
Expanded 88.6 15-30 as a unit.
Polystyrene Besides considering the properties the cost
Insulation of the materials are also important for the
Polyurethane 101.5 30
constructor and for the consumer as well by
insulation
choosing. We can find a paradox, that the
Wool insulation 20.9 25
originally cheap materials could be more
Clay tile 6.5 1280
expensive on the market. Although the
Straw bale 0.91 100-110
regional products are the most economic
Rammed earth 0.7 1540
and cheap ones, they are appeared much
Rammed earth (no 0.45 1460
more expensive, than the usual ones,
added cement)
however they have significantly higher
energy content, they are often not so
Chart 1_Embodied energy
healthy or not re-used. Sustainable building

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can be cheaper and sometimes slightly more expensive, it has no or just a low hidden
costs (the sustainable buildings would not have any hidden-costs according to its
definition). For the first time we would chosen just the well-known and so-called modern
products, however, the sell prize does not contain the other costs (energy,
transportation, environmental deterioration and other effects). This is non-renewable
energy which is used for new materials production, extraction, transportation and
manufacturing, is called embodied energy. Depending on the material, it may be very
different. It has become a popular practice to regard the embodied energy as summary of
the cradle-to-gate, which includes all energy (in primary form) until the product leaves the
factory gate, and the cradle-to-site, which includes all of the energy consumed until the
product has reached the building site. The overall view of certain substances embodied
energy can be formed very easily (based on a survey published by the Sustainable Energy
Research Team (SERT) -1.Chart)11.

Another point which we should bear in mind by choosing, the studies of the
historical techniques. Humans have been building strong structures since ancient times.
Rewinding back in time, everyone knew how to build a house, as houses were built from
local materials, adopting parents and grandparent experiences. Many solutions have been
already worked out also for myriad climatic situations and material combinations.
Unfortunately those experiences are wrapped into the most of the past, because it does
not help in developing of modern materials and the developing industry is pushing out
the natural materials from the construction markets with their easy and fast mounting.
But it seems the occurring of damaging processes in the environment (climate change,
green house effect, oil crisis, smog in the developed cities and so on) In the last century
people have used more non-renewable energy resources than over all the thousands of
years since its earliest beginnings. These reasons made people think, take certain
measures and they tend to be more and more enthusiastic about doing something to
protect our Earth.

ROLE OF THE BUILDING STRUCTURES

People spend the most (approximately 70%) of their lifetime in houses, in

buildings (in industrialized areas it is close to 90%). That is why so important to create
viable and comfortable homes for them, which has the building structures and materials
as its skeleton. Most alternatives to modern construction are identified by various
approaches to walls, and it is important to focus on how various approaches fulfill the
actual structural function of walls, which transfer building loads to the foundation, and
1
http://www.greenspec.co.uk/embodied-energy.php

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protect the inner area from the environmental impacts. In the point of structure, basically
we have two types of solid walls, the monolithic and the prefabricated walls. Within them
there is another opportunity to divide the wall types, according to their statical
properties, thus can it be load-bearing without
any skeletal system or not. Many popular
alternatives of modern construction, including
cob, wood, tires and straw bales, can be
configured as monolithic walls, however they
have some other things inside. Monolithic walls
can be designed from natural materials also,
going into the topics further, clay and sand can
be found partially from on-site subsoil, and can
be mixed with other materials to create thick
structural walls. A possible disadvantage of the
monolithic walls is that the same materials
installed to carry loads must be also resist the Figure 3_Architecture
heat flow. The solutions can be the increased wall
width, or using other additional insulations.

4., EARTH AND EARTH TECHNIQUES

Figure 4_Dahkla Oasis, Egypt

HISTORY

Earth and muddy mixtures are used as a building material in a variety of ways for
ancient times: The South Asian inhabitants of Mehrgarh constructed, and lived in mud
brick houses between 7000–3300 BC, they were in use in the Near East during the Pre-
Pottery Neolithic B period, in Minoan Crete there is archaeological evidence that sun-
dried bricks were used in the Neolithic period. The Mesopotamians also used sun-dried
bricks in their city construction. Mud bricks were used to some extent in pre-

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Roman Egypt, increased at the time of Roman influence. Spread of mud construction was
affected by mainly the environmental potentials, that means widespread in places, which
are relatively dry and have mud in abundance. Raw materials found on the plot can be
used as excellent components.

CLIMATE

In dry climates, a common method of choice is to mould a mud mix into blocks,
afterwards they are dried in the sun before being stacked into walls. This is called adobe,
it is used for echos, for instance in Egypt, self-supporting arches of mud bricks were built
2000 years ago. Fried earthen blocks also have been used in construction for thousands of
years. The traditional ways were industrialized, basically we use similar materials and
technology to make the common brick and other types of pressed blocks.
In wetter climates mud mixes are often placed wet, directly by hand, either to
make load-bearing and infill walls. This fact is probably because it is more difficult to
make air-dry bricks there. In european countries, many earthen structures built from the
local soil combined with water and straw, mixed by foot, and placed by hand. This is
called monolithic adobe or cob, and it has many alternatives. Another technique, called
wattle and daub is also a traditional way of earth utilization, from which many of the
Tutor-style timber frame structures were created, that have become the stereotypical
image of Medieval Europe. Rammed earth or pise earth techniques also belong to this
group. The construction of an entire wall begins with a temporary frame work, and the
damp material, made from clay, sand and gravel mixed with small amount of water, is
tamped into a depth of 10 to 25 cm of the formwork.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF SOIL:

The soil consists of layers, basically

made of finely ground rock particles. The
upper layers, the particles are mixed with
organic materials from the decomposition of
the nature (leaves, plants and vegetable
matter). The other layers are used for
construction. These types can be grouped
according to their sizes as stones, gravel, sand,
slit and clay. Each of them has an important
role, and we can divide it into further different
versions by mixing the basic elements. For
constructing the three main type are:

Figure 5_pyramid of soill

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Sand: is usually placed on the top of the soil layer, small pieces of stone (usually quartz),
which are small but each grain, is visible to the eye. Besides gravel it is the largest
particle, which determine aeration and drainage characteristics.

Silt: almost the same as sand except that it is so fine that you cannot see individual grains.
It also exists as soil deposited at the bottom of a natural waters. It does not include clay
minerals, tend to have larger particle sizes than clays

Clay: It is the finest component, it has binder role. Sort of soils that stick when it is wet,
but it becomes very hard and completely dry. (Research about clay properties in the end
of the dissertation- Appendix 1)

5. SYSTEMIZNIG ACCORDING TO THE EXECUTION

To comprehend clearly the different earth technologies, the systemic approach is

inevitable. First of all I would like to present the main types of earth walls by grouping
according to the methods of the execution. (Enclosure at the end, Figure 6 )

Dug out:

The oldest method is the 'dug out' method, when sharp are cut into existing pile of
mud. In most cases dwellings are dug out into soft soils, tuffs, mostly in areas with dry
and hot climate. The dug out can occur in vertical and horizontal directions.

Figure7_Tunisia, Matmata Figure 8_Fairy Chimney

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Cut blocks: (cut block, mud bricks)

In areas, where the quality of the soil enables, it was cut in the shape of blocks and
used like stones and bricks. In areas, where the soil is not cohesive enough, topsoil and
grass were used to create blocks and were stacked upon each other.

Figure 9_mud brick Figure 10_mud brick wall Figure 11_making mud bricks

Formed: (clay-slip straw, light earth)

In this case the clay mix contains a lot of straw or untreated woodchips into a
timber framework and then cladding both faces. It needs skeletal structure and some
framework during the construction, then the wet mix is placed between the temporary
planks. These walls are not load-bearing, it can be used as an infill wall between the
wooden structure, or prefabricated blocks. The method has high thermal insulation
value, thus it combines the good insulation property of the light additives with the
advantages of earth. The construction is fireproof and very durable, because the clay acts
as a natural protection. It needs also waterproof cladding.

Figure31-33_clay-slip straw

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Covered: (green roof)

Soil is currently used to cover roofs in different ways, and nowadays this is a popular
sustainable topic as well. Waterproofing layer and thermal insulation are required, and
the filtering and drainage system should be solved, then extensive or intensive green
roofs can be made depending on the thickness of the earth layer.

Figure 18-20_green roofs

Filled in: (earthbag construction, super adobe)

The basic idea of the earthbag construction is developed from the bunkers made
by the military. Rows of polypropylene woven bags (or tubes) are filled with
organic/natural materials such as hemp, burlap or other natural-fiber bags (like "gunny
sacks")After the foundation is laid, each successive layer will have one or more strands
of barbed wire placed on top. The weight of this earth-filled bag pushes down on the
barbed wire strands, locking the bag in place on the row below.

“Superadobe is an adobe that is stretched from history into the new century. It is
like an umbilical cord connecting the traditional with the future adobe world.” –Nader
Khalili This concept was originally presented by architect Nader Khalili. Tubular roll of
sandbag-type material is used, which is filled with earth. A barbed wire is use to bind the
earth tube together, and it works like an velcro. Afterward the earth tubes are plastered
with stabilised earth plaster.

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Figure 12-14 _superadobe, earthbag construction

Compressed: (rammed earth, compressed earth blocks, composite block)

The rammed earth technique is probably the most popular earth technique next
to adobe brick. Its walls are formed from soil by ramming the soil between two planks
with manual or pneumatic rammers for better strength. A sandy crumbly soil with a clay
content around 15% is the best combination, and it requires high quality of site work.
Layers of earth poured into formwork between planks, at the depth of 8 inches and then
compacted to 5 inches. It is similar to concrete, it is stronger than other earth techniques
construction, because it is compacted in place and contains no mortar joints. More
compaction will give higher strength, but too much can lead to less strength. In many
cases reinforcing steel is be placed into the form and bound to the earth during the
ramming process. Larger stones should be moved out from the form, then the edges are
rammed firstly, then comes the other parts. The walls are often left as they are "off the
form" and the surface gets additional strata pattern from the ramming process.

Compressed method relies on mechanical pressure to compress soil to a density

which allows the bricks to be used as building units. The plant used for the process can
either be a manual lever-operated system or a high-production hydraulic press. Many
brick designs have been used around the world, including interlocking dry-stack shapes,
and even partially hollow forms.

Clay-treated wood-chip blocks are designed to lock together, which allows them to
be stacked without mortar. The chips provide some resistance to heat flow, and
additional insulation can be insert. The great advantage of mechanized, hand pressed
solution is fast technology, quite high dimensional accuracy and materials as well as the
high density and compressive strength. Its disadvantage is the low thermal capacity.

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Figure 21_compressed blocks Figure 22-23_rammed earth (traditional and modern)

Extruded: (extruded adobe)

Similar as the pressed technology, but there is no organic material content. The
blocks are often hollow and are cut to desired shape by special machines. It has the same
water-sensitive than the traditional adobe, but as a thermal mass element is also perfect.
Due to the lack of organic material content it is disputed in name and group.

Figure 26_Extruded bricks Figure 27_Production of extruded bricks

Wattle and daub:

It is an old and common method of building mud structures. It starts with a lattice
of brackets. A mix of earth and straw is then daubed onto this latticework, forced into the
gaps and smoothed over to fill any cracks. There are wood, bamboo and cane frame
structure that support the roof, in between webbing from reed, straw and cane frame
together like a basket. The surface can be left as a rustic finish or rendered for a smoother
finish. Its individual advantage is, that it can be built in Seismic Zones as well. A big
disadvantage, that after a heavy rain, however the mesh of reed or split bamboo remains
intact, over the mud should be plastered on again.

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Figure 28-30_wattle and daub

Poured (monolithic earth walls, cement-lime added earth)

The flowing soil mixed with sand, gravel and stabilized by cement or lime, then
poured into formwork in monolithic condition (like concrete). This method is not used
often, because the mixed soil has high water content, and the wall will include a lot of
shrinkage, and it might be cracked.

Figure 34-36_ poured earth technology

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 6. SYSTEMIZING ACCORDING TO THE STRUCTURAL ROLE

According to the structural properties, types mentioned in the preceding

paragraph are easily put into a logical system. In this section, I attempt this, which aims to
promote the creation of a unified systemization. The earth techniques belong to solid-
wall structure construction method group, but within the further classification is
interpreted at the level of the individual building methods. It is showed in the table
below:

Chart 2_Systemizing according to the structural role

7. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES OF THE EARTH BUILDINGS

The design of earth homes, and their usually thick walls make the atmosphere
comfortable, and the interior temperatures quite stable. In summer time, the walls of the
house are cooled at night, and their thickness and construction allow them to hold that
cold during the next day heating. In winter time, the homes are heated by the sun during
the day and the walls release heat during the night and help keep us warm. The technique
thermal storage works very well. It has several advantages over compared to other
building materials such as:

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  affordable, low-priced
 providing healthy lifestyle
 natural local resources, materials
 very low carbon footprint
- the construction and operation have low energy needs
- the amount of energy consumed is low therefore reducing the
environmental impact
 minimal of waste and flue gas generated during the production
 in-tune with our environment
 most of the "self-employment" investment, thus saving money
 good machinability, formability, potential for personal creativity
 climatic control ("as a high mass material earth evens out temperature
fluctuations by time-delayed releasing of absorbed solar
energy thus providing a stable and comfortable internal
temperature")
 moisture control (has the great ability to absorb and release moisture
from the indoor air thus stabilizing humidity inside rooms
and providing a healthy living environment)
 noise control (has very low sound transmission levels)
 fire resistance (non combustible providing a lower fire risk factor for the
building)
 detoxifying effect (completely breathable and have the ability to absorb toxins
and smells from the indoor air)
 any breakdown cheap and environmentally-friendly
 zero waste - fully recyclable
 life cycle cost (low maintenance and heating costs, energy efficient
buildings will have a greater value)
 traditional technology with many experiences

As disadvantage:

 water sensitivity
 crack-sensitivity, because of the low tension strength
 -shrinkage-, and swelling-sensitivity
 the weather sensitivity of implementation
 the risk of surface's erosion, and various clays diversity
 greater thicknesses

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 8. DEVELOPMENT

WATER SENSITIVITY

To make the earth material better and suitable for the present technical
requirements as well, there are many research topics and questions. Most of them has an
existing solution, and other techniques, which are used in the practical life. One of the
biggest problem of the earth buildings is the water-sensibility, sometimes it is the first
emerging issue, how can these buildings can
survive in a wetter and rainy climate. Protecting
from the rain and humidity there is one method
to avoid them humidity coming into contact with
the wall is to provide it with a roof overhang. A
sufficiently high plinth (30-50cm) can protect
from splashing rain, like in the vernacular
architecture. In many cases clay based claddings
are used, which is not only waterproof, but it has
further have a high degree of fire resistance.
Furthermore according to german experiments,
addition 1% of hot oil dissolved natural resin,
water resistant and hard clay surface can be
obtained. Protecting from humidity from the
ground there are also some possibilities, with
making footing from concrete, brick or stone,
using waterproof layers, metal sheets, or rich
cement mortar in the connections. Figure 37_protecting from rain (own sketch)

LOAD-BEARING CAPACITY

Nowadays the technological development of mud and earth building technologies

have two different, significant directions which have to be solved. From the properties of
the material follows, that it is suitable for load-bearing structures, but due to additive
blending - at the expense of stability -other thermal properties are improved. Thus one
direction is the increasing of strength and load-bearing capacity. Using increased strength
materials for load-bearing elements results that walls, arches or domes can be built.

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Stabilizing by lime:

The effect of the added lime depends on the type of clay and the proportion and
quantity of clay. Added in 1% to the mixture, it has stabilization effect, but added to high
sand content clays, you win low-quality lime mortar. In other cases there is a risk that the
mixture become porous and brittle.

Stabilizing by cement:

The effect is dose-dependent, and also depends on the type and condition of clay
and adobe. According to the researches, at lean clay 5-8%, at fat clay 3% of dose has
positive results. The experience has shown that the optimal dosage of cement between 4-
8%, higher doses have no effect. The cement feeding additional advantage that the
surface can be resistance to weather.

Gypsum:

Clay mixed with 3-5% of gypsum can reduce shrinkage, and it is useful for repairing
clay buildings.

Proteins and other researches:

Water resistance and machinability can be improved by the addition of casein

glues. Experiments are conducted in China, clay mixed by 5-10% clay rice paste [19], while
in Japan, by addition of about 2% vegetable oils will improve the adobe surface against
erosion and wetting.

Brick, reinforced:

Mostly in case of the rammed earth technology the earth layer is combined with
brick (in this case formwork required only outside) or reinforced.

THERMAL CAPACITY

Another direction of the development is increasing the thermal insulation. The

load-bearing clay-structures are very deficient in thermal capacity, but they need plus
insulation as well to meet the rules. For example, 330 mm thick rammed earth with 1540
kg/m3 (conductivity 1.25 W/m.K; specific heat 1260 J/kg.K.)has approximately u=2.4
W/m2K, which is far short of the standards. Several ways are known today, one way is
increasing of organic matter content, with various fibers increase the tensile strength of
the clay, thereby reducing the cracking sensitivity, but it reduces the compressive
strength at the same time. Getting organic matters plant fibers, straw, reed, sedge, pine

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needles, animal hair, hair and jute, and various plastics, polypropylene fibers can be used.
Furthermore there are products, which increases the thermal capacity of the material by
cavities through adobe. However increase in thermal insulation, the strength decreased in
proportion as well, for this reason materials from organic matter can be used only as infill
walls or thermal mass constructions. The earth walls can be considered as a normal brick
wall, it can get additive insulation (from natural materials such as reed or straw) outside,
or in case inside. Adding sustainable insulation to the system, we should clarify the exact
properties of the wall construction. For instance, the clay-straw mix has around λ=1-1.3
W/mK, but it is difficult to define, because it always depends on the density and the
proportion of sand, clay, straw, and other contents. Let us assume, that we have an 600
mm earth wall (with λ=1 W/mK value), then we need 200-250 mm insulation to fulfill the
danish requirements. (U= 0.15W/m2K) The insulation layer can be increased, but in all
case we should pay attention to the moisture.

Figure 37-39_Surfaces

9., MODERN EXAMPLES

When we start to talk about the earth buildings, and utilization of clay and
something related to these topics, everybody imagines village houses in bad condition
with straw roofs or just mud houses from the eastern countries. The ones who have
already been deeper in the sustainable and ecological theories, know, that this materials
is not just ecology, but also economy and can bring a high level architectural value.
Because architecture is not just about making buildings to protect people from the nature
effects, but I think houses should live in close and balanced contact with their nature. In
architectural aspects the highest level of this synthesis is, when the building is completed
with the environment, and even raises it to higher quality. By synthesis we should keep in
mind not just the built and natural environment, they are only two layers of the entire
report. The definition of the environment, the natural, built, social, economic and cultural
environment should be melt in harmony. To present this statement, I am going to write

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about some excellent modern buildings from the past few years. It is made of earth, and
other local materials, and it became not only environmentally-friendly, but aesthetics as
well.

Figure_The Chapel of Reconciliation, Berlin Architect:Peter Sassenroth and Rudolf Reitermann

This chapel from Berlin is a great example of how can be the new ideas taken into an old
architectural guise. This building is a memorial of an old, destroyed church. The rammed
earth walls are made using clay mixed with the 'ground up remains' of the destroyed
church. This is the first public rammed building of Germany from 2000.

Figure_Tidal Resonance Chamber,Tacoma Figure_Merrijig House, JOH Architects

As the first rammed-earth construct in the City of Tacoma , it tries to harmonize with the
rhythms of nature by a Commencement Bay. The house is an experiment between human
perception and nature; it also serves as conduit for the development of sustainable
construction techniques in the modern architecture. Its design mix was developed using
local material and colors were developed around the iron oxide, which makes the building
more interesting.

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 10. HAND MADE SCHOOL IN RUDRAPUR

In my opinion the best example to present this synthesis is:

Hand made school

Place: Rudrapur, Bangladesh
Architects: Anna Heringer, Eike Roswag
Date: 2005

Figure 44_ Hand made school, Rudrapur, Bangladesh

BACKGROUND

To understand the greatness of this building, it is unavoidable to look into the

regional situation. 80 percent of Bangladesh's population lives in great poverty in rural
areas, usually in clay houses without foundations. An average lifetime of a house is 10
years. The village elite are using brick, therefore the social hierarchy is clearly reflected in
the used materials as well. The architects of the project faced this fact, that for the locals
the earth house is not attractive, although it is cheaper to maintain. But finally they
decided to take up the challenge of using local materials to explore a new building
dynamics in the design of earth-wall construction.

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CONSTRUCTION

Figure 45_ Elevations of Hand made school, Rudrapur, Bangladesh

Figure 46_ Plan and section of Hand made school

The school for the children of Rudapur was hand-built by local craftsmen, pupils
and teachers working in collaboration with European volunteers. The building itself has a
very simple and beautiful form, which is inspired by traditional village house character..
Its thick walls are made of reinforced straw and clay mud, and plastered with clay plaster
and painted with a lime-based paint. They mixed earth, water, straw. (low straw contect)
with the help of cows, then made mud-balls and stacked one on top of the other the mud
walls. One layer was approximately 65cm. This method called cob, but improved with
some new development, such as, after one layer the required thick of wall got shaped by
spades. After a drying period (1 week) the next layer could be applied. To protect the
structure from damp, double layer of locally available PE-film were used, and the building
has brick foundation. The roof construction is made from bamboo (local materials as well)
and the roof is covered with non-insulated sheets of plate.
Finally a very pleasant climate, high-level designed interior was created. The building has
organic shaped cavities, which can be created due to the easily tailored properties of the
wall material

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WHY IS IT A GREAT SUMMARY OF SUSTAINABLE ARCHITECTURE?

The School as a representative public building in a modern architectural style using

the old theories and traditional technologies. This school fulfilled its intended role, it has
several thousands of visitors from the surrounding villages and towns. They really needed
this function. This project has more social points, because they built the school in
community, used only environmental technologies, which results in highly specialized
knowledge, but the locals can understand it easily and this method does not require
serious technical equipments, and reasonable proposals under the circumstances. During
the construction, the locals got to know the possibility of building modern things and
from the local materials and by traditional technologies. That knowledge can also be used
in personal construction works, because neither the construction nor the operation use
only natural properties and materials. Training through `learning by doing' give an
opportunity to the local craftsmen to improve their general housing conditions. Along
these things, this building gives a visual education for the locals as well, they can build in
architectural term, high-quality buildings from cheap materials. We can say it is
environmentally-friendly, it is made of natural and non-toxic materials, it has mud walls
and bamboo roofs. It has a close relationship with its environment, it does not use
expensive engineering equipments. The local materials offer benefits from an economic
point of view as well, they strengthen the local economy and create jobs and created a
place to transfer the knowledge.

Environmental

Figure 47-49_ under construction, Bangladesh

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Social

Figure 50-51_ Children in cave, Lesson in Handmade School, Bangladesh

Economy

Figure 52-53 _ locals are building the Handmade School, Bangladesh

11. CONCLUSION

After understanding the theory of sustainability, analyzing the different type of

earth technologies and investigation that earth as a building material really meets with
requirements for construction of sustainable buildings, my conclusions are as follows:
Earth homes are economical to build, and the relationship of earth building with
the environment cannot be compared to any other building material. Earth house is
simply a constructed environment, it is built from local, natural materials during we
protect our planet and create comfortable and healthy living environment. We can say,
earth is a sustainable building material, it has many positive properties, breathable,
renewable, non-toxic, fast-standing and harmless to environment. We have much knowledge
about the traditional building techniques of earth, because since ancient times strong from
earth structures have been built. As a raw material it can be found everywhere, we should
figure out only the way of utilization, the exact contact, and the most suitable technology.

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 For this reason I grouped the different type of earth walls, according to the execution,
and the role in building structure. The ones who would like to use this material, it is
inevitable to get to know the basics of this systemization, because during the design we
should take into consideration not only the execution and method of mixing, but the
structural role of it as well. Material choices and aesthetics must work together as a unit,
which unit meets the needs of the presents without compromising the ability of future
generations to meet their own needs.

However earth buildings have much more benefits, such as climatic control, good
physical properties or low maintenance, they have some disadvantages, too. But there
have already been different solution to solve and improve these less advantageous
properties. The technological development of mud and earth building technologies have
two different, significant directions related to strength and load-bearing capacity and
thermal capacity. Reflecting this, we can say, it is absolutely worth to built from earth and
mud, and keep developing on this field of sustainable architecture.

The strategy is the development of knowledge, information and skills for the
optimal use of earth respecting existing culture but transforming it into a modern way. To
make the earth material better and suitable for the present technical requirements as
well, there are many research topics and questions yet. Most of them has an existing
solution, and other techniques, which are used in the practical life. It became clear that
people slowly turning back to nature, researching these technologies and it seems like very
soon even that people who wants to have very modern house can also have modern
construction with earth.

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 13. LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1 Theory of sustainability
http://www.riskmanagementmonitor.com/wp-content/uploads/2010/06/sustainability.jpg
Figure 2 Sustainability (own sketch)
Figure 3 Architecture
http://www.kozep.bme.hu/?l=tantargy_det&code=5
Figure 4 Dahkla Oasis, Egypt
http://www.panoramio.com/photo/55659857
Figure 5 Pyramid of Soil
http://www.soilsensor.com/soiltypes.aspx
Figure 6 System of execution
http://www.archinomy.com/case-studies/712/mud-architecture-construction-details-and-
techniques
Figure 7 Tunisia, Matmata
http://chiara-perfetti.blogspot.dk/2011/04/matmata-tunisia.html
Figure 8 Fairy Chimney Hotel in Göreme ll
http://versatilearchitect.com/back-to-earth-the-world%C2%B4s-oldest-building-material/
Figure 9 Cutting the mud bricks
http://www.melinab.com/2010/04/mud-wall-with-touch-of-style.html
Figure 10 Uruguay, Montevideo - Sod wall
http://www.earth-auroville.com/cut_blocks_en.php
Figure 11 India, Orissa, Near Narangarh
http://www.earth-auroville.com/cut_blocks_en.php
Figure 12-14 Superadobe-eartbag construction
http://calearth.org/building-designs/what-is-superadobe.html
Figure 15 Southern Yemen, Shibam
http://www.123rf.com/photo_9305305_panorama-of-shibam-hadhramaut-province-yemen.html
Figure 16 Making of cob
http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3049/2569635806_b4f6768e48.jpg
Figure 17 Cob building
http://www.small-scale.net/yearofmud/2008/08/31/the-cob-walls-are-complete/
Figure 18 Green roof
http://small-scale.net/scrap/gobcob-thumb.jpg
Figure 19 Green roof
http://www.aran-isles.com/assets_c/2009/07/Norway_green1.php
Figure 20 Green roof
http://4.bp.blogspot.com/-zPMjdqkj0-4/T2B1zRvUvfI/AAAAAAAAAHk/_-
aNRt0SZZo/s1600/greenroof2a.jpg
Figure 21 Compressed blocks
http://tscglobal.wordpress.com/2010/12/08/making-compressed-earth-blocks/sony-dsc-6/
Figure 22 Traditional rammed earth, Vietnam
http://www.adriftion.com/p/natural-building-materials.html
Figure 23 Modern earth rammed technique, Israel
http://rammedearth.blogspot.dk/2007_10_01_archive.html

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Figure 24 Making adobe
http://www.earth-auroville.com/adobe_moulding_en.php
Figure 25 Adobe construction
http://www.solidearth.co.nz/earth-building-construction-adobe.php
Figure 26 Extruded bricks
http://www.earth-auroville.com/extruded_earth_en.php
Figure 27 Production of extruded bricks
http://www.earth-auroville.com/extruded_earth_en.php
Figure 28 Sketch of wattle and daub
http://www.archinomy.com/case-studies/712/mud-architecture-construction-details-and-
techniques
Figure 29 Wattle and daub
http://fransramblings.blogs.com/photos/sca/wattle_and_daub_house_construction.html
Figure 30 Pattern of wattle and daub
http://www.superstock.co.uk/stock-photos-images/4187-4637
Figure 31 Clay-slip straw construction
http://www.paleotechnics.com/cottagefloorandwalls.html
Figure 32 Wall made of clay-slip straw
http://www.paleotechnics.com/cottagefloorandwalls.html
Figure 33 Clay-slip straw
http://www.earth-auroville.com/formed_earth_en.php
Figure 34 Poured technology
http://www.earth-auroville.com/poured_earth_en.php
Figure 35-36 Poured earth under construction
http://www.projectroom.com/craig/diary_poredearth.html
Figure 37 Surface of the straw-clay
http://www.earth-auroville.com/views_of_earthen_walls_en.php
Figure 38 Surface of Stabilised rammed earth with a rough finish
http://www.earth-auroville.com/views_of_earthen_walls_en.php
Figure 39 Surface of adobe
http://www.earth-auroville.com/views_of_earthen_walls_en.php
Figure 40 The Chapel of Reconciliation,
http://www.eartharchitecture.org/index.php?/archives/609-The-Chapel-of-Reconciliation.html
Figure 41 Interior of The Chapel of Reconciliation
http://www.flickr.com/photos/42311564@N00/4691419710/
Figure 42 Tidal Resonance Chamber,Tacoma
http://www.treehugger.com/sustainable-product-design/rammed-earth-tidal-resonance-
chamber-by-robert-horner.html
Figure 43-53 Pictures of Handmade School, Rudrapur,Bangladesh
http://www.akdn.org/architecture/pdf/3392_ban.pdf

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 13. LIST OF RESOURCES
Books:

Clarke Snell Tim Callahan: Building Green, a complete how-to guide to alternative
building methods, earth, plaster, straw bale, cordwood, cob, living roofs- 1st edition,2004.

XXXIV IAHS World Congress: Sustainable housing design-Luciano Editore- Napoli, 2006

Gyulai Iván: Fenntartható fejlődés. /Sustainable development/ -Ökológiai Intézet a

fenntartható fejlődésért Alapítvány-Miskolc, 2000.

Erzsébet Lányi: Environmentally conscious built environment: principles and architectural

means of model change- PhD Thesis Booklet- 2010

Websites:

http://www.archinomy.com/case-studies/712/mud-architecture-construction-details-and-
techniques

http://www.earth-auroville.com/earth_dug_out_en.php

http://www.warren.co.uk/pdf/SIG_Insulations_Sustainable_Materials_Guide_08.pdf

http://www.kth.se/en/om/policies/hallbar-1.78109

http://www.ecoceylon.com/index.php/building-with-eco-bricks

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Soil_

http://www.soilsensor.com/soiltypes.aspx

http://calearth.org/building-designs/what-is-superadobe.html

http://earthstructures.com.au/rammed-earth-construction/rammed-earth-house/

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rammed_earth

http://www.earth-auroville.com

http://naturalhomes.org/amazonails.htm

http://rammedearthworks.com/page/Blog

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http://rammedearth.blogspot.dk/2007_10_01_archive.html

http://www.world-housing.net/wp-content/uploads/2011/06/Adobe_Blondet.pdf

http://www.construdobe.com/

http://www.earth-auroville.com/world_techniques_introduction_en.php

http://www.slideshare.net/bhavivador/thesis-on-earth-architecture#btnNext

http://www.eartharchitecture.org/index.php?/archives/609-The-Chapel-of-Reconciliation.html

http://inhabitat.com/stabilized-insulated-rammed-earth-sire-walls-last-a-lifetime-without-
maintenance/

http://www.epszerk.bme.hu/index.php?id=C0108

http://www.earthdwell.com/

http://www.archdaily.com/78899/tidal-resonance-chamber-robert-horner/

http://www.rammedearthconstructions.com.au/index.php?mp_id=8

http://www.earthtecbuilders.com.au/FAQ.htm

http://www.moma.org/interactives/exhibitions/2010/smallscalebigchange/projects/meti_handm
ade_school

http://www.anna-heringer.com/index.php?id=31

http://php52.epiteszforum.hu/node/15548

http://www.archdaily.com/62621/tara-house-studio-mumbai/

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 APPENDIX

PROPERTIES OF CLAY

The material of clay is created by the kinetic and potential solar radiation of the
atmosphere and the water's high solubility in the upper layers of the Earth's crust. This is
associated with permanent physical and chemical changes, which changes in the
inorganic materials are always variable disperse systems, through the decay of layers of
the surface of melts formed minerals. This gives rise to clay minerals. Clay minerals occur:
crystalline solution, weathering of rocks, dialysis, or rocks by hydrothermal alteration. The
formation of the essential physical and chemical factors are hot water, cold water,
inorganic surface weathering, soil effects on the biosphere, continental lakes, seas, and
impacts of oceans. The clay mineral composition:

~ 75-80% O, Si, and Al

~ 16% of Fe, Ca, Na, K and Mg
~ 5% limestone, marly-limestone, marly-clay

The clay crystals in their natural state has a strong hydrophobic coagulation tendency, but
their structure forms a disperse system by an extended underwater storage, and thus the
clay becomes plastic. Clay is usable in different ways for construction, despite of many
advantages, buildings from clay has also some disadvantages. To improve the properties
it, and eliminate the disadvantages, various binders and additives can be mixed with it.
Different goals can be achieved by adding various additives, such as: lime, cement,
gypsum, casein and other milk proteins, resins. Then the goals of improvement:

 to increase water-resistance
 to increase strength
 swelling and shrinkage-reducing
 to increase plasticity without water
 increasing resistance to erosion and weather

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 PICTURES-DARWINGS

Figure 6_ System of execution

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