Semiconductors and Band Theory

1. What is a Semiconductor?

A semiconductor is a material that has electrical conductivity between that of a conductor (like
metals) and an insulator (like rubber or glass). This means semiconductors are not as
conductive as metals but can conduct electricity under certain conditions. Examples of
semiconductors include silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), and gallium arsenide (GaAs).

The key characteristic of semiconductors is that their conductivity can be controlled by adding
impurities (a process known as doping), by applying electric fields, or by changing temperature.

2. Atomic Structure of Semiconductors

Semiconductors, like silicon, have a crystalline structure where each atom is bonded to four
neighboring atoms in a tetrahedral arrangement. In this arrangement, each silicon atom has four
valence electrons, one in each of its outermost orbitals, which are shared with neighboring
atoms.

At low temperatures, the valence electrons in semiconductors are bound to their atoms and do
not contribute to electrical conductivity. However, at higher temperatures or with doping, some
electrons gain enough energy to break free and contribute to conductivity.

3. Band Theory

Band theory explains the electrical properties of materials by considering the allowed energy
levels for electrons. In a solid, atoms are arranged in a periodic lattice, and the energy levels of
electrons in these atoms overlap and spread out, forming energy bands.

Key Concepts in Band Theory:

● Valence Band: This is the highest energy band that is completely filled with electrons.
Electrons in the valence band are involved in chemical bonding and cannot freely move
to conduct electricity unless excited.
● Conduction Band: This is the next higher energy band above the valence band. It is
typically empty at low temperatures, and electrons must be excited from the valence
band to the conduction band for electrical conduction to occur.
● Band Gap (Eg): The energy gap between the valence band and the conduction band
is called the band gap. In conductors, the conduction band overlaps with the valence
band, allowing electrons to flow freely. In insulators, the band gap is very large,
preventing electrons from moving to the conduction band. In semiconductors, the band
gap is moderate, allowing electrons to jump from the valence band to the conduction
band under certain conditions (e.g., heat or doping).
Energy Band Diagram:

● Conductor: In a conductor, the valence and conduction bands overlap, allowing

electrons to move freely.
● Insulator: In an insulator, the band gap is large, and electrons in the valence band
cannot reach the conduction band.
● Semiconductor: In a semiconductor, the band gap is small enough that at higher
temperatures or with doping, electrons can move from the valence band to the
conduction band.

4. Electrical Conductivity in Semiconductors

At absolute zero (0 K), all the electrons in a semiconductor are in the valence band, and the
material behaves as an insulator. However, when the temperature increases, some electrons in
the valence band gain enough energy to cross the band gap and move into the conduction
band, creating free electrons. These free electrons can now conduct electricity.

Additionally, the absence of an electron in the valence band leaves behind a hole, which
behaves like a positively charged particle. The movement of electrons and holes allows
electrical conduction in semiconductors.

5. Doping of Semiconductors

Doping is the process of adding small amounts of impurities to a semiconductor to alter its
electrical properties. There are two types of doping:

● n-type doping: This involves adding an element with more valence electrons than the
semiconductor (e.g., adding phosphorus to silicon). This creates extra electrons in the
conduction band, increasing conductivity. These extra electrons are the majority
carriers in n-type semiconductors.

● p-type doping: This involves adding an element with fewer valence electrons (e.g.,
adding boron to silicon). This creates "holes" in the valence band, which act as positive
charge carriers. These holes are the majority carriers in p-type semiconductors.

6. The P-N Junction

When p-type and n-type semiconductors are brought together, a p-n junction is formed. This
junction has interesting electrical properties that form the basis of many electronic devices like
diodes and transistors. At the junction:

● Electrons from the n-type region diffuse into the p-type region, where they fill holes,
creating a depletion region that is void of charge carriers.
 ● This forms a built-in electric field that prevents further diffusion of charge carriers and
creates a barrier potential.

When an external voltage is applied across a p-n junction, it can either allow or block the flow of
current, depending on the direction of the voltage, leading to rectification (used in diodes).

7. Summary of Key Points:

● Semiconductors have electrical properties between conductors and insulators.

● The band gap between the valence and conduction bands controls the electrical
conductivity.
● Doping changes the conductivity by introducing extra electrons (n-type) or holes
(p-type).
● A p-n junction is crucial for many semiconductor devices, allowing control of current
flow.

Applications of Semiconductors

● Diodes: Control the direction of current flow.

● Transistors: Amplify and switch electrical signals.
● Solar Cells: Convert sunlight into electricity.

Explain diodes : Diode is the P-N junction which allows current to flow in
only one direction .

If the P side of the junction is connected to the positive terminal of the

battery and the N side of the junction is connected to the negative terminal
of the battery then size of the potential barrier decreases allowing the flow
of the current through the junction .This is known as forward biasing.

If the P side of the junction is connected to the negative terminal of the

battery and the N side of the junction is connected to the positive terminal
of the battery then size of the potential barrier increases restricting the flow
of the current through the junction .This is known as reverse biasing.

Explain Transistors :
SUPERCONDUCTOR : Superconductors are the materials that
conduct electricity with zero temperature when cooled below
certain critical temperature.

Magnetic induction : When a bar magnet is taken close to a metal

coil there is production of emf in the coil due to changing
magnetic flux . that current induced is known as the eddy current .

Features:
➔ Zero electrical resistance
➔ Meissner effect : when superconductor is cooled below its
critical temperature, then it expels the magnetic field from
itself in the presence of exterior magnetic field

Theory behind superconductivity : BCS theory

Fermions : Having ½ spin(follow pauli exclusion principle) , can’t

exist in same energy state . Ex: Electrons,protons
Bosons: Having spin 0 and 1 ( don’t follow pauli exclusion
principle ) example : cooper pair of electron while in
superconductive state occupies the lower and same energy level .

● The lattice distortion acts as a mediator between the two

electrons, allowing them to overcome their natural repulsion.
● The binding energy of a Cooper pair is small, but at low
temperatures (below the critical temperature), this interaction
is enough to form stable pairs.
3. Quantum Mechanics of Cooper Pairs:

● Opposite Spins and Momentum:

○ The electrons in a Cooper pair have opposite spins and
momenta (their velocities are equal in magnitude but
opposite in direction). This makes the pair as a whole
act like a single particle with zero net momentum.
● Collective Quantum State:
○ All Cooper pairs in a superconductor form a coherent
quantum state, meaning they behave as a single
entity. This is why they flow without scattering, leading
to zero electrical resistance.

Superconductivity happens because electrons (fermions) pair up

to form "Cooper pairs," which behave like bosons and can flow
without resistance.

Application : 1) MRI magnetic resonance imaging

2) Quantum computing
3) Magnetic trains
4) power transmission

LASERS : Light amplification by stimulated emission of radiations

Lasers
➔ Firstly the laser material got the energy from the electricity or
light beams to jump to higher energy state but when they
 come to lower energy orbital they release energy in the form
of photons.
➔ One photon triggered another excited particle leading to a
series of photon release chains. Which was amplified by the
mirrors attached inside the laser which reflects them back
and forth.
➔ Creating a single high intensity,focussed,monochromatic and
coherent beam of light .
Application :
★ Medical ( vision correction,dental treatment )
★ Personal care ( laser hair removal as well as skin laser
treatment )
★ Shopping ( barcodes)
★ Industry( welding, cutting )
★ Entertainment ( DVD ,
★ Communication ( optical fibers: )
★ Education ( laser pointers )
LED ( light emitting diode )

An LED is a semiconductor device that emits light when

an electric current flows through it. It is widely used
because it is energy-efficient, long-lasting, and
versatile.

How Does an LED Work?

1. Semiconductor Material:
○ An LED is made of a material called a
semiconductor, which can control how
electricity flows through it.
○ The semiconductor has two layers:
■ P-type layer: Has "holes" (spaces that can
accept electrons).
■ N-type layer: Has extra electrons.
2. P-N Junction:
○ The point where the p-type and n-type layers
meet is called the p-n junction.
○ When electricity is applied:
■ Electrons move from the n-type layer to
the p-type layer.
■ When an electron combines with a hole, it
releases energy as light.
 3. Electroluminescence:
○ This process of releasing light when electricity
flows is called electroluminescence.

Why Are LEDs Efficient?

● Traditional bulbs waste energy by producing heat.

LEDs, on the other hand, convert most of the
energy into light, producing very little heat.
● This makes them energy-efficient and
cost-effective in the long run.