Motion in One Dimension

Chapter 2 Kinematics In One Dimension
My purpose is to set forth a very new science dealing with a very ancient
subject. There is, in nature, perhaps nothing older than motion, concerning
which the books written by Philosophers are neither few nor small;
nevertheless I have discovered by experiment some properties of it which are
worth knowing and which have not hitherto been either observed or
demonstrated … and what I consider more important, there has been opened
up to this vast and most excellent science, of which my work is merely the
beginning, ways and means by which other minds more acute than mine will
explore its remote corners.
Galileo Galilei
Dialogues Concerning Two New Sciences
Figure 2.1 Galileo Galilei
2.1 Kinematics - The Study of Motion

Kinematics is defined as that branch of mechanics that studies the motion of a
body without regard to the cause of that motion. In our everyday life we constantly
observe objects in motion. For example, an object falls from the table, a car moves
along the highway, or a plane flies through the air. In this process of motion, we
observe that at one time the object is located at one position in space and then at a
later time it has been displaced to some new position. Motion thus entails a
movement from one position to another position. Therefore, to describe the motion
of a body logically, we need to start by defining the position of a body. To do this we
need a reference system. Thus, we introduce a coordinate system, as shown in
figure 2.2. The body is located at the point 0 at the time t = 0. The point 0, the
origin of the coordinate system, is the reference position. We measure the
displacement of the moving body from there. After an elapse of time t1 the object
will have moved from 0 and will be found along the x-axis at position 1, a distance
x1 away from 0.
A little later in time, at t = t2, the object will be located at point 2, a distance
x2 away from 0. (As an example, the moving body might be a car on the street. The
Figure 2.2 The position of an object at two different times.
reference point 0 might be a lamp post on the street, while points 1 and 2 might be
telephone poles.) Let us now consider the motion between points 1 and 2.
The average velocity of the body in motion between the points 1 and 2 is
defined as the displacement of the moving body divided by the time it takes for that
displacement. That is,
vavg = displacement (2.1)
time for displacement
where vavg is the notation used for the average velocity. The displacement is the
distance that the body moves in a specified direction. For this description of one-
dimensional motion, the displacement is positive if the distance the body has moved
is in the positive x-direction. Conversely, the displacement is negative if the
distance the body has moved is in the negative x-direction. Hence a positive value of
v implies a velocity in the positive x-direction, while a negative value of v implies a
velocity in the negative x-direction. If the one-dimensional motion is in the y-
direction, the displacement is positive if the distance the body has moved is in the
positive y-direction. Conversely, the displacement is negative if the distance the
body has moved is in the negative y-direction. Also a positive value of v implies a
velocity in the positive y-direction, while a negative value of v implies a velocity in
the negative y-direction. The more general case, the velocity of a moving body in
two dimensions, is treated in chapter 4.
From figure 2.2, we can see that during the time interval t2 − t1, the
displacement or change in position of the body is simply x2 − x1. Therefore, the
average velocity of the body in motion between points 1 and 2 is
vavg = x2 − x1 (2.2)
t2 − t1
Note here that in the example of the car and the telephone poles, t1 is the time on a
clock when the car passes the first telephone pole, position 1, and t2 is the time on
the same clock when the car passes the second telephone pole, position 2.
2-2
A convenient notation to describe this change in position with the change in

time is the delta notation. Delta (the Greek letter ∆) is used as a symbolic way of
writing “change in,” that is,
∆x = (change in x) = x2 − x1 (2.3)
and
∆t = (change in t) = t2 − t1 (2.4)
Using this delta notation we can write the average velocity as
vavg = x2 − x1 = ∆x (2.5)
t2 − t1 ∆t
Example 2.1
Finding the average velocity using the ∆ notation. A car passes telephone pole
number 1, located 20.0 m down the street from the corner lamp post, at a time t1 =
8.00 s. It then passes telephone pole number 2, located 80.0 m from the lamp post,
at a time of t2 = 16.0 s. What was the average velocity of the car between the
positions 1 and 2?
Solution
The average velocity of the car, found from equation 2.5, is
vavg = ∆x = x2 − x1 = 80.0 m − 20.0 m

∆t t2 − t1 16.0 s − 8.00 s
= 60.0 m = 7.5 m/s
8.00 s
(Note that according to the convention that we have adopted, the 7.5 m/s represents
a velocity in the positive x-direction. If the answer were −7.5 m/s the direction of the
velocity would have been in the negative x-direction.)
To go to this interactive example click on this sentence.
For convenience, the reference position 0 that is used to describe the motion
is occasionally moved to position 1, then x1 = 0, and the displacement is denoted by
x, as shown in figure 2.3. The clock is started at this new reference position 1, so t1
= 0 there. We now express the elapsed time for the displacement as t. In this
simplified coordinate system the average velocity is
2-3
(a) (b)
Figure 2.3 The position of an object determined from a new reference system.
vavg = x (2.6)
t
Remember, the average velocity is the same physically in both equations 2.5 and
2.6; the numerator is still the displacement of the moving body, and the
denominator is still the elapsed time for this displacement. Because the reference
point has been changed, the notation appears differently. We use both notations in
the description of motion. The particular notation we use depends on the problem.
Example 2.2
Changing the reference position. A car passes telephone pole number 1 at t = 0 on a

watch. It passes a second telephone pole 60.0 m down the block 8.00 seconds later.
What is the car’s average velocity?
Solution
The average velocity, found from equation 2.6, is
vavg = x = 60.0 m = 7.5 m/s

t 8.00 s
Also note that this is the same problem solved in accept1; only the reference
position for the measurement of the motion has been changed.
Before we leave this section, we should make a distinction between the

average velocity of a body and the average speed of a body. The average speed of a
2-4
body is the distance that a body moves per unit time. The average velocity of a body
is the displacement of a body per unit time. Because the displacement of a body
specifies the distance an object moves in a specified direction, its velocity is also in
that direction. The speed is just the distance traveled divided by the time and does
not specify a direction for the motion. For example, if a girl runs 100 m in the x-
direction and turns around and returns to the starting point in a total time of 90 s,
her average velocity is zero because her displacement is zero. Her average speed, on
the other hand, is the total distance she ran divided by the total time it took, or 200
m/90 s = 2.2 m/s. If she ran 100 m in 45 s in one direction only, let us say the
positive x-direction, her average speed is 100 m/45 s = 2.2 m/s. Her average velocity
is 2.2 m/s in the positive x-direction. Speed is always a positive quantity, whereas
velocity can be either positive or negative depending on whether the motion is in
the positive x-direction or the negative x-direction, respectively.
Section 2.2 shows how the motion of a body can be studied in more detail in
the laboratory.
2.2 Experimental Description of a Moving Body

Following Galileo’s advice that motion should be studied by experiment, let us go
into the laboratory and describe the motion of a moving body on an air track 1. An
air track is a hollow aluminum track. Air is forced into the air track by a blower
and flows out the sides of the track through many small holes. When a glider is
placed on the track, the air escaping from the holes in the track provides a cushion
of air for the glider to move on, thereby substantially reducing the retarding force of
friction on the glider. The setup of an air track in the laboratory is shown in figure
2.4.
Figure 2.4 Setup of an airtrack.
We connect a spark timer, a device that emits electrical pulses at certain

prescribed times, to a wire on the air track. A piece of spark-timer tape is attached
to the air track to act as a permanent record of the position of the moving glider as
a function of time. A spark from the timer jumps across an air gap between the
11For a more detailed description of such an experiment in kinematics on an air track see,
“Experiments in Physics” 2ed by Nolan and Bigliani, Whittier Publishers.
2-5
glider wire and the air track, and in so doing it burns a hole in the timer tape. This
burned hole on the tape, which appears as a dot, is a record of the position of the
glider at that instant of time. Thus, the combination of a glider, an air track, and a
spark timer gives us a record of the position of a moving body at any instant of
time. Let us now look at an experiment with a glider moving at constant velocity
along the air track.
2.3 A Body Moving at Constant Velocity

To study a body moving at constant velocity we place a glider on a level air track
and give it a slight push to initiate its motion along the track. The spark timer is
turned on, leaving a permanent record of this motion on a piece of spark-timer tape.
The distance traveled by the glider as a function of time is recorded on the spark-
timer paper, and appears as in figure 2.5. The spark timer is set to give a spark
every 1/30 of a second. The first dot occurs at the time t = 0, and each succeeding
dot occurs at a time interval of 1/30 of a second later. We label the first dot as dot 0,
the reference position, and then measure the total distance x from the first dot to
each succeeding dot with a meter stick.
Figure 2.5 Spark-timer paper showing constant velocity.
The measured data for the total distance traveled by the glider as a function
of time are plotted in figure 2.6. Note that the plot is a straight line. If you measure
the slope of this line you will observe that it is ∆x/∆t, which is the average velocity
defined in equation 2.5. Since all the points generate a straight line, which has a
constant slope, the velocity of the glider is a constant equal to the slope of this
graph. Whenever a body moves in such a way that it always travels equal distances
in equal times, that body is said to be moving with a constant velocity. This can
also be observed in figure 2.5 by noting that the dots are equally spaced. The SI
unit for velocity is m/s. The units cm/s and km/hr are also used. Note that on a
graph of the displacement x of a moving body versus time t, the slope ∆x/∆t always
represents a velocity. If the slope is positive, the velocity is positive and the
direction of the moving body is toward the right. If the slope is negative, the velocity
is negative and the direction of the moving body is toward the left.
2-6
Figure 2.6 Graph of distance versus time for constant velocity.
Example 2.3
The velocity of a glider on an air track. A glider goes from a position of 20.4 cm at a
time of t = 10/30 s to a position of 103 cm at a time of t = 50/30 s. Find the average
velocity of the glider during this interval.
Solution
The average velocity of the glider, found from equation 2.5, is
vavg = ∆x = x2 − x1
∆t t2 − t1
= 103 cm − 20.4 cm = 82.6 cm
50/30 s − 10/30 s 4/3 s
= 62.0 cm/s
2.4 A Body Moving at Constant Acceleration

If we tilt the air track at one end it effectively becomes a frictionless inclined plane.
We place a glider at the top of the track and then release it from rest. Figure 2.7 is
a picture of the glider in its motion on the inclined air track.
2-7
Figure 2.7 The tilted air track.
The spark timer is turned on, giving a record of the position of the moving
glider as a function of time, as illustrated in figure 2.8. The most important feature
Figure 2.8 Spark-timer tape for accelerated motion.
to immediately note on this record of the motion, is that the dots, representing the
positions of the glider, are no longer equally spaced as they were for motion at
constant speed, but rather become farther and farther apart as the time increases.
The total distance x that the glider moves is again measured as a function of time.
If we plot this measured distance x against the time t, we obtain the graph shown in
figure 2.9.
The first thing to note in this figure is that the graph of x versus t is not a
straight line. However, as you may recall from section 2.3, the slope of the distance
versus time graph, ∆x/∆t, represents the velocity of the moving body. But in figure
2.9 there are many different slopes to this curve because it is continuously changing
with time. Since the slope at any point represents the velocity at that point, we
observe that the velocity of the moving body is changing with time. The change of
velocity with time is defined as the acceleration of the moving body, and the
average acceleration is written as
aavg = ∆v = v2 − v1 (2.7)
∆t t2 − t1
2-8
Figure 2.9 Graph of x versus t for constant acceleration.
Because the velocity is changing continuously, the average velocity for every
time interval can be computed from equation 2.5. Thus, subtracting each value of x
from the next value of x gives us ∆x, the distance the glider moves during one time
interval. The average velocity during that interval can then be computed from vavg =
∆x/∆t. At the beginning of this interval the actual velocity is less than this value
while at the end of the interval it is greater. Later we will see that for constant
acceleration, the velocity at the center of the time interval is equal to the average
velocity for the entire time interval.
If we plot the velocity at the center of the interval against the time, we obtain
the graph in figure 2.10. We can immediately observe that the graph is a straight
Figure 2.10 Graph of v versus t for constant acceleration.
line. The slope of this line, ∆v/∆t, is the experimental acceleration of the glider.
Since this graph is a straight line, the slope is a constant; this implies that the
acceleration is also a constant. Hence, the acceleration of a body moving down a
frictionless inclined plane is a constant. Because in constantly accelerated motion
the average acceleration is the same as the constant acceleration, the subscript avg
2-9
will be deleted from the acceleration a in equation 2.7 and in all the equations
dealing with this type of motion.
Since acceleration is a change in velocity per unit time, the units for
acceleration are velocity divided by the time. In SI units, the acceleration is
m/s
s
For convenience, this is usually written in the equivalent algebraic form as m/s2.
But we must not forget the physical meaning of a change in velocity of so many m/s
every second. Other units used to express acceleration are cm/s2, and (km/hr)/s.
Example 2.4
The acceleration of a glider on an air track. A glider’s velocity on a tilted air track
increases from 3.83 cm/s at the time t = 10/30 s to 42.3 cm/s at a time of t = 70/30 s.
What is the acceleration of the glider?
Solution
The acceleration of the glider, found from equation 2.7, is
a = ∆v = v2 − v1
∆t t2 − t1
= 42.3 cm/s − 3.83 cm/s = 38.5 cm/s
70/30 s − 10/30 s 6/3 s
= 19.2 cm/s 2
Before leaving this section we should note that if the acceleration is a

positive quantity, the velocity is increasing with time. If the acceleration is a
negative quantity, the velocity is decreasing with time. When the velocity is
positive, indicating that the body is moving in the positive x-direction, and the
acceleration is positive, the object is speeding up, or accelerating. However, when
the velocity is positive, and the acceleration is negative, the object is slowing down,
or decelerating. On the other hand, if the velocity is negative, indicating that the
body is moving in the negative x-direction, and the acceleration is negative, the
body is speeding up in the negative x-direction. However, when the velocity is
negative and the acceleration is positive, the body is slowing down in the negative
x-direction. If the acceleration lasts long enough, the body will eventually come to a
stop and will then start moving in the positive x-direction. The velocity will then be
positive and the body will be speeding up in the positive x-direction.
2-10
2.5 The Instantaneous Velocity and Instantaneous

Acceleration of a Moving Body
In section 2.4 we observed that the velocity of the glider varies continuously as it
“slides” down the frictionless inclined plane. We also stated that the average
velocity could be computed from vavg = ∆x/∆t. At the beginning of the interval of
motion the actual velocity is less than this value while at the end of the interval it
is greater. If the interval is made smaller and smaller, the average velocity vavg
throughout the interval becomes closer to the actual velocity at the instant the body
is at the center of the time interval. Finding the velocity at a particular instant of
time leads us to the concept of instantaneous velocity. Instantaneous velocity is
defined as the limit of ∆x/∆t as ∆t gets smaller and smaller, eventually approaching
zero. We write this concept mathematically as
v = lim x = dx
t0 t dt (2.8)
Note that this is the same as the definition of the derivative of x with respect to t
defined in your calculus course, a concept that we will use throughout the book. As
in the case of average velocity in one-dimensional motion, if the limit of ∆x/∆t is a
positive quantity, the velocity is toward the right. If the limit of ∆x/∆t is a negative
quantity, the velocity is toward the left.
The concept of instantaneous velocity can be easily understood by performing
the following experiment on an air track 2. First, we tilt the air track to again give
an effectively frictionless inclined plane. Then we place a 20-cm length of metal,
called a flag, at the top of the glider. A photocell gate, which is a device that can be
used to automatically turn a clock on and off, is attached to a clock timer and is
placed on the air track. We then allow the glider to slide down the track. When the
flag of the glider interrupts the light beam to the photocell, the clock is turned on.
When the flag has completely passed through the light beam, the photocell gate
turns off the clock. The clock thus records the time for the 20-cm flag to pass
through the photocell gate. We find the average velocity of the flag as it moves
through the gate from equation 2.5 as v = ∆x/∆t. The 20-cm length of the flag is ∆x,
and ∆t is the time interval, as read from the clock.
We repeat the process for a 15-cm, 10-cm, and a 5-cm flag. For each case we
measure the time ∆t that it takes for the flag to move through the gate. The first
thing that we observe is that the time for the flag to move through the gate, ∆t, gets
smaller for each smaller flag. You might first expect that if ∆t approaches 0, the
ratio of ∆x/∆t should approach infinity. However, since ∆x, the length of the flag, is
also getting smaller, the ratio of ∆x/∆t remains finite. If we plot ∆x/∆t as a function
of ∆t for each flag, we obtain the graph in figure 2.11.
22See Experiment 7 in “Experiments in Physics” by Nolan and Bigliani, Whittier Publishers.
2-11
Figure 2.11 Graph of ∆x/∆t versus ∆t to obtain the instantaneous velocity of the
glider.
Notice that as ∆t approaches 0, (∆t0), the plotted line intersects the ∆x/∆t
axis. At this point, the distance interval ∆x has been reduced from 20 cm to
effectively 0 cm. The value of ∆t has become progressively smaller so this point
represents the limiting value of ∆x/∆t as ∆t approaches 0. But this limit is the
definition of the instantaneous velocity. Hence, the point where the line intersects
the ∆x/∆t axis gives the value of the velocity of the glider at the instant of time that
the glider is located at the position of the photocell gate. This limiting process
allows us to describe the motion of a moving body in terms of the velocity of the
body at any instant of time rather than in terms of the body’s average velocity.
Usually we will be more interested in the instantaneous velocity of a moving
body than its average velocity. The speedometer of a moving car is a physical
example of instantaneous velocity. Whether the car’s velocity is constant or
changing with time, the instant that the speedometer is observed, the speedometer
indicates the speed of the car at that particular instant of time. The instantaneous
velocity of the car is that observed value of the speed in the direction that the car is
traveling.
In a similar vein, a body can also have its acceleration changing with time. In
that case the instantaneous acceleration is defined as the limit of ∆v/∆t as ∆t gets
smaller and smaller, eventually approaching zero. We write this concept
mathematically as
a = lim v = dv
t0 t dt (2.9)
Note that this is the same as the definition of the derivative of v with respect to t
defined in your calculus course. We will use this form for the acceleration latter in
this chapter.
2.6 The Kinematic Equations
2-12
Because the previous experiments were based on motion at constant acceleration,

we can only apply the results of those experiments to motion at a constant
acceleration. Let us now compile those results into a set of equations, called the
kinematic equations of linear motion that will describe the motion of a moving
body. For motion at constant acceleration, the average acceleration is equal to the
constant acceleration. Hence, the subscript avg can be deleted from equation 2.7
and that equation now gives the constant acceleration of the moving body as
a = v2 − v1 (2.7)
t2 − t1
Equation 2.7 indicates that at the time t1 the body is moving at the velocity v1,
while at the time t2 the body is moving at the velocity v2. This motion is represented
in figure 2.12(a) for a runner.
(a) (b)
Figure 2.12 Change in reference system.
Let us change the reference system by starting the clock at the time t1 = 0, as
shown in figure 2.12(b). We will now designate the velocity of the moving body at
the time 0 as v0 instead of the v1 in the previous reference system of figure 2.12(a).
Similarly, the time t2 will correspond to any time t and the velocity v2 will be
denoted by v, the velocity at that time t. Thus, the velocity of the moving body will
be v0 when the time is equal to 0, and v when the time is equal to t. This change of
reference system allows us to rewrite equation 2.7 as
a = v − v0 (2.10)
t
2-13
Equation 2.10 is similar to equation 2.7 in that it gives the same definition
for acceleration, namely a change in velocity with time, but in a slightly different
but equivalent notation. Solving equation 2.10 for v gives the first of the very
important kinematic equations, namely,
v = v0 + at (2.11)
Equation 2.11 says that the velocity v of the moving object can be found at any
instant of time t once the acceleration a and the initial velocity v0 of the moving body
are known.
Example 2.5
Using the kinematic equation for the velocity as a function of time. A car passes a
green traffic light while moving at a velocity of 6.00 m/s. It then accelerates at 0.300
m/s2 for 15.0 s. What is the car’s velocity at 15.0 s?
Solution
The velocity, found from equation 2.11, is
v = v0 + at
 m  m
=  6.00  +  0.300 2  (15.0 s )
 s   s 
= 10.5 m/s
The velocity of the car is 10.5 m/s. This means that the car is moving at a speed of
10.5 m/s in the positive x-direction.
In addition to the velocity of the moving body at any time t, we would also
like to know the location of the body at that same time. That is, let us obtain an
equation for the displacement of the moving body as a function of time. Solving
equation 2.6 for the displacement x gives
x = vavgt (2.12)
Hence, the displacement of the moving body is equal to the average velocity of the
body times the time it is in motion. For example, if you are driving your car at an
average velocity of 50 km/hr, and you drive for a period of time of two hours, then
your displacement is
2-14
x = 50 km (2 hr)
hr
= 100 km
You have traveled a total distance of 100 km from where you started.
Equation 2.12 gives us the displacement of the moving body in terms of its
average velocity. The actual velocity during the motion might be greater than or
less than the average value. The average velocity does not tell us anything about
the body’s acceleration. We would like to express the displacement of the body in
terms of its acceleration during a particular time interval, and in terms of its initial
velocity at the beginning of that time interval.
For example, consider a car in motion along a road between the times t = 0
and t = t. At the beginning of the time interval the car has an initial velocity v0,
while at the end of the time interval it has the velocity v, as shown in figure 2.13. If
Figure 2.13 A car moving on a road.
the acceleration of the moving body is constant, then the average velocity
throughout the entire time interval is
vavg = v0 + v
2
This averaging of velocities for bodies moving at constant acceleration is similar to

determining a grade in a course. For example, if you have two test grades in the
course, your course grade, the average of the two test grades, is the sum of the test
grades divided by 2,
Avg. Grade = 100 + 90 = 95
2
If we substitute this value of the average velocity into equation 2.12, the
displacement becomes
 v0 + v 
= x v=avgt  t (2.13)
 2 
2-15
Note that v represents the final value of the velocity at the time t, the end of the
time interval. But there already exists an equation for the value of v at the time t,
namely equation 2.11. Therefore, substituting equation 2.11 into equation 2.13
gives
 v + (v0 + at ) 
x= 0 t
 2 
Simplifying, we get
 2v + at 
x = 0 t
 2 
= 2v0t + 1 at2
2 2
=x v0t + 12 at 2 (2.14)
Equation 2.14, the second of the kinematic equations, represents the

displacement x of the moving body at any instant of time t. In other words, if the
original velocity and the constant acceleration of the moving object are known, then
we can determine the location of the moving object at any time t. Notice that the
first term represents the distance that the moving body would travel if there were
no acceleration and the body just moved at the constant velocity v0 for the time t.
The second term shows how far the body moves because there is an acceleration. If
there were no initial velocity, that is v0 = 0, this is the distance that the body will
move because of the acceleration. In general, however, there is both an initial
velocity and an acceleration, and the total displacement x is the total distance that
the body moves because of the two effects. This rather simple equation contains a
tremendous amount of information.
Example 2.6
Using the kinematic equation for the displacement as a function of time. A car,
initially traveling at 30.0 km/hr, accelerates at the constant rate of 1.50 m/s2. How
far will the car travel in 15.0 s?
Solution
To express the result in the proper units, km/hr is converted to m/s as
km  1 hr  1000 m 
=v0 30.0
=  8.33 m/s
hr  3600 s 
 1 km 
The displacement of the car, found from equation 2.14, is
x = v0t + 1 at2
2
2-16
 m 1 m
=  8.33  (15.0 s ) + 1.50 2  15.0 s2 ( )
 s 2 s 
= 125 m + 169 m
= 294 m
The first term in the answer, 125 m, represents the distance that the car
would travel if there were no acceleration and the car continued to move at the
velocity 8.33 m/s for 15.0 s. But there is an acceleration, and the second term shows
how much farther the car moves because of that acceleration, namely 169 m. The
total displacement of 294 m is the total distance that the car travels because of the
two effects.
As a further example of the kinematics of a moving body, consider the car

moving along a road at an initial velocity of 95 km/hr = 26.4 m/s, as shown in figure
2.14. The driver sees a tree fall into the middle of the road 60.0 m away. The driver
(a)
(b)
Figure 2.14 A tree falls on the road.
2-17
immediately steps on the brakes, and the car starts to decelerate at the constant
rate of a = −5.50 m/s2. (As mentioned previously, in one-dimensional motion a
negative acceleration means that the acceleration is toward the left, in the opposite
direction of the motion. If the velocity is positive, a negative value for the
acceleration means that the body is slowing down or decelerating.) Will the car
come to a stop before hitting the tree?
What we need for the solution of this problem is the actual distance the car
travels before it can come to a stop while decelerating at the rate of 5.50 m/s2.
Before we can find that distance, however, we must know the time it takes for the
car to come to a stop. Then we substitute this stopping time into equation 2.14, and
the equation tells us how far the car will travel before coming to a stop. (Note that
most of the questions that might be asked about the motion of the car can be
answered using the kinematic equations 2.11 and 2.14.)
Equation 2.11 tells us the velocity of the car at any instant of time. But when
the car comes to rest its velocity is zero. Thus, at the time when the car comes to a
stop tstop, the velocity v will be equal to zero. Therefore, equation 2.11 becomes
0 = v0 + atstop
Solving for the time for the car to come to a stop, we have
tstop = − v0 (2.15)
a
the time interval from the moment the brakes are applied until the car comes to a
complete stop. Substituting the values of the initial velocity v0 and the constant
acceleration a into equation 2.15, we have
tstop = − v0 = −26.4 m/s = 4.80 s

a −5.50 m/s2
It will take 4.80 s for the car to come to a stop if nothing gets in its way to change
its rate of deceleration. Note how the units cancel in the equation until the final
unit becomes seconds, that is,
v0 = m/s = 1/s = 1 1 = 1 = s
a m/s2 1/s2 s 1/s2 1/s
Thus, (m/s)/(m/s2), comes out to have the unit seconds, which it must since it
represents the time for the car to come to a stop.
Now that we know the time for the car to come to a stop, we can substitute
that value back into equation 2.14 and find the distance the car will travel in the
4.80 s:
2-18
x = v0t + 1 at2
2
 m 1 m
=  26.4  ( 4.80 s ) +  −5.50 2  4.80 s2 ( )
 s  2 s 
= 127 m − 63.4 m
= 63.6 m
The car will come to a stop in 63.6 m. Since the tree is only 60.0 m in front of the
car, it cannot come to a stop in time and will hit the tree.
In addition to the velocity and position of a moving body at any instant of
time, we sometimes need to know the velocity of the moving body at a particular
displacement x. In the example of the car hitting the tree, we might want to know
the velocity of the car when it hits the tree. That is, what is the velocity of the car
when the displacement x of the car is equal to 60.0 m?
To find the velocity as a function of displacement x, we must eliminate time
from our kinematic equations. To do this, we start with equation 2.13 for the
displacement of the moving body in terms of the average velocity,
 v0 + v 
=x v=
avgt  t (2.13)
 2 
But v is the velocity of the moving body at any time t, given by
v = v0 + at (2.11)
Solving for t gives
t = v − v0
a
Substituting this value into equation 2.13 gives
 v0 + v   v0 + v   v − v0 
=x = t   
 2   2  a 
v +v
=  0  (v − v0 )
 2a 
2ax = v0v + v2 − v0v − v02
= v2 − v02
Solving for v2, we obtain the third kinematic equation,
v2 = v02 + 2ax (2.16)
which is used to determine the velocity v of the moving body at any displacement x.
2-19
Let us now go back to the problem of the car moving down the road, with a
tree lying in the road 60.0 m in front of the car. We already know that the car will
hit the tree, but at what velocity will it be going when it hits the tree? That is, what
is the velocity of the car at the displacement of 60.0 m? Using equation 2.16 with x
= 60.0 m, v0 = 26.4 m/s, and a = −5.50 m/s2, and solving for v gives
v2 = v02 + 2ax
= (26.4 m/s)2 + 2(−5.50 m/s2)(60 m)
= 697 m2/s2 − 660 m2/s2
= 37.0 m2/s2
m  3.60 km/hr 
v = 6.08
s  1 m/s 

and finally,
v = 21.9 km/hr
When the car hits the tree it will be moving at 21.9 km/hr, so the car may
need a new bumper or fender. Equation 2.16 allows us to determine the velocity of
the moving body at any displacement x.
A problem similar to that of the car and the tree involves the maximum
velocity that a car can move and still have adequate time to stop before hitting
something the driver sees on the road in front of the car. Let us again assume that
the car decelerates at the same constant rate as before, a = −5.50 m/s2, and that the
low beam headlights of the car are capable of illuminating a 60.0 m distance of the
road. Using equation 2.16, which gives the velocity of the car as a function of
displacement, let us find the maximum value of v0 such that v is equal to zero when
the car has the displacement x. That is,
v2 = v02 + 2ax
0 = v02 + 2ax
v0= −2ax
( )
= −2 −5.50 m/s2 ( 60.0 m )
= 660 m2 /s2
m  3.60 km/hr 
v = 25.7
s  1 m/s 

= 92.5 km/hr
If the car decelerates at the constant rate of 5.50 m/s2 and the low beam
headlights are only capable of illuminating a distance of 60.0 m, then the maximum
safe velocity of the car at night without hitting something is 92.5 km/hr. For
velocities faster than this, the distance it takes to bring the car to a stop is greater
than the distance the driver can see with low beam headlights. If you see it, you’ll
hit it! Of course these results are based on the assumption that the car decelerates
2-20
at 5.50 m/s2. This number depends on the condition of the brakes and tires and road
conditions, and will be different for each car. To increase the maximum safe velocity
of the car at night without hitting something, your car has high beam “bright”
lights that illuminates a greater distance of the road. But even with these brighter
beams, there is still another maximum safe driving speed, and if you drive faster
than that, if you see it, you’ll hit it
In summary, the three kinematic equations,
x = v0t + 1 at2 (2.14)

2
v = v0 + at (2.11)
and
v2 = v02 + 2ax (2.16)
are used to describe the motion of an object undergoing constant acceleration. The
first equation gives the displacement of the object at any instant of time. The second
equation gives the body’s velocity at any instant of time. The third equation gives the
velocity of the body at any displacement x.
These equations are used for either positive or negative accelerations.
Remember the three kinematic equations hold only for constant acceleration. If the
acceleration varies with time then more advanced techniques must be used to
determine the position and velocity of the moving object and will be discussed in
section 2.10.
2.7 The Freely Falling Body

Another example of the motion of a body in one dimension is the freely falling body.
A freely falling body is defined as a body that is moving freely under the
influence of gravity, where it is assumed that the effect of air resistance is
negligible. The body can have an upward, downward, or even zero initial velocity.
The simplest of the freely falling bodies we discuss is the body dropped in the
vicinity of the surface of the earth. That is, the first case to be considered is the one
with zero initial velocity, v0 = 0. The motion of a body in the vicinity of the surface
of the earth with either an upward or downward initial velocity will be considered
in section 2.9.
In chapter 5 on Newton’s second law of motion, we will see that whenever an
unbalanced force F acts on an object of mass m, it gives that object an acceleration,
a. The gravitational force that the earth exerts on an object causes that object to
have an acceleration. This acceleration is called the acceleration due to gravity
and is denoted by the letter g. Therefore, any time a body is dropped near the
surface of the earth, that body, ignoring air friction, experiences an acceleration g.
From experiments in the laboratory we know that the value of g near the surface of
the earth is constant and is given by
2-21
g = 9.80 m/s2 = 980 cm/s2
Any body that falls with the acceleration due to gravity, g, is called a freely falling
body.
Originally Aristotle said that a heavier body falls faster than a lighter body
and on his authority this statement was accepted as truth for 1800 years. It was not
disproved until the end of the sixteenth century when Simon Stevin (Stevinus) of
Bruges (1548-1620) dropped balls of very different weights and found that they all
fell at the same rate. That is, the balls were all dropped from the same height at the
same time and all landed at the ground simultaneously. The argument still
persisted that a ball certainly drops faster than a feather, but Galileo Galilei (1564-
1642) explained the difference in the motion by saying that it is the air’s resistance
that slows up the feather. If the air were not present, the ball and the feather would
accelerate at the same rate.
A standard demonstration of the rate of fall is the penny and the feather
demonstration. A long tube containing a penny and a feather is used, as shown in
figure 2.15. If we turn the tube upside down, first we observe that the penny falls to
Figure 2.15 Free-fall of the penny and the feather.
the bottom of the tube before the feather. Then we connect the tube to a vacuum
pump and evacuate most of the air from the tube. Again we turn the tube upside
down, and now the penny and feather do indeed fall at the same rate and reach the
bottom of the tube at the same time. Thus, it is the air friction that causes the
feather to fall at the slower rate.
Another demonstration of a freely falling body, performed by the Apollo
astronauts on the surface of the moon, was seen by millions of people on television.
One of the astronauts dropped a feather and a hammer simultaneously and
millions saw them fall at the same rate, figure 2.16. Remember, there is no
atmosphere on the moon.
Therefore, neglecting air friction, all freely falling bodies accelerate
downward at the same rate regardless of their mass. Recall that the acceleration of
2-22
Figure 2.16 Astronaut David R. Scott holds a geological hammer in his right hand
and a feather in his left. The hammer and feather dropped to the lunar surface at
the same instant.
a body was defined as the change in its velocity with respect to time, that is,
a = ∆v (2.7)
∆t
Hence, a body that undergoes an acceleration due to gravity of 9.80 m/s2, has its
velocity changing by 9.80 m/s every second. If we neglect the effects of air friction,
every body near the surface of the earth accelerates downward at that rate, whether
the body is very large or very small. For all of the problems considered in this
chapter, we neglect the effects of air resistance. The effect of air resistance on
motion will be treated in chapter 6.
Since the acceleration due to gravity is constant near the surface of the earth,
we can determine the position and velocity of the freely falling body by using the
kinematic equations 2.11, 2.14, and 2.16. However, because the motion is vertical,
we designate the displacement by y in the kinematic equations:
v = v0 + at (2.11)
y = v0t + 1 at2 (2.14)
2
v2 = v02 + 2ay (2.16)
Since the first case we consider is a body that is dropped, we will set the initial
velocity v0 equal to zero in the kinematic equations. Also the acceleration of the
moving body is now the acceleration due to gravity, therefore we write the
acceleration as
a = −g (2.17)
2-23
The minus sign in equation 2.17 is consistent with our previous convention
for one-dimensional motion. Motion in the direction of the positive axis is
considered positive, while motion in the direction of the negative axis is considered
negative. Hence, all quantities in the upward direction (positive y-direction) are
considered positive, whether displacements, velocities, or accelerations. And all
quantities in the downward direction (negative y-direction) are considered negative,
whether displacements, velocities, or accelerations. The minus sign indicates that
the direction of the acceleration is down, toward the center of the earth. This
notation will be very useful later in describing the motion of projectiles. Therefore,
the kinematic equations for a body dropped from rest (v0 = 0) near the surface of the
earth are
y = − 1 gt2 (2.18)
2
v = − gt (2.19)
v2 = −2gy (2.20)
Equation 2.18 gives the height or location of the freely falling body at any time,
equation 2.19 gives its velocity at any time, and equation 2.20 gives the velocity of
the freely falling body at any height y. This sign convention gives a negative value
for the displacement y, which means that the zero position of the body is the
position from which the body is dropped, and the body’s location at any time t will
always be below that point. The minus sign on the velocity indicates that the
direction of the velocity is downward.
Equations 2.18, 2.19, and 2.20 completely describe the motion of the freely
falling body that is dropped from rest. As an example, let us calculate the distance
fallen and velocity of a freely falling body as a function of time for the first 5 s of its
fall. The results of the computations are written in figure 2.17. At t = 0 the body is
located at y = 0, (top of figure 2.17) and its velocity is zero. We then release the
body. Where is it at t = 1 s? Using equation 2.18, y1 is the displacement of the body
(distance fallen) at the end of 1 s:
y1 = − 1 gt2 = − 1 (9.80 m/s2)(1 s)2 = −4.90 m

2 2
The minus sign indicates that the body is 4.90 m below the starting point. To find
the velocity at the end of 1 s, we use equation 2.19:
v1 = −gt = (−9.80 m/s2)(1 s) = −9.80 m/s
The velocity is 9.80 m/s downward at the end of 1 s. The position and velocity at the
end of 1 s are shown in figure 2.17. For t = 2 s, the displacement and velocity are
y2 = − 1 gt2 = − 1 (9.80 m/s2)(2 s)2 = −19.6 m

2 2
2-24
v2 = −gt = (−9.80 m/s2)(2 s) = −19.6 m/s
t=0 y=0 t=0 v=0

t=1s y1 = − 4.9 m t=1s v1 = − 9.8 m/s
t=2s y2 = − 19.6 m t=2s v2 = − 19.6 m/s
t=3s y3 = − 44.1 m t=3s v3 = − 29.4 m/s
t=4s y4 = − 78.4 m t=4s v4 = − 39.2 m/s
y5 = − 123 m v5 = − 49.0 m/s

t=5s t=5s
Figure 2.17 The distance and velocity for a freely falling body.
At the end of 2 s the body has dropped a total distance downward of 39.2 m and is
moving at a velocity of 19.6 m/s downward. For t = 3 s we obtain
y3 = − 1 gt2 = − 1 (9.80 m/s2)(3 s)2 = −44.1 m

2 2
v3 = −gt = (−9.80 m/s2)(3 s) = −29.4 m/s
At the end of 3 s the body has fallen a distance of 88.2 m and is moving downward
at a velocity of 29.4 m/s.
The distance and velocity for t = 4 s and t = 5 s are found similarly and are
shown in figure 2.17. One of the first things to observe in figure 2.17 is that an
object falls a relatively large distance in only a few seconds of time. Also note that
the object does not fall equal distances in equal times, but rather the distance
interval becomes greater for the same time interval as time increases. This is, of
course, the result of the t2 in equation 2.18 and is a characteristic of accelerated
motion. Also note that the change in the velocity in any 1-s time interval is 9.80
m/s, which is exactly what we meant by saying the acceleration due to gravity is
9.80 m/s2.
We stated previously that the average velocity during a time interval is
exactly equal to the instantaneous value of the velocity at the exact center of that
time interval. We can see that this is the case by inspecting figure 2.17. For
example, if we take the time interval as between t = 3 s and t = 5 s, then the
average velocity between the third and fifth second is
v35avg = v5 + v3 = −49.0 m/s + (−29.4 m/s)

2 2
= −78.4 m/s
2
= −39.2 m/s = v4
2-25
The average velocity between the time interval of 3 and 5 s, v35avg, is exactly equal to
v4, the instantaneous velocity at t equals 4 seconds, which is the exact center of the
3-5 time interval, as we can see in figure 2.17. The figure also shows the
characteristic of an average velocity. At the beginning of the time interval the
actual velocity is less than the average value, while at the end of the time interval
the actual velocity is greater than the average value, but right at the center of the
time interval the actual velocity is equal to the average velocity. Note that the
average velocity occurs at the center of the time interval and not the center of the
space interval.
In summary, we can see the enormous power inherent in the kinematic
equations. An object was dropped from rest and the kinematic equations completely
described the position and velocity of that object at any instant of time. All that
information was contained in those equations.
Example 2.7
Using the kinematic equation for free fall. A student’s book falls out the window of
the physics laboratory. How long does it take to fall to the ground 20.0 m below?
With what velocity does the book hit the ground?
Solution
To find the time for the book to fall to the ground we solve equation 2.18 for
the time t as
2y
t= −
g
2 ( −20.0 m )
= −
9.80 m/s2
= 2.02 s
Notice that the distance of 20.0 m is written as a negative number because the
ground is 20.0 m below the point from which the book starts to fall. That is, the
ground is on the negative y-axis at y = − 20.0 m.
The velocity of the book as it hits the ground is found from equation 2.19 as
v = − gt
= − (9.80 m/s2)(2.02 s)
= − 19.8 m/s
Notice that the answer is negative, indicating that the velocity is in the negative y-
direction.
2-26
2.8 Determination of Your Reaction Time by a Freely

Falling Body
How long a period of time does it take for you to react to something? How can you
measure this reaction time? It would be very difficult to use a clock to measure
reaction time because it will take some reaction time to turn the clock on and off.
However, a freely falling body can be used to measure reaction time. To see how
this is accomplished, have one student hold a vertical meter stick near the top, as
shown in figure 2.18(a). The second student then places his or her hand at the zero
(a) (b)
Figure 2.18 Measurement of reaction time.
of the meter stick (the bottom of the stick) with thumb and forefinger extended. The
thumb and forefinger should be open about 3 to 5 cm. When the first student drops
the meter stick, the second student catches it with the thumb and finger [figure
2.18(b)].
As the meter stick is released, it becomes a freely falling body and hence falls
a distance y in a time t:
y = − 1 gt2
2
2-27
The location of the fingers on the meter stick, where the meter stick was caught,
represents the distance y that the meter stick has fallen. Solving for the time t we
get
2y
t= − (2.21)
g
Since we have measured y, the distance the meter stick has fallen, and we know the
acceleration due to gravity g, we can do the simple calculation in equation 2.21 and
determine your reaction time. (Remember that the value of y placed into equation
2.21 will be a negative number and hence we will take the square root of a positive
quantity since the square root of a negative number is not defined.)
If you practice catching the meter stick, you will be able to catch it in less
time. But eventually you reach a time that, no matter how much you practice, you
cannot make smaller. This time is your minimum reaction time --the time it takes
for your eye to first see the stick drop and then communicate this message to your
brain. Your brain then communicates this information through nerves and muscles
to your fingers and then you catch the stick. Your normal reaction time is most
probably the time that you first caught the stick. A normal reaction time to catch
the meter stick is about 0.2 to 0.3 seconds.
Note that this is not quite the same reaction time it would take to react to a
red light while driving a car, because in that case, part of the communication from
the brain would entail lifting your leg from the accelerator, placing it on the brake
pedal, and then pressing. The brake pedal transmits this force to the brake fluid,
which transmits this force to the brakes, which now initiates the deceleration
process. The motion of more muscles and mass would consequently take a longer
period of time. A normal reaction time in a car is approximately 0.5 s. To obtain a
more accurate value of the stopping distance for a car we also need to include the
distance that the car moves while the driver reacts to the red light.
Example 2.8
Measuring your reaction time. One student holds a vertical meter stick near the top
and then drops it. The second student then catches it after the stick has fallen 23.5
cm. Using the kinematic equation for free fall, determine the reaction time of the
second student.
Solution
Your reaction time is the time it takes you to react to something. For the
falling meterstick, it is the time from the moment you see the meterstick drop, to
the time you catch the meterstick. The falling meterstick is a freely falling body and
to find the time for the meterstick to fall, we solve equation 2.21 for the time t as
2-28
2y
t= −
g
2 ( −0.235 m )
= −
9.80 m/s2
= 0.219 s
2.9 Projectile Motion in One Dimension

A case one step more general than the freely falling body dropped from rest, is the
motion of a body that is thrown up or down with an initial velocity v0 near the
surface of the earth. This type of motion is called projectile motion in one
dimension. Remember, however, that this type of motion still falls into the category
of a freely falling body because the object experiences the acceleration g downward
throughout its motion. The kinematic equations for projectile motion are
y = v0t − 1 gt2 (2.22)

2
v = v0 − gt (2.23)
v2 = v02 − 2gy (2.24)
These three equations completely describe the motion of a projectile in one

dimension. Note that these equations are more general than those for the body
dropped from rest because they contain the initial velocity v0. In fact, if v0 is set
equal to zero these equations reduce to the ones studied for the body dropped from
rest.
In the previous cases of motion, we were concerned only with motion in one
direction. Here there are two possible directions, up and down. According to our
convention the upward direction is positive and the downward direction is negative.
Hence, if the projectile is initially thrown upward, v0 is positive; if the projectile is
initially thrown downward, v0 is negative. Also note that whether the projectile is
thrown up or down, the acceleration due to gravity always points downward. If it
did not, then a ball thrown upward would continue to rise forever and would leave
the earth, a result that is contrary to observation.
Let us now consider the motion of a projectile thrown upward. Figure 2.19
shows its path through space, which is called a trajectory. The projectile goes
straight up, and then straight down. The downward portion of the motion is slightly
displaced from the upward portion to clearly show the two different parts of the
motion. For example, suppo se the projectile is a baseball thrown straight upward with an initial
velocity v0 = 30.0 m/s. We want to determine
2-29
Figure 2.19 Trajectory of a projectile in one dimension.
1. The maximum height of the ball.

2. The time it takes for the ball to rise to the top of its trajectory.
3. The total time that the ball is in the air.
4. The velocity of the ball as it strikes the ground.
5. The position and velocity of the ball at any time t, for example, for t = 4.00 s.
We are asking for a great deal of information, especially considering that the
only data given is the initial position and velocity of the ball. Yet all this
information can be obtained using the three kinematic equations 2.22, 2.23, and
2.24. In fact, any time we try to solve any kinematic problem, the first thing is to
write down the kinematic equations, because somehow, somewhere, the answers
are in those equations. It is just a matter of manipulating them into the right form
to obtain the information we want about the motion of the projectile.
Let us now solve the problem of projectile motion in one dimension.
Find the Maximum Height of the Ball

Equation 2.22 tells us the height of the ball at any instant of time, and we could use
it to find the maximum height if we knew the time for the projectile to rise to the
top of its trajectory. But at this point that time is unknown, (In fact, that is what we
are asking for in question 2.) so we cannot use equation 2.22. Equation 2.24 tells us
the velocity of the moving body at any height y. The velocity of the ball is positive
on the way up, and negative on the way down, so therefore it must have gone
through zero somewhere. In fact, the velocity of the ball is zero when the ball is at
the very top of its trajectory. If it were greater than zero the ball would continue to
rise, if it were less than zero the ball would be on its way down. Therefore, at the
top of the trajectory, the position of maximum height, v = 0, and equation 2.24,
v2 = v02 − 2gy
becomes
0 = v02 − 2gymax
where ymax is the maximum height of the projectile. For any other height y, the
velocity is either positive indicating that the ball is on its way up, or negative
2-30
indicating that it is on the way down. Solving for ymax, the maximum height of the
ball is
2gymax = v02
ymax = v02 (2.25)
2g
Inserting numbers into equation 2.25, we get
ymax = v02
2g
= (30.0 m/s)2
2(9.80 m/s2)
= 45.9 m
The ball will rise to a maximum height of 45.9 m.
Find the Time for the Ball to Rise to the Top of the Trajectory
We have seen that when the projectile is at the top of its trajectory, v = 0. Therefore,
equation 2.23,
v = v0 − gt
becomes
0 = v0 − gtr
where tr is the time for the projectile to rise to the top of its path. Only at this value
of time does the velocity equal zero. At any other time the velocity is either positive
or negative, depending on whether the ball is on its way up or down. Solving for tr
we get
t r = v0 (2.26)
g
the time for the ball to rise to the top of its trajectory. Inserting numbers into
equation 2.26 we obtain
tr = v0 = 30.0 m/s
g 9.80 m/s2
= 3.06 s
It takes 3.06 s for the ball to rise to the top of the trajectory. Notice that the ball has
the acceleration −g at the top of the trajectory even though the velocity is zero at
that instant. That is, in any kind of motion, we can have a nonzero acceleration
even though the velocity is zero. The important thing for an acceleration is the
change in velocity, not the velocity itself. At the top, the change in velocity is not
zero, because the velocity is changing from positive values on the way up, to
negative values on the way down.
The time tr could also have been found using equation 2.22,
2-31
y = v0t − 1 gt2
2
by substituting the maximum height of 45.9 m for y. Even though this also gives the
correct solution, the algebra and arithmetic are slightly more difficult because a
quadratic equation for t would have to be solved. (We will show how the quadratic
equation is used in the solution of projectile motion in chapter 4.)
Find the Total Time that the Object Is in the Air

When t is equal to the total time tt, that the projectile is in the air, y is equal to zero.
That is, during the time from t = 0 to t = tt, the projectile goes from the ground to its
maximum height and then falls back to the ground. Using equation 2.22, the height
of the projectile at any time t,
y = v0t − 1 gt2
2
with t = tt and y = 0, we get
0 = v0tt − 1 gtt2 (2.27)
2
Solving for tt we obtain
2v
tt = o (2.28)
g
the total time that the projectile is in the air. Recall from equation 2.26 that the
time for the ball to rise to the top of its trajectory is tr = v0/g. And the total time,
equation 2.28, is just twice that value. Therefore, the total time that the projectile is
in the air becomes
2v
tt = o = 2tr (2.29)
g
The total time that the projectile is in the air is twice the time it takes the projectile
to rise to the top of its trajectory. Stated in another way, the time for the ball to go
up to the top of the trajectory is equal to the time for the ball to come down to the
ground.
For this particular problem,
tt = 2tr = 2(3.06 s) = 6.12 s
The projectile will be in the air for a total of 6.12 s. Also note that equation 2.27 is
really a quadratic equation with two roots. One of which we can see by inspection is
t = 0, which is just the initial moment that the ball is launched.
2-32
Find the Velocity of the Ball as It Strikes the Ground

There are two ways to find the velocity of the ball at the ground. The simplest is to
use equation 2.24,
v2 = v02 − 2gy
noting that the height is equal to zero (y = 0) when the ball is back on the ground.
Therefore,
vg2 = v02
and
vg = v0 (2.30)
The two roots represent the velocity at the two times that y = 0, namely, when the
ball is first thrown up (t = 0), with an initial velocity +v0, and when the ball lands (t
= tt) with a final velocity of −v0 (the minus sign indicates that the ball is on its way
down).
Another way to find the velocity at the ground is to use equation 2.23,
v = v0 − gt
which represents the velocity of the projectile at any instant of time. If we let t be
the total time that the projectile is in the air (i.e., t = tt), then v = vg, the velocity of
the ball at the ground. Thus,
vg = v0 − gtt (2.31)
But we have already seen that
2v
tt = o (2.28)
g
Substituting equation 2.28 into equation 2.31 gives
vg = v0 − g(2v0)
g
Hence,
vg = −v0
The velocity of the ball as it strikes the ground is equal to the negative of the
original velocity, with which the ball was thrown upward, that is,
vg = −v0 = −30.0 m/s
Find the Position and Velocity of the Ball at t = 4.00 s

The position of the ball at any time t is given by equation 2.22 as
2-33
y = v0t − 1 gt2
2
Substituting in the values for t = 4.00 s gives
y4 = (30.0 m/s)(4.00 s) − 1 (9.80 m/s2)(4.00 s)2

2
= 120 m − 78.4 m
= 41.6 m
At t = 4.00 s the ball is 41.6 m above the ground.

The velocity of the ball at any time is given by equation 2.23 as
v = v0 − gt
For t = 4.00 s, the velocity becomes
v4 = 30.0 m/s − (9.80 m/s2)(4.00 s)

= 30.0 m/s − 39.2 m/s
= −9.2 m/s
At the end of 4 s the velocity of the ball is −9.2 m/s, where the negative sign
indicates that the ball is on its way down. We could have used equation 2.22 for
every value of time and plotted the entire trajectory, as shown in figure 2.20.
There is great beauty and power in these few simple equations, because with
them we can completely predict the motion of the projectile for any time, simply by
knowing its initial position and velocity. This is a characteristic of the field of
physics. First we observe how nature works. Then we make a mathematical model
of nature in terms of certain equations. We manipulate these equations until we
can make a prediction, and this prediction yields information that we usually have
no other way of knowing.
For example, how could you know that the velocity of the ball after 4.00 s
would be −9.2 m/s? In general, there is no way of knowing that. Yet we have
actually captured a small piece of nature in our model and have seen how it works.
2-34
Figure 2.20 Results of projectile motion in one dimension.
Example 2.9
A projectile is fired straight up from the top of a building. A projectile is fired from
the top of a building at an initial velocity of 35.0 m/s upward. The top of the
building is 30.0 m above the ground. The motion is shown in figure 2.21. Find
(a) the maximum height of the projectile, (b) the time for the projectile to reach its
maximum height, (c) the velocity of the projectile as it strikes the ground, and
(d) the total time that the projectile is in the air.
Solution
We will solve this problem using the techniques just developed.
Figure 2.21 A projectile is fired vertically from the top of a building.
a. To find the maximum height of the projectile we again note that at the top of the
trajectory v = 0. Using equation 2.24,
v2 = v02 − 2gy
and setting v = 0 we obtain
0 = v02 − 2gymax
Solving for the maximum height,
ymax = v02 = (35.0 m/s)2
2g 2(9.80 m/s2)
= 62.5 m
The projectile’s maximum height is 62.5 m above the roof of the building, or 92.5 m
above the ground.
b. To find the time for the projectile to reach its maximum height we again note
that at the maximum height v = 0. Substituting v = 0 into equation 2.23, we get
2-35
0 = v0 − gtr
Solving for the time to rise to the top of the trajectory, we get
tr = v0 = 35.0 m/s
g 9.80 m/s2
= 3.57 s
It takes 3.57 s for the ball to rise from the top of the roof to the top of its trajectory.
c. To find the velocity of the projectile when it strikes the ground, we use equation
2.24. When y = −30.0 m the projectile will be on the ground, and its velocity as it
strikes the ground is
v2 = v02 − 2gy
(vg)2 = (35.0 m/s)2 − 2(9.80 m/s2)(− 30.0 m)
= 1225 m2/s2 + 588 m2/s2 = 1813 m2/s2
vg = −42.6 m/s
The projectile hits the ground at a velocity of −42.6 m/s. Note that this value is
greater than the initial velocity v0, because the projectile does not hit the roof on its
way down, but rather hits the ground 30.0 m below the level of the roof. The
acceleration has acted for a longer time, thereby imparting a greater velocity to the
projectile.
d. To find the total time that the projectile is in the air we use equation 2.23,
v = v0 − gt
But when t is equal to the total time that the projectile is in the air, the velocity is
equal to the velocity at the ground (i.e., v = vg). Therefore,
vg = v0 − gtt
Solving for the total time, we get
t t = v0 − vg
g
= 35.0 m/s − (−42.6 m/s)
9.80 m/s2
= (35.0 + 42.6)m/s
9.80 m/s2
= 7.92 s
The total time that the projectile is in the air is 7.92 s. Note that it is not twice the
time for the projectile to rise because the projectile did not return to the level where
it started from, but rather to 30.0 m below that level.
2-36
*2.10 The Calculus and Kinematics

Up to now our analysis of kinematics has been essentially graphical and algebraic.
A more sophisticated approach to the analysis of motion is obtained by using the
calculus. We start with the motion of an accelerated body. The definition of the
acceleration of the moving body is given by
dv
a= (2.32)
dt
and we rewrite it in the following form

d v = adt (2.33)
Let us now integrate equation 2.33
v
(2.34)
t
∫v0
d v = ∫ adt
0
At the beginning of the motion the time is t = 0 and this becomes the lower limit in
the second integral. At this same time the velocity of the moving body is v0, which
becomes the lower limit in the first integral. At the later time t, the upper limit in
the second integral, the velocity of the moving body is v, which becomes the upper
limit in the first integral. Evaluating the integral on the left we obtain
v
∫ d v= v − v0 (2.35)
v0
and equation 2.34 becomes

t
∫ adt
v − v0 = (2.36)
0
In general the acceleration term a in equation 2.36 could vary with time. If it does
we would have to know that functional relation before we can solve equation 2.36.
On the other hand, if the acceleration of the moving body is a constant, then it can
be taken out from under the integral sign to obtain
t t
v − v=
0 ∫ adt= a ∫ dt= at (2.37)
0 0
v − v0 =
at
or
v= v0 + at (2.38)
2-37
Equation 2.38 gives the velocity of the moving body at any instant of time, when the
acceleration of the body is a constant. Notice that this is the same equation we
obtained in equation 2.11.
The velocity at any instant of time was given by equation 2.8 as
dx
v=
dt
Setting equation 2.8 equal to equation 2.38 gives
dx
v= = v0 + at
dt
which becomes
x
d= (v0 + at ) dt
Upon integrating
dx ∫ (v + at ) dt
x t
∫=
x0 0 0
At the time t = 0, the lower limit in the second integral, the displacement of the
moving body is x0, which becomes the lower limit in the first integral. At the time t
= t, the upper limit in the second integral, the displacement of the moving body is x,
which becomes the upper limit in the first integral. Separating the two terms on the
right into two separate integrals we get
x t t
∫ dx
=
x0 ∫0
v0 dt + ∫ atdt
0
Since v0 and a are constant they come out of the integral sign to yield
t t
x − x0 = v0 ∫ dt + a ∫ tdt = v0t + 12 at 2
0 0
or
=x x0 + v0t + 12 at 2 (2.39)
Equation 2.39 gives the displacement x of the moving body at any instant of time for
a body that is undergoing constant acceleration. Equation 2.39 looks like equation
2.14 except for the term x0, which represents the position of the moving body at the
time t = 0. In our derivation of equation 2.14, we assumed that the body was at the
origin of our reference system and hence x0 = 0 in that equation. Equation 2.39 is
more general in that it allows for the moving body to be at some place other than
the origin at t = 0.
In summary equation 2.38 gives the velocity of the moving body at any time t
while equation 2.39 gives the displacement of the moving body at any time t.
2-38
v= v0 + at (2.38)
=x x0 + v0t + at 1
2
2
(2.39)
The term x0 represents the initial coordinates of the body at the time t = 0. In most
of the analysis we did so far we assumed that the moving body was at the origin of
the coordinate system at the time t = 0 and therefore we set x0 = 0 and it was not
found in our kinematic equations. For the case of projectile motion we can let x = y
and a = −g and we then obtain the equations for projectile motion 2.22, 2.23.
It may seem strange to introduce the calculus here at the end of the chapter
to obtain the same equations we obtained algebraically. Why go to all the trouble to
learn calculus if the results are the same as we obtained using algebra? Why not
just use algebra to do physics? The reason becomes evident if you look at equation
2.37. The acceleration term a is under the integral sign. We assumed that a was a
constant and pulled it out from under the integral sign and that allowed us to solve
equation 2.37 to obtain the standard kinematic equations.
But what happens if the acceleration a is not a constant? The kinematic
equations were derived on the assumption that a is equal to a constant; if is not a
constant, those equations no longer represent the physical problem and are now
essentially useless. This is a characteristic of physics that we will see over and over
as we proceed through our study of physics. In deriving an equation certain
assumptions are made. If those assumptions hold in the application of the equation,
then the equation is valid. If the assumptions do not hold, then the equation is no
longer valid.
As an example let us now solve a problem in which the acceleration is not a
constant. A body moves in the x-direction with an acceleration that varies with time
according to the relation
a = A + Bt (2.40)
where A is a constant equal to 4.00 m/s2 and B is another constant equal to 0.300
m/s3. Find the equations for the velocity and displacement of the moving body at
any time t. In particular, if the initial displacement of the moving body is x0 = 0 and
the initial velocity v0 = 2.00 m/s, find the numerical values of the velocity,
displacement, and acceleration at t = 5.00 s. The velocity is found from equation
2.36 as
t
∫ adt
v − v0 = (2.41)
0
Placing the value of the acceleration into equation 2.41 yields
t
v − v0= ∫ ( A + Bt ) dt
0
(2.42)
t t
v − v= ∫ Adt + ∫ Btdt
0 0 0
2-39
Bt 2
v − v0 = At +
2
Solving for v we get the velocity of the moving body at any instant of time as
Bt 2
v = v0 + At + (2.43)
2
The displacement of the moving body is now found from equation 2.43 as
dx Bt 2
=v = v0 + At +
dt 2
 Bt 
2
dx =  v0 + At +  dt
 2 
Upon integrating
x t  Bt 2  t t t Bt 2
∫
xo
dx = ∫0  0
v + At +
2 
=
 dt ∫
0
v0 dt + ∫ Atdt + ∫
0 0 2
dt
At 2 Bt 3
x − x0 = v0 t + +
2 6
2
At Bt 3
=x x0 + v0 t + + (2.44)
2 6
Equation 2.44 gives the displacement of the moving body at any instant of time.
For the specific initial conditions we are given, the velocity at 5.00 s is found
from equation 2.43 to be
v = v0 + At + ½ Bt2
v5 = 2.00 m/s + (4.00 m/s2)(5.00 s) + ½ (0.300 m/s3)(5.00 s)2
v5 = 2.00 m/s + 20.0 m/s + 3.75 m/s
v5 = 25.8 m/s
The displacement of the moving body at 5 s is found from equation 2.44 as
x = x0 + v0t + ½ At2 + 1/6 Bt3

x5 = 0 + (2.00 m/s)(5.00 s) + ½ (4.00 m/s2)(5.00 s)2 + 1/6 (0.300 m/s3)(5.00 s)3
x5 = 10.0 m + 50.0 m + 6.25 m
x5 = 66.3 m
The acceleration of the moving body was given in equation 2.40 as
a = A + Bt
and its value at 5.00 s is
2-40
a5 = 4.00 m/s + (0.300 m/s3)(5.00 s)

a5 = 4.00 m/s2 + 1.50 m/s2
a5 = 5.50 m/s2
The above problem was an example of variable acceleration. Equations 2.43

and 2.44 give the velocity and displacement for the moving body that has the
variable acceleration a = A + Bt. Notice how these equations are very different than
the kinematic equation 2.11 for velocity (v = v0 + at) under constant acceleration,
and the kinematic equation 2.14 for displacement (x = v0t + ½ at2) when the body
was moving at constant velocity. If the body moves with a different acceleration, say
a = A cos t, then equation 2.43 and 2.44 cannot be used. For every different form of
the acceleration a, there will be a different set of equations for the velocity and
displacement. The procedure just shown will have to be followed to obtain the
velocity and displacement of the moving body.
It should now be obvious that the kinematic equations, 2.38 and 2.39, hold
only for motion at constant acceleration. Fortunately, most of the physical problems
that we will encounter in this course will be for motion at constant acceleration and
the standard form of the kinematic equations can be used. For those cases where
the acceleration is variable, the procedure above must be followed.
As a final use of the calculus to solve kinematic problem let us consider the
converse problem. That is, let us assume that we are given the displacement of the
moving body as a function of time and we are asked to determine the velocity and
acceleration of the body. As an example, the displacement of a certain moving body
is given by
x = v0t + At2 + Bt3 (2.45)
where A and B are constants. Find the equation for the velocity and acceleration of
the moving body for any instant of time t. The equation for the velocity is found by
differentiating equation 2.45. That is,
v = dx = d (v0t + At2 + Bt3)

dt dt
v = v0 + 2At + 3Bt2 (2.46)
The equation for the acceleration as a function of time is found by differentiating

equation 2.46 as
a = dv = d (v0 + 2At + 3Bt2)
dt dt
a = 0 + 2A + 6Bt
a = 2A + 6Bt (2.47)
Hence using the calculus will allow us to solve more general and sometimes
more difficult problems.
2-41
Have You Ever Wondered . . . ?

An Essay on the Application of Physics
Kinematics and Traffic Congestion
Have you ever wondered, while sitting in heavy traffic on the expressway, as shown
in figure 1, why there is so much traffic congestion? The local radio station tells you
there are no accidents on the road; the traffic is heavy because of volume. What
does that mean? Why can’t cars move freely on the expressway? Why call it an
expressway, if you have to move so slowly?
Figure 1 Does your highway look like this?
Let us apply some physics to the problem to help understand it. In particular,
we will make a simplified model to help analyze the traffic congestion. In this
model, we assume that the total length of the expressway L is 10,000 ft
(approximately two miles) 3, the length of the car xc is 10 ft, and the speed of the car
v0 is 55 mph. How many cars of this size can safely fit on this expressway if they are
all moving at 55 mph?
First, we need to determine the safe distance required for each car. If the car
is moving at 55 mph (80.7 ft/s), and the car is capable of decelerating at −18.0 ft/s2,
the distance required to stop the car is found from equation 2.16,
v2 = v02 + 2ax
by noting that v = 0 when the car comes to a stop. Solving for the distance xd that
the car moves while decelerating to a stop we get
xd = −v02 = −(80.7 ft/s)2 = 181 ft

2a 2(−18 ft/s2)
33We will depart from our custom of using only SI units here because most students will have a
better feel for this discussion if it is done in the British engineering system of units.
2-42
Before the actual deceleration, the car will move, during the reaction time, a
distance xR given by
xR = v0tR = (80.7 ft/s)(0.500 s) = 40.4 ft
where we assume that it takes the driver 0.500 s to react. The total distance ∆L
needed for each car on the expressway to safely come to rest is equal to the sum of
the distance taken up by the car itself xc, the distance the car moves during the
drivers reaction time xR, and the distance the car moves while it is decelerating xd.
That is
∆L = xc + xR + xd = 10 ft + 40.4 ft + 181 ft = 231 ft
Because it takes a safe distance ∆L for one car to come to rest, N cars will
take a distance of N∆L. The total length of the road L can then hold N cars, each
requiring a distance ∆L to stop, as seen in figure 2. Stated mathematically this is
Figure 2 The number of cars on an expressway.
L = N∆L (H2.1)
Therefore, the number of cars N that can safely fit on this road is
N = L = 10,000 ft = 43 cars
∆L 231 ft
Thus for a road 10,000 ft long, only 43 cars can fit safely on it when each is
moving at 55 mph. If the number of cars on the road doubles, then the safe distance
per car ∆L must be halved because the product of N and ∆L must equal L the total
length of the road, which is a constant. Rewriting equation H2.1 in the form
∆L = L
N
= xc + xR + xd = L
N
xc + v0tR − v02 = L (H2.2)
2a N
2-43
Notice in equation H2.2 that if the number of cars N increases, the only thing that
can change on this fixed length road is the initial velocity v0 of each car. That is, by
increasing the number of cars on the road, the velocity of each car must decrease, in
order for each car to move safely. Equation H2.2 can be written in the quadratic
form
−v02 + v0tR + xc − L = 0
2a N
which can be solved quadratically to yield
2
=v0 atR  ( atR ) + 2a ( x c − L / N ) (H2.3)
Equation H2.3 gives the maximum velocity that N cars can safely travel on a road L
ft long. (Don’t forget that a is a negative number.) Using the same numerical values
of a, tR, xc, and L as above, equation H2.3 is plotted in figure 3 to show the safe
Figure 3 Plot of the velocity of cars (y-axis) as function of the number of cars on the
expressway (x-axis).
velocity (in miles per hour) for cars on an expressway as a function of the number of
cars on that expressway. Notice from the form of the curve that as the number of
cars increases, the safe velocity decreases. As the graph shows, increasing the
number of cars on the road to 80, decreases the safe velocity to 38 mph. A further
increase in the number of cars on the road to 200, decreases the safe velocity to 20
mph.
Hence, when that radio announcer says, “There is no accident on the road,
the heavy traffic comes from volume,” he means that by increasing the number of
cars on the road, the safe velocity of each car must decrease.
You might wonder if there is some optimum number of cars that a road can
handle safely. We can define the capacity C of a road as the number of cars that
pass a particular place per unit time. Stated mathematically, this is
C= N (H2.4)
t
2-44
From the definition of velocity, the time for N cars to pass through a distance L,
when moving at the velocity v0, is
t= L
v0
Substituting this into equation H2.4 gives
C = N = N = v0
t L/v0 L/N
Substituting from equation H2.2 for L/N, the capacity of the road is
C= v0 (H2.5)
xc + v0tR − v02/2a
Using the same values for xc, tR, and a as before, equation H2.5 is plotted in figure
4. The number of cars per hour that the road can hold is on the y-axis, and the
Figure 4 The capacity of the road as a function of the velocity of cars.
speed of the cars in miles per hour is on the x-axis. Notice that at a speed of 60
mph, the road can handle 1200 cars per hour. By decreasing the speed of the cars,
the number of cars per hour that the road can handle increases. As shown in the
figure, if the speed decreases to 40 mph the road can handle about 1600 cars per
hour. Notice that the curve peaks at a speed of about 13 mph, allowing about 2300
cars/hour to flow on the expressway. Thus, according to this model, the optimum
speed to pass the greatest number of cars per hour is only 13 mph. Hence, even
though the road may be called an expressway, if the volume of cars increases
significantly, the cars are not going to travel very rapidly. The solution to the
problem is to build more lanes to handle the increased volume.
It should also be emphasized that this model is based on safe driving
intervals between cars. If an object were to drop from the back of a truck you are
following, you would need the safe distance to stop in time to avoid hitting the
object. On the other hand, if the car in front of you, also traveling at 55 mph, has to
stop, and if both drivers have the same reaction time and both cars decelerate at the
same rate, then both cars will need 231 ft to come to a stop. Hence, when both cars
2-45
come to a stop they will still be separated by the distance of 231 ft. For this reason,
in areas of very heavy traffic, many people do not leave the safe distance between
them and the car in front. Instead, they get closer and closer to the car in front of
them until they are only separated by the reaction distance xR. I call this the
kamikaze model, for obvious reasons. The kamikaze model allows more cars to
travel at a greater velocity than are allowed by the safe stopping distance model.
The velocity of the cars as a function of the number of cars is found by solving
equation H2.2 with the v02 term, which is the term associated with the deceleration
distance xd set equal to zero. The result is shown in figure 5, which compares the
Figure 5 Comparison of traffic with the safe stopping distance model and the
kamikaze model.
safe stopping distance model with the kamikaze model. Notice that many more cars
can now fit on the road. For example, in the safe stopping model, only 40 cars, each
traveling at 60 mph, can fit safely on this road. In the kamikaze model about 185
cars can fit on this road, but certainly not safely. There will be only 44 ft between
each car, and if you have a slower reaction time than that of the car in front of you,
you will almost certainly hit him when he steps on the brakes. This is the reason
why there are so many rear-end collisions on expressways. The number of cars on a
real expressway falls somewhere between the extremes of these two models. Note
that even in the kamikaze model, the velocity of the cars must decrease with
volume.
The capacity of the expressway for the kamikaze model is found by setting the v02
term in equation H2.5 to zero. The result is shown in figure 6. Notice that in the
kamikaze model the capacity increases with velocity, and there is no optimum
speed for the maximum car flow. In practice, the actual capacity of an expressway
lies somewhere between these two extremes.
In conclusion, if your expressway is not much of an expressway, it is time to
petition your legislators to allocate more money for the widening of the expressway,
or maybe it is time to move to a less populated part of the country.
2-46
Figure 6 Comparison of the capacity versus velocity for the safe stopping distance
model and the kamikaze model.
The Language of Physics

Kinematics
The branch of mechanics that describes the motion of a body without regard to the
cause of that motion (p. ).
Average velocity
The average rate at which the displacement vector changes with time. Since a
displacement is a vector, the velocity is also a vector (p. ).
Average speed
The distance that a body moves per unit time. Speed is a scalar quantity (p. ).
Constant velocity
A body moving in one direction in such a way that it always travels equal distances
in equal times (p. ).
Acceleration
The rate at which the velocity of a moving body changes with time (p. ).
Instantaneous velocity
The velocity at a particular instant of time. It is defined as the limit of the ratio of
the change in the displacement of the body to the change in time, as the time
interval approaches zero. The magnitude of the instantaneous velocity is the
instantaneous speed of the moving body (p. ).
2-47
Kinematic equations of linear motion

A set of equations that gives the displacement and velocity of the moving body at
any instant of time, and the velocity of the moving body at any displacement, if the
acceleration of the body is a constant (p. ).
Freely falling body

Any body that is moving under the influence of gravity only. Hence, any body that
is dropped or thrown on the surface of the earth is a freely falling body (p. ).
Acceleration due to gravity

If air friction is ignored, all objects that are dropped near the surface of the earth,
are accelerated toward the center of the earth with an acceleration of 9.80 m/s2 (p. ).
Projectile motion
The motion of a body thrown or fired with an initial velocity v0 in a gravitational
field (p. ).
Trajectory
The path through space followed by a projectile (p. ).
Summary of Important Equations

Average velocity vavg = ∆x = x2 − x1 (2.5)
∆t t2 − t1
Average Acceleration aavg = ∆v = v2 − v1 (2.7)
∆t t2 − t1
∆x dx
Instantaneous velocity = v lim= (2.8)
∆t →0 ∆t dt
∆v dv
Instantaneous Acceleration = a lim= (2.9)
∆t →0 ∆t dt
Velocity at any time for constant acceleration v = v0 + at (2.11)
Displacement at any time for constant acceleration x = v0t + 1 at2 (2.14)

2
Velocity at any displacement v = v0 + 2ax
2 2 (2.16)
t
Velocity of a moving body ∫ adt
v − v0 = (2.36)
0
Displacement of a moving body

t t
x − x=
o ∫0
v0 dt + ∫ atdt
0
2-48
Questions for Chapter 2

1. Discuss the difference between distance and displacement.
2. Discuss the difference between speed and velocity.
3. Discuss the difference between average speed and instantaneous speed.
4. Although speed is the magnitude of the instantaneous velocity, is the
average speed equal to the magnitude of the average velocity?
5. Why can the kinematic equations be used only for motion at constant
acceleration?
6. In dealing with average velocities discuss the statement, “Straight line
motion at 60 km/hr for 1 hr followed by motion in the same direction at 30 km/hr for
2 hr does not give an average of 45 km/hr but rather 40 km/hr.”
7. What effect would air resistance have on the velocity of a body that is
dropped near the surface of the earth?
8. What is the acceleration of a projectile when its instantaneous vertical
velocity is zero at the top of its trajectory?
9. Can an object have zero velocity at the same time that it has an
acceleration? Explain and give some examples.
10. Can the velocity of an object be in a different direction than the
acceleration? Give some examples.
11. A person on a moving train throws a ball straight upward. Describe the
motion as seen by a person on the train and by a person on the station platform.
12. You are in free fall, and you let go of your watch. What is the relative
velocity of the watch with respect to you?
13. What kind of motion is indicated by a graph of displacement versus time,
if the slope of the curve is (a) horizontal, (b) sloping upward to the right, and
(c) sloping downward?
14. What kind of motion is indicated by a graph of velocity versus time, if the
slope of the curve is (a) horizontal, (b) sloping upward at a constant value,
(c) sloping upward at a changing rate, (d) sloping downward at a constant value,
and (e) sloping downward at a changing rate?
Hints for Problem Solving

To be successful in a physics course it is necessary to be able to solve problems. The
following procedure should prove helpful in solving the physics problems assigned.
First, as a preliminary step, read the appropriate topic in the textbook. Do not
attempt to solve the problems before doing this. Look at the appropriate illustrative
problems to see how they are solved. With this background, now read the assigned
problem. Now continue with the following procedure.
1. Draw a small picture showing the details of the problem. This is very
useful so that you do not lose sight of the problem that you are trying to solve.
2-49
2. List all the information that you are given.

3. List all the answers you are expected to find.
4. From the summary of important equations or the text proper, list the
equations that are appropriate to this topic.
5. Pick the equation that relates the variables that you are given.
6. Place a check mark (8) over each variable that is given and a question
mark (?) over each variable that you are looking for.
7. Solve the equation for the unknown variable.
8. When the answer is obtained check to see if the answer is reasonable.
Let us apply this technique to the following example.

A car is traveling at 10.0 m/s when it starts to accelerate at 3.00 m/s2. Find
(a) the velocity and (b) the displacement of the car at the end of 5 s.
1. Draw a picture of the problem.
Figure Picture of automobile
2. Given: v0 = 10.0 m/s

a = 3.00 m/s2
t=5s
3. Find: v = ?
x=?
4. The problem is one in kinematics and the kinematic equations apply. That
is,
(1) x = v0t + 1 at2
2
(2) v = v0 + at
(3) v2 = v02 + 2ax
5. Part a of the problem. To solve for the velocity v, we need an equation

containing v. Equation 1 does not contain a velocity term v, and hence can not be
used to solve for the velocity. Equations 2 and 3, on the other hand, both contain v.
Thus, we can use one or possibly both of these equations to solve for the velocity.
6. Write down the equation and place a check mark over the known terms
and a question mark over the unknown terms:
? 8 88
(2) v = v0 + at
2-50
The only unknown in equation 2 is the velocity v and we can now solve for it.
7. The velocity after 5 s, found from equation 2 is
v = v0 + at
= 10.0 m/s + (3.00 m/s2)(5 s)
= 10.0 m/s + 15.0 m/s
= 25.0 m/s
Notice what would happen if we tried to use equation 3 at this time:

? 8 88?
(3) v2 = v02 + 2ax
We cannot solve for the velocity v from equation 3 because there are two unknowns,
both v and x. However, if we had solved part b of the problem for x first, then we
could have used this equation.
5. Part b of the problem. To solve for the displacement x, we need an equation
containing x. Notice that equation 2 does not contain x, so we cannot use it.
Equations 1 and 3, on the other hand, do contain x, and we can use either to solve
for x.
6. Looking at equation 1, we have
? 88 8 88
(1) x = v0t + 1 at2
2
7. Solving for the only unknown in equation 1, x, we get
x = v0t + 1 at2
2
= (10.0 m/s)(5 s) + 1 (3.00 m/s2)(5 s)2
2
= 50 m + 37.5 m
= 87.5 m
Note that at this point we could also have used equation 3 to determine x,
because we already found the velocity v in part a of the problem.
Problems for Chapter 2

2.1 Kinematics - The Study of Motion
1. A driver travels 500 km in 5 hr and 25 min. What is his average speed in
(a) km/hr, and (b) m/s?
2-51
2. A car travels at 65.0 km/hr for 2 hr and 100 km/hr for 3 hr. What is its
average speed?
3. A man hears the sound of thunder 5 s after he sees the lightning flash. If
the speed of sound in air is 343 m/s, how far away is the lightning? Assume that the
speed of light is so large that the lightning was seen essentially at the same time
that it was created.
4. The earth-moon distance is 3.84  108 m. If it takes 3 days to get to the
moon, what is the average speed?
5. Electronic transmission is broadcast at the speed of light, which is 3.00 
10 m/s. How long would it take for a radio transmission from earth to an astronaut
8
orbiting the planet Mars? Assume that at the time of transmission the distance
from earth to Mars is 7.80  107 km.
6. In the game of baseball, some excellent fast-ball pitchers have managed to
pitch a ball at approximately 160 km/hr. If the pitcher’s mound is 18.5 m from home
plate, how long does it take the ball to get to home plate? If the pitcher then throws
a change-of-pace ball (a slow ball) at 95.0 km/hr, how long will it now take the ball
to get to the plate?
7. A plot of the displacement of a car as a function of time is shown in the
diagram. Find the velocity of the car along the paths (a) O-A, (b) A-B, (c) B-C, and
(d) C-D.
Diagram for problem 7.
8. A plot of the velocity of a car as a function of time is shown in the diagram.

Find the acceleration of the car along the paths (a) O-A, (b) A-B, (c) B-C, and (d) C-
D.
2-52
2.6 The Kinematic Equations

9. A girl who is initially running at 1.00 m/s increases her velocity to 2.50 m/s
in 5.00 s. Find her acceleration.
10. A car is traveling at 95.0 km/hr. The driver steps on the brakes and the
car comes to a stop in 60.0 m. What is the car’s deceleration?
11. A train accelerates from an initial velocity of 25.0 km/hr to a final velocity
of 65.0 km/hr in 8.50 s. Find its acceleration and the distance the train travels
during this time.
12. An airplane travels 450 m at a constant acceleration while taking off. If it
starts from rest, and takes off in 15.0 s, what is its takeoff velocity?
13. A car starts from rest and acquires a velocity of 30.0 km/hr in 10.0 s.
Where is the car located and what is its velocity at 10.0, 15.0, 20.0, and 25.0 s?
14. A jet airplane goes from rest to a velocity of 75.0 m/s in a distance of 725
m. What is the airplane’s average acceleration in m/s2?
15. An electron in a vacuum tube acquires a velocity of 5.3  108 cm/s in a

distance of 0.25 cm. Find the acceleration of the electron.
16. A driver traveling at 100 km/hr tries to stop the car and finds that the
brakes have failed. The emergency brake is then pulled and the car comes to a stop
in 130 m. Find the car’s deceleration.
17. An airplane has a touchdown speed of 140 km/hr and comes to rest in 120
m. What is the airplane’s average deceleration? How long does it take the plane to
stop?
2-53
18. A pitcher gives a baseball a horizontal velocity of 30.0 m/s by moving his
arm through a distance of approximately 2.50 m. What is the average acceleration
of the ball during this throwing process?
19. The speedometer of a car reads 95.0 km/hr when the brakes are applied.
The car comes to rest in 4.55 s. How far does the car travel before coming to rest?
20. A body with unknown initial velocity moves with constant acceleration.
At the end of 8.00 s, it is moving at a velocity of 50.0 m/s and it is 200 m from where
it started. Find the body’s acceleration and its initial velocity.
21. A driver traveling at 30.0 km/hr sees the light turn red at the
intersection. If his reaction time is 0.600 s, and the car can decelerate at 4.50 m/s2,
find the stopping distance of the car. What would the stopping distance be if the car
were moving at 90.0 km/hr?
22. A uniformly accelerating train passes a green light signal at 25.0 km/hr.
It passes a second light 125 m farther down the track, 12.0 s later. What is the
train’s acceleration? What is the train’s velocity at the second light?
23. A car accelerates from 80.0 km/hr to 130 km/hr in 26.9 s. Find its
acceleration and the distance the car travels in this time.
24. A motorcycle starts from rest and accelerates at 4.00 m/s2 for 5.00 s. It
then moves at constant velocity for 25.0 s, and then decelerates at 2.00 m/s2 until it
stops. Find the total distance that the motorcycle has moved.
25. A car starts from rest and accelerates at a constant rate of 3.00 m/s2 until
it is moving at 18.0 m/s. The car then decreases its acceleration to 0.500 m/s2 and
continues moving for an additional distance of 250 m. Find the total time taken.
2.7 The Freely Falling Body

26. A passenger, in abandoning a sinking ship, steps over the side. The deck
is 15.0 m above the water surface. With what velocity does the passenger hit the
water?
27. How long does it take for a stone to fall from a bridge to the water 30.0 m
below? With what velocity does the stone hit the water?
28. An automobile traveling at 95.0 km/hr hits a stone wall. From what
height would the car have to fall to acquire the same velocity?
29. A rock is dropped from the top of a building and hits the ground 8.00 s
later. How high is the building?
30. A stone is dropped from a bridge 30.0 m high. How long will it take for
the stone to hit the water below?
2-54
31. A ball is dropped from a building 50.0 meters high. How long will it take
the ball to hit the ground below?
32. A girl is standing in an elevator that is moving upward at a velocity of
3.75 m/s when she drops her handbag. If she was originally holding the bag at a
height of 1.25 m above the elevator floor, how long will it take the bag to hit the
floor?
2.9 Projectile Motion in One Dimension

33. A ball is thrown vertically upward with an initial velocity of 40.0 m/s.
Find its position and velocity at the end of 2, 4, 6, and 8 s and sketch these positions
and velocities on a piece of graph paper.
34. A projectile is fired vertically upward with an initial velocity of 40.0 m/s.
Find the position and velocity of the projectile at 1, 3, 5, and 7 s.
35. A ball is thrown vertically upward from the top of a building 40.0 m high
with an initial velocity of 25.0 m/s. What is the total time that the ball is in the air?
36. A stone is thrown vertically upward from a bridge 30.0 m high at an
initial velocity of 15.0 m/s. How long will it take for the stone to hit the water
below?
37. A stone is thrown vertically downward from a bridge 30.0 m high at an
initial velocity of −15.0 m/s. How long will it take for the stone to hit the water
below?
38. A rock is thrown vertically downward from a building 40.0 m high at an
initial velocity of −15.0 m/s. (a) What is the rock’s velocity as it strikes the ground?
(b) How long does it take for the rock to hit the ground?
39. A baseball batter fouls a ball vertically upward. The ball is caught right
behind home plate at the same height that it was hit. How long was the baseball in
flight if it rose a distance of 30.0 m? What was the initial velocity of the baseball?
2.12 The Calculus and Kinematics

40. A body moves in the x-direction with an acceleration given by
a = (2.5 m/s3)t + (1.55 m/s3)t2
Find the equations for the velocity and displacement of the moving body at any time
t. The body starts from rest at x0 = 0. Find the numerical values of the velocity,
displacement, and acceleration at t = 5.00 s.
41. A body moves in the x-direction with an acceleration given by
a = A cos 2t
Find the equations for the velocity and displacement of the moving body at any time
t.
2-55
Additional Problems
42. A missile has a velocity of 16,000 km/hr at “burn-out,” which occurs 2 min
after ignition. Find the average acceleration in (a) m/s2, and (b) in terms of g, the
acceleration due to gravity at the surface of the earth.
43. A block slides down a smooth inclined plane that makes an angle of 25.00
with the horizontal. Find the acceleration of the block. If the plane is 10.0 meters
long and the block starts from rest, what is its velocity at the bottom of the plane?
How long does it take for the block to get to the bottom?
44. At the instant that the traffic light turns green, a car starting from rest
with an acceleration of 2.50 m/s2 is passed by a truck moving at a constant velocity
of 60.0 km/hr. (a) How long will it take for the car to overtake the truck? (b) How far
from the starting point will the car overtake the truck? (c) At what velocity will the
car be moving when it overtakes the truck?
45. A boat passes a buoy while moving to the right at a velocity of 8.00 m/s.
The boat has a constant acceleration to the left, and 10.0 s later the boat is found to
be moving at a velocity of −3.00 m/s. Find (a) the acceleration of the boat, (b) the
distance from the buoy when the boat reversed direction, (c) the time for the boat to
return to the buoy, and (d) the velocity of the boat when it returns to the buoy.
46. Two trains are initially at rest on parallel tracks with train one 50.0 m
ahead of train two. Both trains accelerate simultaneously, train 1 at the rate of 2.00
m/s2 and train 2 at the rate of 2.50 m/s2. How long will it take train 2 to overtake
train 1? How far will train 2 travel before it overtakes train 1?
47. Repeat problem 46 but with train 1 initially moving at 5.00 m/s and train
2 initially moving at 7.00 m/s.
48. A policewoman driving at 80.0 km/hr observes a car 50.0 m ahead of her
speeding at 120 km/hr. If the county line is 400 m away from the police car, what
must the acceleration of the police car be in order to catch the speeder before he
leaves the county?
49. Two trains are approaching each other along a straight and level track.
The first train is heading south at 125 km/hr, while the second train is heading
north at 80.0 km/hr. When they are 2.00 km apart, they see each other and start to
decelerate. Train 1 decelerates at 2.00 m/s2, while train 2 decelerates at 1.50 m/s2.
Will the trains be able to stop or will there be a collision?
50. A boy in an elevator, which is descending at the constant velocity of −5.00
m/s, jumps to a height of 0.500 m above the elevator floor. How far will the elevator
descend before the boy returns to the elevator floor?
51. The acceleration due to gravity on the moon is 1.62 m/s2. If an astronaut
on the moon throws a ball straight upward, with an initial velocity of 25.0 m/s, how
high will the ball rise?
52. A helicopter, at an altitude of 300 m, is rising vertically at 20.0 m/s when
a wheel falls off. How high will the wheel go with respect to the ground? How long
will it take for the wheel to hit the ground below? At what velocity will the wheel
hit the ground?
2-56
53. A ball is dropped from the roof of a building 40.0 m high. Simultaneously,
another ball is thrown upward from the ground and collides with the first ball at
half the distance to the roof. What was the initial velocity of the ball that was
thrown upward?
54. A ball is dropped from the top of a 40.0-m high building. At what initial
velocity must a second ball be thrown from the top of the building 2.00 s later, such
that both balls arrive at the ground at the same time?
Interactive Tutorials
55. A train accelerates from an initial velocity of 20.0 m/s to a final velocity of
35.0 m/s in 11.8 s. Find its acceleration and the distance the train travels in this
time.
56. A ball is dropped from a building 50.0 m high. How long will it take the
ball to hit the ground below and with what final velocity?
57. Instantaneous velocity. If the equation for the displacement x of a body is
known, the average velocity throughout an interval can be computed by the formula
vavg = (∆x)/(∆t)
The instantaneous velocity is defined as the limit of the average velocity as ∆t

approaches zero. That is,
∆x
v = lim
∆t →0 ∆t
For an acceleration with a displacement given by x = 0.5 at2, use different values of
∆t to see how the average velocity approaches the instantaneous velocity. Compare
this to the velocity determined by the equation v = at, and determine the percentage
error. Plot the average velocity, (∆x)/(∆t), versus ∆t.
58. Free-fall and generalized one-dimensional projectile motion. A projectile
is fired from a height y0 above the ground with an initial velocity v0 in a vertical
direction. Find (a) the time tr for the projectile to rise to its maximum height, (b) the
2-57
total time tt the ball is in the air, (c) the maximum height ymax of the projectile,
(d) the velocity vg of the projectile as it strikes the ground, and (e) the location and
velocity of the projectile at any time t. (f) Plot a picture of the motion as a function
of time.
To go to these interactive tutorials click on this sentence.
To go to another chapter, return to the table of contents by

clicking on this sentence.
2-58

Motion in One Dimension

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Chapter 2 Kinematics In One Dimension

Figure 2.1 Galileo Galilei

2.1 Kinematics - The Study of Motion

Figure 2.2 The position of an object at two different times.

A convenient notation to describe this change in position with the change in

Using this delta notation we can write the average velocity as

The average velocity of the car, found from equation 2.5, is

vavg = ∆x = x2 − x1 = 80.0 m − 20.0 m

To go to this interactive example click on this sentence.

Changing the reference position. A car passes telephone pole number 1 at t = 0 on a

The average velocity, found from equation 2.6, is

vavg = x = 60.0 m = 7.5 m/s

To go to this interactive example click on this sentence.

Before we leave this section, we should make a distinction between the

2.2 Experimental Description of a Moving Body

Figure 2.4 Setup of an airtrack.

We connect a spark timer, a device that emits electrical pulses at certain

2.3 A Body Moving at Constant Velocity

Figure 2.5 Spark-timer paper showing constant velocity.

Figure 2.6 Graph of distance versus time for constant velocity.

The average velocity of the glider, found from equation 2.5, is

To go to this interactive example click on this sentence.

2.4 A Body Moving at Constant Acceleration

Figure 2.7 The tilted air track.

Figure 2.8 Spark-timer tape for accelerated motion.

Figure 2.9 Graph of x versus t for constant acceleration.

Figure 2.10 Graph of v versus t for constant acceleration.

The acceleration of the glider, found from equation 2.7, is

To go to this interactive example click on this sentence.

Before leaving this section we should note that if the acceleration is a

2.5 The Instantaneous Velocity and Instantaneous

22See Experiment 7 in “Experiments in Physics” by Nolan and Bigliani, Whittier Publishers.

2.6 The Kinematic Equations

Because the previous experiments were based on motion at constant acceleration,

The velocity, found from equation 2.11, is

To go to this interactive example click on this sentence.

Figure 2.13 A car moving on a road.

This averaging of velocities for bodies moving at constant acceleration is similar to

Equation 2.14, the second of the kinematic equations, represents the

To express the result in the proper units, km/hr is converted to m/s as

The displacement of the car, found from equation 2.14, is

As a further example of the kinematics of a moving body, consider the car

tstop = − v0 = −26.4 m/s = 4.80 s

But v is the velocity of the moving body at any time t, given by

Substituting this value into equation 2.13 gives

Solving for v2, we obtain the third kinematic equation,

v2 = v02 + 2ax (2.16)

x = v0t + 1 at2 (2.14)

2.7 The Freely Falling Body

g = 9.80 m/s2 = 980 cm/s2

Figure 2.15 Free-fall of the penny and the feather.

y1 = − 1 gt2 = − 1 (9.80 m/s2)(1 s)2 = −4.90 m

v1 = −gt = (−9.80 m/s2)(1 s) = −9.80 m/s

y2 = − 1 gt2 = − 1 (9.80 m/s2)(2 s)2 = −19.6 m

v2 = −gt = (−9.80 m/s2)(2 s) = −19.6 m/s

t=0 y=0 t=0 v=0

t=3s y3 = − 44.1 m t=3s v3 = − 29.4 m/s

t=4s y4 = − 78.4 m t=4s v4 = − 39.2 m/s

y5 = − 123 m v5 = − 49.0 m/s